Research Metholodology Notes1

KENYA METHODIST UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER INFORMATION SYSTEMS
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER INFORMATION SYSTEMS
CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (3 CREDITS)
PREPARED BY:
RONALD W. WANYONYI
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CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
This course introduces the student to the field of research. It examines in depth the research
process and exposes the student to the various aspects of doing scientific research.
OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this course is to equip the student with research knowledge and skills in which
they acquire competence that would enable their effectiveness and efficiency in planning,
conducting and presenting research findings.
During the course, the student will be expected to:
• Know the meaning and purpose of research.

• Locate and evaluate research articles in relevant field.
• Develop a research proposal for a given project in the field of interest.
• Understand the aspects of the research process.
• Understand the skills of communicating the research findings.
BROAD AREAS TO BE COVERED
The following are the broad areas that will be covered in the course:
• Research and research Process.

• Research Proposal
• Research Design and Methodology
• Qualitative research methodology
• Quantitative data and sampling
• Experimental Design
• Data Analysis
• Presenting Results
STUDENT ASSESSMENT
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The student will be expected to take responsibility for the learning process and the instructor will
provide essential facilitation in order to achieve the objectives of the course. The student
performance will be assessed on the following:
• Assignments
• End of trimester examinations
The marks of these assessments will contribute to the final mark for the course
TEACHING/ LEARNING METHODS
The course will be implemented using innovative and participatory learning methods. These will
include self instructional learning materials and assignments.
COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE TRIMESTER
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Week 1 Topics
- What is research?
- What is Science?
- Tools of Research
- Classification of research
- Purpose of research
- Characteristics of research
Week 2 Topics
- Finding and stating research problems
- Delineating of research problems.
Week 3 Topics
- Locating research articles
- How to read research articles
- Evaluating research articles
Week 4 Topics
- Locating and organizing relevant literature
- Writing up literature review
- Theory
- Theory construction
- Testing theories
Week 5 Topics
- Purpose of research proposals
- Types of research proposals.
- Structure of the research proposal
Week 6 Topics
- Research design and research methodology
- Functions of research design
- Nature of data
- Data collection
- Validity and reliability of measurement instruments
- Quantitative and qualitative research designs
- Internal and external validity
- Ethical issues
- Data collection and pilot testing.
Week 7 Topics
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- Nature of qualitative research
- Five common qualitative research designs
- Case study
- Collection of qualitative data
- Organizing and analyzing qualitative data
Week 8 Topics
- Observation method of data collection
- Survey method of data collection
- Sampling
- Preparing survey data
Week 10 Topics
- Experimental method
- Experimental research designs
Week 11 Topics
- Data Analysis
Week 12 Topics
- Written reports
- Oral presentations
Week 13 and Week 14

Trimester Examinations
LEARNING RESOURCES
1. TEXTBOOKS
• Leedy, P. D. and Ormrod, J. E : Practical research: planning and Design; Prentice Hall, 2007
• Mugenda, O. M. and Mugenda, A. G.: Research methods: quantitative and qualitative

approaches; ACTS, Nairobi, 1999
2. Internet

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Week 1 Student Learning Objectives
• Define the concept of research.

• Explain the significance of research.
• Outline tools carrying out research
• Outline major steps of carrying out research.
• Describe the characteristics of different types of research.
• Explain the criteria of a good research’
The student is expected to study widely on the specified topics for the week to achieve the above
specified objectives.
The student is expected to complete the work of this week before proceeding to the next week’s
topic (s).
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• Define a research problem and its characteristics.

• Explain main points that are considered in selecting a research problem.
• Outline the sources of research problems.
• Be able to subdivide a research problem into sub problems.
topic (s).
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• Identify various sources of information for a particular research problem.

• Explain the process of reading research articles.
• Outline how a research article is evaluated.
topic (s).
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• Explain the importance of conducting literature review.

• Outline the points to be followed in writing literature review.
• Explain the importance of theory in research.
• Explain the following terms; concepts, constructs, conceptual and theoretical framework.
• Explain what are research objectives, questions and hypotheses.
topic (s).
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• State and differentiate between types of research proposals.

• Explain the purposes of research proposals.
• Outline the structure of a research proposal.
topic (s).
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• Explain the concept of a research design and its purpose in research.

• Outline major characteristics of a good research design.
• Describe major components of research design and methodology of a research such as
variable, research instruments, measurement of data and analysis.
• Outline ethical issues in research.
topic (s).
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• Explain the nature of qualitative research.

• Explain the most commonly used qualitative research designs.
topic (s).
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• Outline the survey method of data collection.

• Explain basic sampling concepts such as population, sample, representative ness,
probability and probability sampling.
• Explain various probability and non probability sampling designs.
topic (s).
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• Outline the various experimental designs and their use.
topic (s).
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Week 10 and 11 Student Learning Objectives
• Outline the various statistical concepts used for data analysis.
topic (s).
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• Outline precaution taken when writing technical reports.

• Describe the format of a research report.
• Be able to present the research findings orally.
topic (s).
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CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH AND SCIENCE
Research is a Greek word meaning “to know”.
What research is not?

1. Research is not mere information gathering.
2. Mere transportation of facts from one location to another.
3. Merely rummaging for information.
4. A catchword used to get attention.
What is research?
Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting
information (data) in order to increase the understanding of the phenomenon
about which we are interested or concerned. Although research projects vary
in complexity and duration, research typically has eight characteristics:-
1. Research originates from a question or problem. The world is filled with
unanswered questions and unresolved problems. Everywhere we look we
see things that cause us to wonder to operate to answer question.
2. Research requires clear articulation of a goal. A clear unambiguous
statement of the problem is critical. This statement is an exercise in
intellectual honesty. The ultimate goal of the research must be set clearly
and precisely in a grammatically complete sentence.
3. Research requires a specific plan for proceeding. Research is not a blind
assertion into the unknown, it’s the hope that the data necessary to answer
the question at hand will somehow fortunately turn up. It is instead a
carefully planned attack a search and discovers mission clearly outlined in
advance.
4. Research usually divides the principle problem into more manageable sub-
problems. From a design view point, it’s often helpful to break a main
research problem into several sub-problems that were solved will resolve the
main problem.
5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis.
Having stated the problem, its sub-problems the researcher usually forms
one or more hypotheses about what he/she may discover. Hypothesis - This
is a logical super position, a reasonable guess and educated conjecture
(claim).
6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions. In research, assumptions

are equivalent to axioms (postulates) in geometry, which is self evidence
proof. The assumptions must be valid or else the research is meaningless.
For this reason, careful researchers especially those conducting research in
academic events set a statement of the assumptions as the bedrock upon
their study must rest.
7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to
resolve the problem that initiated the research. After the researcher has
isolated the problem, divided it into sub-problems posted reasonable
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research problems oar hypothesis and identified assumptions that are basic
to the entire effort. The next step is to collect whatever data that seem
appropriate and to organize them in meaningful ways so that they can be
interpreted.
8. Research is by nature, cyclical and not helical. The research process follows
a cycle. It follows logical and vital steps.
(a) Research begins to with a problem.
(b) Research defines the goal in terms of a clear statement of the
problem.
(c) Research sub-divides the problems into appropriate sub-problem.
(d) Research proposes tentative solutions to the problem through
reasonable hypothesis. This hypothesis directs the researcher to the
appropriate data.
(e) Research looks for data directed by the hypotheses and guided by the
problem. Research interprets the meaning of a data which leads to a
resolution of the problem, thus confirming to injecting the hypotheses
and/or providing an answer to the question that begun the
research.
What is science?
The term science encompasses physical, natural and social science. Science
can be defined in terms of an attitude or approach to problem solving and the
norms practiced by the members of a scientific community.
Science Definition
The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge.
How do we define science? According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary,

the definition of science is "knowledge attained through study or practice," or
"knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws, esp. as
obtained and tested through scientific method [and] concerned with the
physical world."
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What does that really mean? Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge.
This system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain
natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of
knowledge people have gained using that system. Less formally, the word
science often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained
from it.
What is the purpose of science? Perhaps the most general description is that
the purpose of science is to produce useful models of reality.
Most scientific investigations use some form of the scientific method. You can
find out more about the scientific method here.
Science as defined above is sometimes called pure science to differentiate it

from applied science, which is the application of research to human needs.
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:
- Natural sciences, the study of the natural world, and
- Social sciences, the systematic study of human behavior and society.
Scientific Methods
Now that you have a pretty good idea of the question you want to ask, it's time
to use the Scientific Method to design an experiment which will be able to
answer that question. If your experiment isn't designed well, you may not get
the correct answer, or may not even get any definitive answer at all.
In this section we will take a look at the method you should use to design your
research. This method is the most important part of science--in fact, it's called
the "Scientific Method." The Scientific Method is a way to make sure that your
experiment can give a good answer to your specific question.
The Scientific Method is a logical and rational order of steps by which scientists
come to conclusions about the world around them. The Scientific Method
helps to organize thoughts and procedures so that scientists can be
confident in the answers they find. Scientists use observations, hypotheses,
and deductions to make these conclusions, just like you will use the Scientific
Method in your science fair project. You will think through the various
possibilities using the Scientific Method to eventually come to an answer to
your original question.
The steps of the Scientific Method are:

• Observation/Research
• Hypothesis
• Prediction
• Experimentation
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• Conclusion
The observation is done first so that you know how you want to go about your
research. The hypothesis is the answer you think you'll find. The prediction is
your specific belief about the scientific idea: If my hypothesis is true, then I
predict we will discover..... The experiment is the tool that you invent to answer
the question, and the conclusion is the answer that the experiment gives. Don't
worry, it isn't that complicated. Let's look at each one of these points
individually so that you can understand the tools that scientists use when
doing their own science projects and use them for your project.
Observation
This step could also be called "research." It is the first stage in understanding
the problem you have chosen. After you decide on your area of science and the
specific question you want to ask, you will need to research everything that you
can find about the problem. You can collect information on your science fair
topic from your own experiences, books, the internet, or even smaller
"unofficial" experiments. This initial research should play a big part in the
science fair idea that you finally choose. Let's take the example of the tomatoes
in the garden. You like to garden, and notice that some tomatoes are bigger
than others and wonder why. Because of this personal experience and an
interest in the problem, you decide to learn more about what makes plants
grow.
For this stage of the Scientific Method, it's important to use as many sources
as you can find. The more information you have on your science fair project
topic, the better the design of your experiment is going to be, and the better
your science fair project is going to be overall. Also try to get information from
your teachers or librarians, or professionals who know something about your
science fair topic. They can help to guide you to a solid experimental setup.
Hypothesis
The next stage of the Scientific Method is known as the "hypothesis." This word
basically means "a possible solution to a problem, based on knowledge and
research." The hypothesis is a simple statement that defines what you think
the outcome of your experiment will be. All of the first stage of the Scientific
Method -- the observation, or research stage -- is designed to help you express
a problem in a single question ("Does the amount of sunlight in a garden affect
tomato size?") and propose an answer to the question based on what you know.
The experiment that you will design is done to test the hypothesis.
Using the example of the tomato experiment, here is an example of a

hypothesis:
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TOPIC: "Does the amount of sunlight a tomato plant receives affect the size of
the tomatoes?"
HYPOTHESIS: "I believe that the more sunlight a tomato plant receives, the
larger its tomatoes will grow. This hypothesis is based on:
(1) Tomato plants need sunshine to make food through photosynthesis, and
logically, more sun means more food, and;
(2) Through informal, exploratory observations of plants in a garden, those with
more sunlight appear to grow bigger.
Prediction
The hypothesis is your general statement of how you think the scientific
phenomenon in question works. Your prediction lets you get specific -- how will
you demonstrate that you hypothesis is true? The experiment that you will
design is done to test the prediction.
An important thing to remember during this stage of the scientific method is

that once you develop a hypothesis and a prediction, you shouldn't change it,
even if the results of your experiment show that you were wrong. An incorrect
prediction doesn't mean that you "failed." It just means that the experiment
brought some new facts to light that maybe you hadn't thought about before.
The judges at your science fair will not take points off simply because your
results don't match up with your hypothesis.
Continuing our tomato plant example, a good prediction would be: Increasing
the amount of sunlight tomato plants in my experiment receive will cause an
increase in their size compared to identical plants that received the same care
but Less Light.
Experiment
This is the part of the scientific method that tests your hypothesis. An
experiment is a tool that you design to find out if your ideas about your topic
are right or wrong. It is absolutely necessary to design a science fair
experiment that will accurately test your hypothesis. The experiment is the
most important part of the scientific method. It's the logical process that lets
scientists learn about the world. In the next section, we'll discuss the ways that
you can go about designing a science fair experiment idea.
Conclusion
The final step in the scientific method is the conclusion. This is a summary of
the experiment's results, and how those results match up to your hypothesis.
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You have two options for your conclusions: based on your results, either you
can reject the hypothesis, or you can not reject the hypothesis. This is an
important point. You can not PROVE the hypothesis with a single
experiment, because there is a chance that you made an error somewhere
along the way. What you can say is that your results SUPPORT the original
hypothesis.
If your original hypothesis didn't match up with the final results of your
experiment, don't change the hypothesis. Instead, try to explain what might
have been wrong with your original hypothesis. What information did you not
have originally that caused you to be wrong in your prediction? What are the
reasons that the hypothesis and experimental results didn't match up?
Tools of Research
We should be careful not to equate the tools of research and the methodology
of research.
A research tool is a specific mechanism or strategy the researcher uses to
collect, manipulate or interpret data. The research methodology is the general
approach the researcher takes when carrying out a research project; to some
extent, this approach dictates the particular tools the researcher selects. The
following are six general tools of research:-
a) Library and its resources.
- Catalogue and indexes
- Scanning the shelves.
- Reference librarians.
b) Computer and its software
- Word processor.
- Spread Sheet (excel)
- Statistical package.
- Internet. (WWW)
- Communication (E-mail
c) Measurements.
Most of researchers strive for objectivity: They believe that their observations
should be influenced as little as possible by their own perceptions, impressions
and biases. One way of remaining objective is to identify a systematic way of
the phenomenon being studied.
Measurement is limiting the data of any phenomenon so that those data may
be interpreted and ultimately compared to an acceptable quantitative and
qualitative standard. There are four scales of measurement:-
i) Nominal scale.
Scale in which data is put into distinct categorizes. Example gender of
students,
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ii) Ordinal scale
This is the scale in which data is put into rank order categories. Example letter
grades, level of education
iii) Interval scale
Scale in data is assigned numbers showing magnitude or continuity. However,
this scale does have an arbitrary zero. Example is temperature.
iv) Ratio scale
Same as interval scale but has a proper zero. Examples are Age, weight, length.
Validity of Reliability of measurements

Validity and reliability are two words that you will encounter mainly in
research methodology. They are often used in connection with measurements.
The validity and reliability of measurement instruments influence the extent to
which you can learn something about the phenomenon you are studying, the
probability that you will obtain statistical significance of your data analysis and
the extent to which you can draw meaningful conclusions form your data.
Validity
The validity of measurement instruments is the extent to which the instrument
measures what it’s supposed to measure.
Reliability
This is the consistency in which a measuring instrument yields a certain result
when the entity being measured has not change. Both validity and reliability
then reflect the degree to which we may have error in measurements.
d) Statistics
e) Human mind
The human mind is the most important tool on the researchers work desk. Its
functions overshadow all other tools or gadgets. Nothing equals its powers of
comprehension, integrative reasoning and insight.
f) Language
- Grammar
- Spelling
- More than one language.
Types of Research
Research can be categorized into two:-
(i) Basic research (fundamental research)
This is a research undertaken to advance knowledge and this knowledge may
not be for immediate use. The researcher is free to work in an area of his
choice justifying the work by immediate practical advantage. This may not be
open served because its not solving an immediate problem.
(ii) Applied Research
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This is a research where the researcher collects data to be used to solve an
immediate problem, like to be applied in clinical administrative or instructional
areas among others. Applied research is designed to get solutions, problems,
access the needs, make decisions etc.
Difference between Applied and Basic Research

(i) Applied research answers immediate problems while basic research
deals with issues.
(ii) Applied Research uses human subjects while in basic research
Laboratories are used.
(iii) In Applied research real world wettings are used while in basic research
laboratories are used.
(iv) In applied research results are directly useful while in basic research
results lack application.
Exercise
1. Citing appropriate examples, describe the following types of research:
i. Basic research
ii. Applied research
iii. Experimental research
iv. Longitudinal studies
v. Cross sectional studies
2. Discuss the three purposes of research, giving examples
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CHAPTER 2: LOCATING AND EVALUATING RESEARCH ARTICLES
a) Locating research articles

There are various sources of research articles and these include:-
i) Journals
ii) World wide web
iii) Seminars and conferences
iv) Unpublished reports.
Reading a research article

Reading research articles the way you would read a story book i.e from start to
the end is not necessarily the best way to proceed. Instead the following
approach is recommended:-
(a) Read the title and abstract of the articles and skim through the rest of it to
get a general ideal of the researcher’s purpose and findings.
(b) Read the introduction and conclusions sections. As you read through,
underline or highlight the important points or write down in brief summary
of the article.
(c) Read through the remainder of the article. As you read through an article
you should focus on, identify the research question and/or the objectives
the research issues or hypothesis, the findings in relation to each
issue/hypothesis (from the relevant results and discussion/conclusions)
and the research methods used.
Evaluating Research Articles

Quality and validity
Evaluation of a research article involves and assessment of its quality of
validity.
Quality includes characteristics such as: - Characteristics of scientific method.
(i) Purposiveness – Having a well defined direction and objectives.
(ii) Rigour – Having a solid theoretical basis and sound methodological
design.
(iii) Testability – A theory/hypothesis that cannot be tested remains
unsubstantiated belief.
(iv) Replicability – The results can be produced again by another
researcher.
(v) Parsimonious – Not too complex, elaborate or cumbersome.
(vi) Generalizability – Application of the results to other settings
(vii) Appropriate analytical tools used.
(viii) Conclusions limited to these clearly justified by the facts.
Some of the items listed above relate closely to the articles validity since
validity is a necessary condition for quality research. In general, validity can be
defined as an indication of accuracy, in terms of the extent which a research
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conclusion corresponds to reality. There are four types of validity that must be
considered when designing and evaluating a piece of research. These are:-
a) External validity
This relates to generaliability. That is the application of the results to other
settings.
b) Construct validity
When you read and evaluate research articles, you should critically examine
the appropriateness of the measurement instruments used in terms of both
their validity and reliability. That is validity related to measurement is
construct validity.
c) Statistical Validity (conclusions)

This relates to the use of appropriate analytical tools and the power or ability to
detect a relationship of the statistics used. The question addressed by this
type of validity is- Is there a relationship between the variables?
d) Internal validity
This relates to the logic inherent in the research.
Communication of research results

As indicated earlier, the quality of a research article pertains not only to its
validity, but also to other characteristics such as:-
How the results are communicated to others. High quality research is written
with clarity and precision involves complete and honest reporting. Further,
high quality research articles are logically organized and easy to follow.
Writing to communicate
The following guidelines are based on techniques often seen in effective
writing:-
(i) Say what you mean to say. Person is of utmost importance. Not only
in research proposals or reports but in writing. In general. Chose
your words and phrases carefully so that you communicate your exact
meaning not some vague approximation.
(ii) Keep your primary objective in writing your paper in mind at all times
and focus your discussion accordingly.
(iii) Provide an overview of what you will be talking about. The readers
can move effectively read your work when they know what to expect
as they read. Providing an overview of the topics to be discussed and
their order and possibly also showing how the various topics inter-
relate is sometimes called advance organizer.
(iv) Organize your ideas into general and more specific categories and use
headings and sub-headings to guide your readers through your
discussion of these categories.
(v) Provide transitional phrases, sentences or paragraphs that help your
readers follow your train of thought.
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(vi) Use concrete examples to make abstract ideas more understandable.
(vii) Use appropriate punctuations.
(viii) Use figures and tables when such mechanisms can move effectively
present or organize your ideas and findings.
(ix) At the conclusion of chapter or major sections, summaries what you
have said.
(x) Anticipate that you will at most certainly have to write multiple drafts.
Exercise
a) You have received a research report don by a consultant for your firm, a
life insurance company. The study is a survey of morale in the home
office and covers the options of about 500 secretaries and clerks plus
about 100 executives and actuaries. You are asked to comment on its
quality. What will you look for?
b) As the Area Sales Manager for a diary industry you have been assigned
the responsibility of conducting a research study to estimate the sales
potential of your products in the domestic market or the East African
region. Discuss key issues and concerns arising form the fact you, the
Manager are also the researcher.
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CHAPTER 3: FINDING, STATING AND DELINEATING RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
The heart of every research project is the problem. It’s paramount to the
success of the research effort. To see the problem with unwavering clarity and
to state it in precise and unmistakable terms is the first requirement in the
research process.
1. Find research problem

You must be sufficiently knowledgeable about your topic of interest to know
what projects might make important contributions to the field. The following
are several strategies that are often helpful:-
a) Look around you
In many disciplines, questions that need answers - phenomena that need
explanation are everywhere. Problems suitable for research exist everywhere
and you should continually ask yourself questions about what you see and
hear.
b) Read the literature

Find out what things are already known about your topic of interest. A part
from telling you what is already known, the existing literature is likely to tell
you what is not known in the area.
c) Attend professional conferences

Many researchers have great success finding new research projects at national
or regional conference problems in their discipline.
d) Seek the advice of experts. This is a simple yet highly effective strategy for
identifying a research problem.
e) Choose a topic that intrigues and motivates you.
f) Choose a topic that others will find interesting and worthy of attention.
g) Media – issues which are frequently reported in the media can also form
basis of research problem.
2. Stating the research Problem

Researchers get off to a strong start when they begin to unmistakably clear
statement of the problem. After identifying a research problem, you must
articulate it in such a way that its carefully phased and represents the single
goal of a research effort. The following are some general guidelines of starting
the research problem:-
(i) State the problem clearly and completely. Your problem should be
clearly stated such that any one who reads it can understand it.
(ii) Think through the feasibility of the project that the problem implies.
(iii) Say precisely what you mean. When you state your research problem
you should state exactly what you mean. Don’t let people think or try
to understand what you mean. Be clear.
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(iv) Edit your work. Editing is sharpening a thought and eliminating
useless words. Choose your work precisely.
3. Delineating of Research Problems

Many problems are too large or too complex to be solved without sub-dividing
them. The strategy therefore is to divide and conquer. Almost every problem
can be broken down into smaller units. From a research point of view, these
units are easier to address and solve. The subparts of the main problem are
called sub-problems.
Characteristics of Sub-problems
Each sub-problem should be a completely researchable unit. A sub-problem
should constitute a logical sub-area of the larger research undertaking.
Each sub-problem must be clearly fixed to the interpretation of the data. At

some point in the statement of the sub-problem, the fact that data would be
interpreted must be clearly evident. This fact may be expressed as a part of
each sub-problem, statement or it may occupy an entirely separate sub-
problem.
The sub-problems must add up to the totality of the problem. After stating the
sub-problems, check them against the main problem to see that:-
(a) Nothing excess of the main problem is covered.
(b) All significant areas of the main problem are covered.
Sub-problems should be small in number. If the main problem is carefully

stated and properly limited to a visible research effort the researcher will find
that it usually contain 2-6 sub-problems.
Note: Every problem needs further simplification. The sub-problems suggest

ways of approaching a goal for the research effort in a manageable and
systematic way. But a goal alone is not enough. To comprehend fully the
meaning of the problem, we need other information as well. Both the
researcher and those reading the research should ultimately have a clear
understanding of every detail of the process. In every research effort, the
researcher should eliminate any possibility of misunderstanding by:-
a) Stating the hypothesis and/or research questions. Describe the specific

hypothesis being tested or questions being asked.
b) Delimiting the research. Fully disclosing what the researcher intends to
do and conversely doesn’t’ intend to do.
c) Defining the terms. Giving the meaning of all terms in the statement of
the problem and sub-problems that have the possibility of being
misunderstood.
d) Stating the assumptions. Presenting a clear statement of all
assumptions on which the research will rest.
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Stating the research motivation and contribution
Every research dissertation and research article must clearly state the
motivation for the research and its contribution to the existing body of
knowledge. The research motivation relates to the importance and usefulness
of the research. That is
(a) Why is the research useful?
(b) Why spend a substantial amount of your time and effort undertaking
the research?
If these questions cannot be answered satisfactorily then the value of the
research is questionable. One’s motivation to carry out research may be:-
- Programme requirement
- Generate knowledge in the area
- Employment requirement.
The research contribution relates to how the piece of research extends the
existing knowledge base. The hard line is that, the research that doesn’t make
a sufficient contribution will not pass peer review in terms of dissertation,
examination or article publication. The concept of sufficient contribution is a
subjective one that can only be judged in terms of the particular research
problem being addressed. You should discuss the expected contribution of
your research which your research supervisor to gauge whether it will be
sufficient.
Exercise
From your area of interest:
i. Develop and state correctly a research problem
ii. Formulate sub problems, research questions and hypotheses
iii. Identify assumption, limiting and delimiting factors related to the
problem
iv. Contribution of proposed research study
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CHAPTER 4: Research proposals
After identification of the research problem, the next step is the development of
research proposal. It’s a statement in writing that spells out the researcher’s
intentions of carrying out a research in a specific area. The proposal outlines
the approach, strategy as well as the techniques to be followed in conducting a
study. It’s a written summary of what a researcher intends to do. A proposal
is also known as a work plan, prospectors, and outline.
Statement of intent or draft plan that tells us what, why, how, where and to
whom it will be done. For the student or researcher it provides a plan of action
for approval by supervisor or funding agency.
Purpose of a research proposal

The research proposal is of great importance both to the researcher and the
readers.
1) It makes known, the intentions of getting involved in research work. This is
one through the researcher stating the objectives of the study.
2) The process of writing a proposal allows the researcher to plan and review
the steps that would be undertaken in the project. It gives the researcher
an opportunity to sport mistakes (flaws) in the logic, errors in assumptions,
for problems that are not adequately addressed by the objectives and design
of the study.
3) In general, it provides justification for funding. One has to justify the use of
resources in the business and consultancy world. In the academic setting,
the proposal must justify contribution to either existing knowledge or
adding to it.
4) After the proposal is approved, the document serves as a guide for the
researcher throughout the investigations.
5) A well designed research proposal helps the researcher to avoid the tiring
and time consuming, alterations once the research project takes off.
6) The proposal forces, time management and budget estimates.
7) The proposal is also able to suggest the data necessary for solving the
problem and how the data will be gathered and interpreted.
8) A proposal also provides an opportunity for the researcher to discuss the
research efforts of others who have worked on related areas.
Note: All research has a sponsor in one form or another. The student
researcher is responsible to the class instructor. In a corporate setting,
whether the research is being done in house by a research department or
under contract to an external research firm, the management sponsors the
research. University/government or corporate sponsored research uses grand
committees to evaluate the work. A research proposal allows the sponsor to
access the sincerity of your purpose, the clarity of your design, the extent of
your background material and your fitness for undertaking the project. It also
displays your discipline, organization and logic.
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Types of research proposals
1. Academic research proposal
2. Project research proposal
Structure and format of research proposal

In general, project research proposal can be divided into two:-
a. Internal proposal done by the members of staff, specialists of the
research department of the organization.
b. External proposal which are either solicited or unsolicited where the
sponsors can be universities, government agencies etc. academic
research proposals are proposals in which the researcher proposes to
undertake a piece of research on some issues leading to a definite
academic qualification like diploma, degree(Bachelors, masters, PhD)
a) Structure of research proposal

The proposal can be structured into three main sections:-
Section One: Preliminary Information

The first one is the title page and should have the following information:-
(a) A clear title.
(b) Name of the student – registration number, department and faculty.
(c) Required fulfillment.
(d) Date. Eg April 2007
Other preliminary information that follows are:-
i) Table of contents
ii) Authority from supervisors
iii) Declaration page
iv) List of figures
v) Acknowledgement/Dedication
Section 2: Body
Chapter 1: Introduction
Background of the problem should be discussed. A well written background
gives the statement of the problem.
Purpose of study, objectives of the study, hypothesis, justification of the study,
Assumptions of the study, definition of terms.
Chapter 2: Literature Review

A brief introduction could be given. Theoretical literature review, empirical
literature review, summary of literature.
Chapter 3: Research design and methodology

Research design, target population, sampling procedures, data collection
methods, procedures of data collection, data analysis.
Section 3: References/Bibliography
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Names of authors of the books reviewed, Name of book and the year. For
example Waliaula, R.W.:Reserch Methods, KEMU Ltd (2007), Nairobi Kenya.
Appendices - time plan, budget,
Sample questionnaires or any other data collection instruments.
b. Format of research proposal

i) We need to have executive summary/abstract
This allows the reader to understand quickly the main aim of the proposal. It
is essentially an informative part that gives the reader the chance to
understand the essentials of the proposal without having to read the details.
As such, the abstract should include:-
- Brief statements of the problem and research questions.
- The research objectives
- Benefits of the methodology used
- Some preliminary information on the expected findings.
NB: Ideally an abstract should not exceed one page.
(ii) Introduction/Background of the study

This is meant to stimulate interest of the reader. It acquaints the reader with
the problem, provides some background and necessary information about the
study. A good introduction should be brief and flow smoothly. A well written
introduction should read to the statement of the problem.
(iii) Statement of the problem

This section needs to convince the reader of sponsor to continue reading the
proposal. You should capture the reader’s attention by stating the problem
clearly, its background and consequences and the resulting research.
Statement of the problem should be brief and to the point. Problem statements
that are broadly designed cannot be addressed adequately in one study.
(iv) Purpose of study

A broad statement indicating what the researcher intends to do about the
problem being investigated. Why carry out the study? Why now?
(v) Objectives of the study

In this part, purpose of investigation is addressed. It is here that you lay out
exactly what is being planned by the proposed research. The objectives flow
naturally from the problem statement giving the reader concrete and achievable
goals. The objective should be stated clearly and must be testable. The
objective should be specific and are important because they determine the kind
of research questions to be asked; Data collection and analysis procedures to
be used. The research objective section is eh basis for judging the remainder of
the proposal and ultimately the final report.
vi) Research questions
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These refer to the questions which a researcher would like to be answered by
undertaking the study. The research questions are more of objectives put in a
question form. Incase where the objectives are general statements then it may
be necessary for the research questions to be included. They should be specific
and guiding to the study.
vii) Significance of the study (justification)

Highlights the reasons for conducting the research like what gaps in knowledge
would the study address? Will it contribute to the solution of an immediate
problem? Who will the research benefit?
Viii) Limitations and delimitations

A limitation is an aspect of the study that the researcher knows it may rely
affects the results or the generalizability of the result but has no control over it.
It’s a factor that will affect the study but the researcher has no control.
Examples you might not force people to answer personal question and cannot
force them or you do not know whether the statement is true. Delimitation on
the other hand is an aspect that can be controlled by the researcher. Example
you can control the sample size of people you want to access. The sample size,
the location of the study and how many people you want to help in the study.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. It remains largely a guess
until facts are found to confirm or describe it. Hypothesis is generally
generated by the theory being used.
Literature review
There is need for the review of both theoretical and empirical literature. This is
of necessary indispensable part of the proposal.
Research Methodology
This section gives a detailed procedure of the methods to be used for the study.
The literature review section is used as the basis of methodology invention.
This section should also provide information on the data one intends to use,
sources of the data and characteristics of that data. It will also indicate
whether there is any manipulation to be done on the data.
Research design
The design describes what one is gong to do in technical terms. This section
should include as many subsections as needed to show the phases of the
project provide information on your proposed design for tasks such as sample
section and size, data collection method, instrumentation, procedures and
ethical requirements. When more than one way exists to approach the design,
discuss the methods you rejected and why your selected approach is superior.
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Data analysis
A brief section on the methods used for analyzing the data is appropriate for
research projects. Describe your proposed treatment and theoretical basis to
use the selected techniques.
Appendices
Any detail that enforces the body of the proposal can be included in an
appendix. These include researcher vitae, budget details, sample data
collection instruments (if any), definition of terms etc
Bibliography
For all projects that require literature review, a bibliography is required. Use
the reference format required by the sponsor/supervisor.
Time plan and budget

Time plan is important for monitoring the development of the study. One
should set out a time plan for literature review, a draft report and final report.
One should also estimate the resources that are going to be committed to the
project. There is need to establish the main cost component like travel cost,
stationery, researcher and research assistant cost, subsistence
(Accommodation and meals) and equipments (software, computers, microscope)
and finally miscellaneous (10% of total budget)
Exercise
1. Select a research report from a journal. Outline a proposal for the research
as if it had not yet been performed. Make estimates of time and costs.
2. What modules would you suggest be included in a proposal for each of the
following case?
(a) You are competing for a university sponsored student research grand,
awarded to seniors and graduate students.
(b) A bank is interested in understanding the population trends by location so
that it can plan its new branch locations for the next five years. They
contracted you for a proposal.
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CHAPTER 5: Review of the Literature
Role of literature review

Research proposals and research reports typically have a section (in case of
thesis or dissertation, an entire chapter) that reviews the related literature.
The review describes theoretical perspectives and previous research findings
regarding the problem at hand. Its function is to look again at what others
have done in areas that are similar though not necessarily identical. As a
researcher, you should ultimately know the literature about your topic very
well. In addition to helping you pin down your own research problem, the
literature review has many other numerous benefits which include:-
(i) You can focus new ideas, perspectives and approaches that may not have
occurred to you.
(ii) It can inform you about other researchers who conduct work in this area.
Individuals whom you may wish to contact for consultation.
(iii) It can show you how others have handles methodological and design
issues in studies similar to our own.
(iv) It can reveal sources of data that you may not have known existed.
(v) It can introduce you to measurement tools that other researchers have
developed and used effectively.
(vi) It can reveal methods of dealing with problems situations that may be
similar to the difficulties you are facing.
(vii) It can help you interpret and make sense of your findings and ultimately
help you tie your results to the work of those who have preceded you.
(viii) It will boost your confidence that your topic is one worth studying
because you will find that others have invested time effort and resources
in studying it.
Sources of related literature

a) Journals
b) Conference bulletins
c) Books
d) Thesis/dissertations
e) Electronic resources
Evaluating, organizing literature

Too many literature reviews do nothing other than report what other people
have done. Such reviews do not help in our research. In a good literature
review, the researcher doesn’t merely report the related literature. He/she also
evaluate, organize and synthesize what others have done. That is, do not only
read others work but also critically evaluate their methods and conclusions.
Never take other peoples conclusions at phase value; determine for yourself.
Whether their conclusions are justified based on the data presented. In
addition to evaluating what you read, you must organize the ideas you
encounter during your review. The sub-problems in your main problem should
in many cases, provide a general organizational scheme you can use. Looking
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at how other authors have organized literature reviews related to your topic
may be helpful as well. Finally and most importantly, you must synthesize
what you have learnt from your review. In other words, you must pull together
diverse perspectives and research results you have read into a cohesive whole.
Examples of what you might do:-

• Compare and contrast varying theoretical perspectives on your topic
• Show how approaches to the topic have changed overtime.
• Describe general trends in research findings.
• Identify contradictory findings and suggest possible explanations for such
contradictions.
• Identify general themes that run throughout the literature.
Writing the related themes of literature review

Once you have read, evaluated, organized and synthesized the literature
relevant to your research problem, you will eventually need to begin the section
and chapter that describes your literature review. The following are a few
simple guidelines that may help:-
a) Get the proper psychological orientation; try to be clear in your thinking.

Know precisely what you are intending to do. The review of the related
literature section is a discussion of the studies research reports and
scholarly writings that bear directly on your effort. You might think of
literature review section in your document to be a discussion and a peer
about what others have written in relation to what you plan to do.
b) Have a plan. Writing a review of related literature takes planning and
organization. This effort requires thought, structure and coherence. Before
beginning to write the literature review, outline what you plan to say.
c) Emphasize relatedness. Keep your reader constantly aware of how the
literature you are discussing is related to your problems. Point out precisely
what the relationship is. Literature reviews should never be a chain of
isolated summaries of the writing of others. Whenever you cite a study,
explain clearly how it relates to your own research problem.
d) Give credit where it’s due. In writing the literature review always credit
those authors whose ideals or research reports you are reporting. The
specific way in which you do this (example footnotes, names in parenthesis)
will depend on the particular style the manual you are using which in turn
will depend on your particular discipline.
e) Reviews the literatures don’t reproduce it. As important as what others say
about their research and perhaps even more important is what you say
about their research.
f) Summaries what you have said.
g) Your first draft will almost certainly not be your last draft. Write the first
draft which will help you identify parts of the literature that are still unclear
and places where you might need additional information or references. One
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strategy that is used is to leave blanks as you write literature review that
can be filled as you progress.
h) Ask others for advice and feedback.
Concepts and Constructs

If one is to understand and communicate information about objects and
events, these must be a common ground on which to do it. Concepts are used
for these purposes.
A concept is a collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain

events, objects, conditions, situations and the like. That is classifying and
categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond the
single observations yet concepts. Concepts are infrequent not common and
general use has been developed over time through shared usage. Concepts are
basic to all thought and communication yet we pay little attention to what they
are and the problems encountered in their use. In research, problems grow out
of the need for concept precision and inventiveness. We design hypothesis
using concepts. We gather data using measurement concepts. However, the
challenge is to drop concepts that others will clearly understand. For example,
if we ask respondents for an estimate of their family total income. Income may
seem to be a simple, unambiguous concept but will receive varying and
confusing answers unless we restrict the concept by specifying:-
(a) Time period like weekly, monthly, annually,
(b) Before or after taxes.
(c) For all members of family or only head of family
(d) If salary only or also dividends. Etc.
Table is an objective concept in that we can point out tables and we can
conjure up in our minds images of tables. An abstraction like personality is
much more difficult to visualize. Such abstract concepts are called constructs.
A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research
and/or theory building purpose. We build construct by combining the simple
concepts especially when the idea or image we intend to convey is not a direct
subject of observation.
Note: Confusion about the meaning of the concept can destroy research
studies without the researcher even knowing it. If words have different
meanings to the parties involved then they are not communicating on the same
understanding. The solution to this problem is to use definitions, for example
define income in your studies.
An operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific testing

criteria of operations.
Why operation definitions are needed in research, they also present some
problems. There is the ever present danger of thinking that a concept and the
38
operational definition are the same. However, definitions provide only limited
insight into what a concept is. In fact, the operation definitions may be quite
narrow and not at all similar to what someone else will use when researching
the sample topic. The purpose of definition in research is to provide an
understanding and measurement of concepts.
A variable is a measurable characteristic which assumes different values

among the subjects. Examples of variables include income, age, different types
of diseases.
.
Hypotheses
We define a proposition as a statement about concepts that may be judged as
true or false if it refers to observable phenomena. When a proposition is
formulated for empirical testing we call it a hypothesis.
- A hypothesis states a research expectation concerning the relationships
between the variables in the research problem. It is the most specific
statement of the problem and it states what the researcher thinks might be the
outcome of the research to be undertaken. A hypothesis is derived for or is
based on the existing theories from literature review of previous research,
personal observations or experiences. Each hypothesis usually will express a
predicted relationship between two or more variables or concepts.
Types of hypotheses
Null hypothesis (H0)
It is a statement that states no relationship or difference that exist between the
parameter and the statistic being compared to it. For example there is no
significant difference in performance between learners who participate in class
discussion and those who do not.
Alternative hypothesis (Research hypothesis)

There are two types of alternative hypothesis:-
i) Alternative directional hypothesis
It is a statement that states that a relationship or difference exists between the
given variables and goes further to specify the nature of the relationship or the
difference between the variables. The relationship can be stated using greater
than, less than, increased, decreased. Alternative hypothesis is denoted by H1
or Ha. For example H1:U>20 or H1 U<20
ii) Alternative non-directional hypothesis
This type of hypothesis states that there is a relationship of difference between
the stipulated variables but the researcher doesn’t know the nature of such a
relationship or difference. This type of hypothesis does indicate a relationship
or difference but do not indicate the direction of this relationship. For example
H1 U ≠ 20 or H1 Um ≠ UF.
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Characteristics of a good hypothesis
a) A good hypothesis must be stated clearly and briefly giving the expected
relationships between the variables example U<20.
b) Both the independent and dependent variables are included.
c) Based on a sound rationale derived from theory or previous research
or professional experience.
d) Consistent with acceptable traits.
e) Testable.
f) Testable in a reasonable period
g) Consistent with the purpose, statement and objective of the study.
h) Simple and precise.
Functions/purpose of hypothesis in research

1. They provide direction, bridge the gap between the problem and evidence
needed for its solution.
2. It ensures collection of the evidence necessary to answer the problem
passed in the problem statement.
3. It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity and
use the data collected to find solutions to the problems.
4. It forms the framework for the ultimate conclusion of a study.
Theory
A person not familiar with research uses the term theory to express the
opposite of fact. In this sense, theory is viewed as being speculative. Theory is
a set of systematically inter-related concepts definitions and propositions that
are advanced to explain and predict phenomena. In this sense, we have many
theories and we use them to continuously explain or predict what goes on
around us. To the degree that our theories are sound fit the situation, we are
successfully in our explanation and predictions. Our challenge is to build
better theory to be more skilful in fitting theory and fact together.
Theory and research

It is important for researchers to recognize the value of theory. Theory serves
us in many useful ways:-
a) As orientation
It narrows the range of facts we mean to study. Any problem may be studied in
a number of different ways and theory suggests which way are likely to yield
greatest meaning.
b) Theory may also suggest a system for the researcher to impose on data in
order to classify them in the most meaningful way.
c) Theory summarizes what is known about an object and states the
uniformities that are beyond the immediate observations.
Exercise
1. Read and make notes on the following types of variables that one is likely to
find in research study
i) Dependent variables
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ii) Independent variables
iii) Marketing variables
iv) Intervening variables
v) Extraneous variables
2. Describe the characteristics of a good literature review.
3. Explain the relationships that exist between research problems, prior
research and theory.
4. Outline the purpose of theory in relation to scientific research.
5. Compare and contrast inductive and deductive approaches to theory
development
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CHAPTER 6: Research design and methodology
Introduction
Having decided what we want to study about, the next question is how are you
going to conduct your study, how will our carry out the tasks needed to
complete the different components of the research process? What should you
do and what should you not do in the process of undertaking the study? These
are some of the questions that need to be answered before you can proceed to
the study. Basically answers to these questions constitute the core of the
research design.
Research Design
A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so
conserved as to obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is
the complete scheme or progamme of the research for it includes an outline of
what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and their operational
implications to the final data analysis. Therefore, a research design is a
procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer questions validly,
objectively, accurately and economically.
Functions of a research design

The above definition suggests that a research design has two main functions:-
1. Relates to identification and/or development of procedures and logistical
arrangements required to undertake a study.
2. Emphasizes the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their
validity, accuracy and objectivity. Hence through a research design you:-
a) Conceptualize an operational plan to undertake the various procedures.
b) Ensure that these procedures are adequate to obtain valid, object of
accurate answers to the research questions (control of variance)
Example
Suppose you want to find out the effectiveness of a marriage counseling service
provided by an agency. That is, the extent to which the service has been able to
resolve the marital problems of its clients. In studying these relationships,
there are several variables that can affect the dependent variable.
Dependent variable is the extent of marital problems
Independent variable – the type of counseling service
Extraneous variables-
Chance or random variables (variables that can be associated with respondents
and/or the research instrument)
Type of counseling Study Extent Extraneous

Service population marital problems variable
(Independent) (Dependent)
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Examples of extraneous variables
- Change in economical conditions
- Changes in employment status
- Birth of child
- Peer pressure
Extraneous as well as chance variable can affect the dependent variable in both
positive and negative ways. In some cases, they may help in solving the
marital problem (positive effect) thereby adding to the assumed effect of the
independent variable whereas they may stand in the way of resolving the
marital problem thus decreasing the assumed effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.
One of the most important questions is how do we minimize the effect

attributed to extraneous and chance variables the answer is that we cannot
minimize it but it can be quantified. The sale purpose of having a control
group is to measure the change that is as a result of extraneous variable. In
the physical sciences, a researcher can control extraneous variables since
experiments are usually done in a laboratory. In social sciences, the laboratory
is society over which the researcher lacks control. Since no researcher has
control over extraneous variables, their effect is extremely difficult to minimize.
The best opinion is to quantify their impact through the use of a control group.
Data
Research is a viable approach to a problem only when there are data to support
it. The term data is plural the singular is datum. It originated from a Greek
word dare which means “to give”.
Researchers must always remember that data are not absolute reality. The
pure undisguised naked truth that underlies all the phenomena we observe.
Rather, data are manifestations of the reality. Research seeks through data to
discover underlying truths yet such is an endless pursuit. Experienced
researchers are constantly aware that the truth they most seriously seek id
forever just beyond what is represented by the data and hence just beyond
human grasp.
Data are transient

Whenever we look at data analytically, we gain new insight but at the same
time we also discover new problems that demand further research. Data are
not only elusive but also transient. Data that the researcher is permitted to see
may exist for only a split second. We catch nearly afflicting glance of what
seems to be true at one point in time but is not necessarily true the next time.
Research must recognize that even the most carefully collected data may have
an elusive quality about them and that at a later poi9nt in time, they have
counterpart in reality.
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Primary and secondary data
The researcher’s only perception of truth is various layers of truth revealing
fact. In the closest layer to the truth are primary data; these are often the most
valid, the most illuminating, the most truth manifesting. Further away is a
layer consisting of secondary data which are derived not from the truth itself
but from the primary data instead.
Validity and reliability of measurement instruments

We will almost want to pin down what we observe by measuring it in some way.
Sometimes we will be able to use one or more existing measurement
instruments. Measuring instruments provide a basis on which the entire
research efforts rest. As you plan the research project, then you should
determine clearly and definitely the nature of measurement instruments you
will use. Furthermore, you should describe any instrument in explicit concrete
terms. You should also provide evidence that the instruments you use have a
reasonable degree of validity and reliability for your purpose.
Validity of measurement instruments

Validity of a measurement instrument is the existent to which instrument
measures what is actually needed to measure. Validity takes different forms
each of which is important in different situations
1. Face validity
The extent to which on the surface, an instrument looks like it is measuring a
particular characteristic often useful for ensuring the co-operation of
people participating in a research study.
2. Content validity
It’s the extent to which a measurement instrument is a representative sample
of content area being measured. Content validity is often a consideration when
a researcher wants to access people’s achievements in some area. For
instance, the knowledge learned during classroom instruction. A measurement
instrument has high content validity if its item or questions reflect the various
parts of the content domain in appropriate proportion and if it requires a
particular behaviour and skill that are central to the domain.
3. Criterion validity
This is the extent to which the results of an assessment instrument correlate
with another presumably related measure (the latter measure is called the
criterion. For example, an instrument designed to measure sales person
effectiveness on the job should co-relate with the number of sales the
individual makes during the course of a business day.
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4. Construct validity
This is the extent to which an instrument measures a characteristic that
cannot be directly observed but must instead be inferred form patterns in
peoples behaviour.(such a characteristic is a construct). Motivation, creativity,
racial bias all of these are constructs. In that none can be directly observed
and measured.
Determining the reliability of measurement instruments.

The reliability of a measurement instrument is the extent to which it yields
consistent results when the characteristic being measured has not changed.
The following are several forms of reliability that are frequently of interest in
research studies:-
a) Interrater reliability
This is the extent to which two or more individuals evaluating the same
product or performance give identical judgments.
b) Internal consistency reliability

This is the extent to which all the items within a single instrument yield similar
results.
c) Equivalent forms reliability

The extent to which two different versions of the same instrument yield similar
results.
Example
Aptitude test
Form A
Form B
d) Test-retest reliability
This is the extent to which the same instrument yields the same results on two
different occasions.
Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

In general, quantitative research is used to answer questions about
relationships among measured variables with the purpose of explaining,
predicting and controlling phenomena. This approach is sometimes called
traditional, experimental, or positivist approach. The qualitative research is
rapidly used to answer questions about the complex nature of phenomenon
often with the purpose of describing and understanding the phenomena form
the participants’ point of view. The qualitative research is also known as the
interpretive post positivist constructivist.
The following are the differences between quantitative and qualitative

methodology
45
Quantitative methodology Qualitative methodology
Purpose - To predict and explain. - To describe and explain
- To confirm and valuate. - To explore and interpret
- To test theory. - To build theory.
Process - Focused - Wholistic
- Known variables - Unknown variables
- Established guidelines - Flexile guidelines
- Predetermined methods - Emergent methods
- Context free - Context bound.
Data - numerical data - Textual or image based data.
collection - Representative large - Informative small sample
simple. - Loosely structured or non-
- Standardized standardized observations
instruments and interviews.
Data - Statistical analysis - Search for themes and
analysis - Objectivity is stressed. categories
- Deductive reasoning. - Acknowledgement that
analysis is subjective and
potentially biased.
- Inductive reasoning.
Reporting - Numbers - words
findings - Statistics - narratives
- Formal voice - Individual quotes; personal
- Scientific style voice
- Literacy style.
Validity of your method

No matter what research methodology you use, you must think about the
validity of your approach. We have already described the importance of validity
in measurement instruments. Here we are talking about the validity, accuracy,
meaningfulness, credibility of the research project as a whole. Your research
project will be worth your time and effort only to the extent that it allows you to
draw meaningful and defensible conclusions form your data.
When you consider the validity of a research study, we have two basic
questions:
1. Does the study have sufficient controls to ensure that the conclusions we
draw are truly warranted by the data?
2. Can we use what we have observed in the research situation to make
generalizations about the world beyond that specific situation?
The answers to these two questions address the issues of internal and external
validity respectively.
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Internal validity
Internal validity of a research study is the extent to which its design and it
yields allows the researcher to draw accurate conclusions about source, effect
and other relationships within the data. To ensure the internal validity of a
research study, we need to take whatever precautions that can eliminate other
possible explanations for the results we observed. The following are several
strategies researcher’s use to increase the probability that their explanations
are the most likely ones for the observation we have made.
a) Controlled laboratory study
An experiment is conducted in a laboratory setting so that environmental
conditions can be carefully regulated.
b) Double-blind experiment.
In a situation where two or more different methods are being compare, neither
the participants of the study nor the people administering the method know
what the researcher’s hypothesis is or which method is expected to be more
effective.
c) Unabstractive measure
People who are observed in such a way that they don’t know their actions are
being recorded. For example, university library measured students and faculty
by use of different parts of the library by looking at wear and tear patterns of
the carpet.
d) Triangulation
Multiple sources of at a are collected and the hope that they will all converge to
support a particular hypothesis or theory. This approach is especially common
in qualitative research.
Internal validity is especially concerned in experimental designs, where the

specific intent is to identify course effect relationship. However, to some
extent, internal validity is important to any research study.
External Validity
External validity of a research study is the extent to which its results apply to
situations beyond the study itself. That is, the extent to which the conclusions
drawn can be generalized to other contexts. As a general rule we contribute
more to humanity knowledge about the world. It is where we conduct research
that has implications that extent far beyond the specific situation studied.
There are three methods commonly used to enhance external validity of a
research project.
1. A real life setting
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We have already mentioned that researchers sometimes use laboratory
experiments to help them control the environmental conditions in which a
study takes place. However, lab studies provide an artificial setting that may
be quite different from real life circumstances. Research conducted in the
outside world, although it may not have the tiht controls, of a lab project, may
be more valid in the sense that it yield results with broad applications to other
real world content.
2. A representative sample
Whenever we conduct research to learn more about a particular category of
objects or creatures, we will often study a sample from that category and then
draw conclusions about the category as a whole. Ideally, we want the
participants in a research study to be a representative sample of the population
about which we wish to draw conclusion.
3. Replication in a different context

Imagine that one researcher draws a conclusion from a particular study in a
specific context and another researcher who conducts a similar study in a very
different context reaches the same conclusion. Under such circumstances
these studies taken together, provide evidence that the conclusion has validity
and application across diverse situations.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESECH

Within certain disciplines like social sciences, Education, Medicine, criminology
and similar areas of study, the use of human subjects in research is of course
quite common. And whenever human beings are the focus of investigation, we
must look closely at the ethical implications of what we are proposing to do.
Most ethical issues in research fall into four categories:-
a) Protection from harm
Researchers should not expose research participant to induce physical or
psychological harm. As a general rule the risk involved in participating in a
study should not be significantly greater than the normal risks of day to day
living. Participants should not risk loosing life or neither limb nor should they
be subjected to unusual stress, embarrassment and loss of self esteem. The
participant should be told in advance what the study entails and after the
study, there should be debriefing and counseling of the participant.
b) Informed consent
Research participants should be told the nature of the study to be conducted
and given the choice of whether or not to participate. Further more, they
should be told that if they agree to participate, they should draw from the
study at any time. Any participation in a study should be strictly voluntary. A
dilemma sometimes arises as to how informed participants should be. If
people are given too much information eg if they are told the specific research
hypothesis being tested, they may behave differently than they would under
normal circumstances. A reasonable compromise is to give potential
48
participants a general idea of what the study is about and to describe what
specific activities their participation could involve. Give them sufficient
information to make a reasonable informed judgment about whether, they wish
to participate. One common practice is to present an informed consent from
that describes the nature of research project as well as nature of its
participation in it. Such a form should contain the following:-
A brief description of the nature of the study.
A Statement indicating that participation is voluntary and can be
terminated at any time.
The guarantee that all responses will remain confidential and anonymous.
A list of any potential risk and or discomfort that participants may
encounter.
The researchers name and contact.
An individual or office that participant can contact should they have
questions or concerns about the study.
An offer to provide detailed information about the study upon its
completion.
A place for the participant to sign and date indicating agreement to
participate.
c) Right to privacy
Any research should respect participants right to privacy under no
circumstances should a research report either oral or written represented
research away that others became aware of how other participants have
responded or behaved (unless the participant has specifically granted
permission in writing)
d) Honesty with professional colleagues.

Researchers must report their findings in a complete and honest version
without misrepresenting what they have d one or intentionally misleading
others about the nature of their findings and under no circumstances should a
researcher fabricate data to support a particular conclusion. Any use of
another person’s ideas or words demands fall acknowledgement otherwise it
constitutes plagiarism and documentary theft.
e) Internal Review boards

Research institutions will have an internal review board that scrutinizes all
proposals for conducting human research under the auspices of the
institution. This board, which is made up of scholars and researchers across a
broad range of disciplines checks proposed research studies to be are that the
procedures are not unduly harmful to the participants, that appropriate
procedures will be followed to obtain participants informed consent and that
participants privacy , its anonymity are assured. The following are the most
violated ethical practices:-
Obtaining free consent.
Obtaining informed consent.
49
Assuring and maintaining confidentiality.
Assuring and maintaining privacy; anonymity using appropriate
methodology.
Reporting research appropriately and completely.
Data Collection
After identifying the research design and methodology, considering issues
related to validity and reliability and addressing the ethical implications of a
project, the researcher must also make decisions about how to acquire and
interpret the data necessary, for resolving the overall research problem. Such
decisions must be made before the researcher begins to write the research
proposal. Basic the research design are four fundamental questions about the
data.
What data re needed.
1. To resolve the problem, what data is mandatory, what is their nature, are
they documentary, statistical, questionnaire replies, observations,
measurements made before and after an experimental intervention.
2. Where are the data collected, for example from organizations?
3. How will the data be secured?
4. How will the data be interpreted?
Pilot study
Up to this point, we have been talking about planning a research project as
something that occurs all in one goal. In reality, a researcher may sometimes
need to do a brief exploratory investigation or pilot study to try out particular
procedures, measurement instruments or methods of analysis. A brief pilot
study is an excellent way to determine the feasibility of our study.
Exercise
1. Explain the two main functions of a research design.
2. Explain the value of conducting a pilot study.
3. Pick and critique an article from a journal, include an evaluation of
general criteria and threats to validity.
50
CHAPTER 7: QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY
The term qualitative research encompass several approaches to research that

are quite different from one another yet all qualitative approaches have two
things in common:-
1. They focus on phenomena that occur in natural settings that is real
world.
2. They involve studying those phenomena in all their complexity.
Instead, they recognize that the issue they are studying has many
dimensions and layers, and so they try to portray the issue in its
manifestation.
Most researchers strive for objectivity in their research. They believe that their
observations should be influenced as little as possible by any perceptions,
impressions and biases they may have. By maintaining objectivity, they hope
to maximize their chances of determining the ultimate truth. Qualitative
researchers believe that the researcher’s ability to interpret and make sense of
what he/she sees is critical for understanding any social phenomena. In this
sense, the researcher is an instrument in much the same way that the rating
scale or intelligent test is an instrument.
Nature of research problems and planning in qualitative research

Qualitative researchers often formulate only general research problems and ask
only general questions, about the phenomenon they are studying. Example
they may ask what is the nature of the culture of people living in Kenya or
what is it like to live with someone who has Alzheimer’s disease. Such
research problems and questions do not remain so loosely defined. As a study
proceeds, the qualitative researcher gains increasing undertaking of the
phenomenon under investigation and so becomes increasingly able to ask
specific questions and formulate specific hypotheses. Because qualitative
researchers tend to ask open-ended questions at the beginning of an
investigation, they sometimes have difficulty in identifying ahead of time, the
exact method they will use.
The methodology in a qualitative study continues to evolve over the course of

the investigation. Despite this fact, we must emphasize that qualitative
research, requires considerable preparation and planning. The researcher
must be well trained in observation techniques, interview strategies and
whatever other data collection methods are likely to be necessary to answer the
research problem.
When to choose a qualitative approach

Qualitative research studies, typically serve one or more of the following
purposes:-
a) Description
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They can reveal the nature of certain situations, settings processes,
relationships, system or people.
b) Interpretation
They enable a researcher to:-
1) Gain new insights about a particular phenomenon.
2) Develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about the phenomenon.
3) Discover the problem that exists within the phenomenon.
c) Verifications
They allow a researcher to test the validity of certain assumptions, claims
theories or generalizations within real world context.
d) Evaluation
They provide a means through which a researcher can judge the effectiveness
of particular policies, practices or innovations.
Qualitative research designs

There are five commonly used qualitative research designs:-
1. Case study
In a case study, a particular individual, program or event in a case study is
studied in depth for a defined period of time. Example, a medical researcher
might study the nature, course and treatment of a rare illness for a particular
patient. A case study may be specifically suitable for learning more about little
known or poorly understood situations. It may be useful for investigating how
an individual or program does over time, perhaps as a result of certain
circumstances or interventions.
2. Ethnography
In a case study, the researcher looks at a particular person, program or event
in considerable depth. In ethnography the researcher looks at an entire group
more specifically, a group that shares a common culture in depth. The
researcher studies the group in its natural setting for a lengthy period of time
often several months of years. The focus of the investigation is on everyday
behaviour like interactions, language, rituals etc of the people in the group with
an intense to identify cultural norms, beliefs, social structures and other
cultural patterns.
3. Phenomenological study
The term phenomenology refers to a person’s perception of the meaning of an
event as opposed to the event as it exists external to the person. A
phenomenological study is a study that attempts to understand people’s
perceptions, perspectives, and understandings of a particular situation. That
is, it tries to answer the question, what is it like to experience such and such?
Example, a researcher might study the experiences of people caring for a dying
relative living in an abusive relationship etc.
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4. Grounded theory study
Of all the research designs described, a grounded theory study is the one least
likely to begin from a particular theoretical framework. On the contrary, the
major purpose of a grounded theory approach is to begin with the data and use
them to develop a theory. More specifically, a grounded theory study uses a
prescribed set of procedures for analyzing data and constructing a theoretical
model from them.
5. Content Analysis
A content analysis is a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a
particular body of material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes or
biases. Content analysis are typically performed on forms of human
communication including books, newspapers, firms, TV, art, music, video tapes
of human interactions and transcripts of conversations.
Exercise
1. There are two ways collection of qualitative data:
a) Observations
b) Interviews
Briefly describe these methods.
2. Identify the characteristics of appropriate research problems for case
study research.
53
CHAPTER 8: QUANTITATIVE DATA AND SAMPLING
In chapter 8 and 9, we shall look at quantitative research methodologies of

aspects of undertaking quantitative research will also be considered in these
chapters. These will include:-
a) Data collection.
b) Measurement techniques.
c) Sampling.
d) Experimental design.
The focus of chapter 8 is on data collection and measurement techniques used

for quantitative research. It will start with a brief description of another widely
used data collection method – observation.
Observation method of data collection

Scientific observation is the systematic process of recording behavioral patterns
of people, objects and occurrences without questioning or communicating with
them. The researcher utilizing the observation method of data collection,
witnesses and records information as events occur or compiles evidence from
records of past events. In research, observation qualifies a scientific inquiry
when its planned and executed in a systematic manner, uses correct controls,
a reliable and valid account of what occurs is reported.
Observation can be particularly useful way of collecting data, when the unit of
observation is an organization rather than a person. Example, a research
examines a group of companies rather than the individuals employed in those
companies are concerned with data pertaining to the company as a whole.
While observation has the advantage, of providing more objective evidence than
survey methods, it has a disadvantage that the constructs of interest are not
always directly observable. There is sometimes a considerable difference
between what the researcher wants to measure and the item that is observed
and measured, that is construct validity is often a concern.
Survey method of data collection

Survey research is about questioning people and recording their responses for
analysis. The people we seek information from using either verbal or written
questioning are called respondents. The survey research technique is used to
gather information generally from a sample of the population by use of a
questionnaire. The first purpose of survey research is to describe and /or test
predictions about some phenomenon. The greatest strength of this technique
is versatility. Abstract information of all types can be gathered through
questioning others. This method allows us to learn much about respondents,
opinions, attitudes, intentions and expectations. Surveys are a more efficient
and economical method of data collection than observation. Surveying using
telephone, mail or internet as a medium of communication can expand
geographical coverage thereby reducing time and cost. The weakness of this
54
method is that the quality of information secured depends heavily on the ability
and willingness of respondents to co-operate, respondents may refuse an
interview, fail to return a questionnaire, express an opinion when they don’t
know and be unable to see the value in participation. Further, respondents
may interprete questions differently from what was intended by a researcher.
Various methods are used to interview respondents. Questioning can be
carried out by:-
a) Face to face (personal interview)
b) Telephone
c) Self administered questionnaire.
d) Combination of the three above.
Sampling
This is a process of selecting a few (sample) from a bigger group (sampling
population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting a fact, situation or
outcome, regarding the bigger group.
Population Sample
Find out from

sample
Many research studies are conducted with samples rather than populations
because its usually too expensive and impractical to use populations.
Populations may be used if it includes small numbers and it’s feasible to do so.
Sampling process
1. Target population
Target population is the specific complete group relevant to the research
project. To define the population a researcher must specify the unit, being
sampled, the geographical location and temporal boundaries of the population.
A researcher operationalises a population by develop9ing a specific list that
closely approximate all the elements in the population. This list is referred to
as sampling frame.
2. Select a sampling frame
55
A sampling frame is a list of the elements in a target population where the
sample is to be selected. Types of sampling frames include:- telephone
directories, original data bases, nominal rolls etc. A good sampling frame is
crucial to good sampling. A mismatch between sampling frame and the defined
target population can be a major source of error known as sampling frame
error.
3. Select sampling unit

Sampling unit/element is the unit of analysis in a population. It can be a
person, a group an organization etc depending on the nature of the study.
4. Specify sampling method

There are two major types of sampling design.
i) Probability sampling.
This is sampling in which the probability of each element in the population
being selected is known and can be specified and each element has a chance of
being selected.
Another concept in relation to sampling is randomness which means that
outcomes cannot be predicted because they occur by chance. The idea of
randomness is important because random selection of elements is an unbiased
sampling method. I.e most likely to yield a representative sample.
ii) Non-probability sampling
This is a technique in which the sample units are selected on the basis of
judgment or convenience.
Probability samples include:-

- random sample
- systematic sample
- stratified sample
- cluster sample
- multi-stage sample
Non-probability samples include

- quota
- convenience
5. Determining sample size

An important part of taking a sample is determining what size it should be.
Two factors that need to be considered in this process are:-
Incidence
This is the percentage of individuals who have the characteristics necessary to
be included in survey example KEMU students, Kenyans.
Non-response
Percentage of respondents who refuse to participate in a survey or who cannot
be reached.
56
Three commonly used methods of determining the sample size are:-
a) All you can afford
b) Required size/cell
This method can be used on stratified and quota samples.
c) Statistical method.
This method involves using statistical formulas. The formula varies
depending on the type of sample to be taken. However, three are three
common variables:
(i) An estimate of the variance in the population from which the
sample is drawn.
(ii) The error from sampling that the researcher will allow.
(iii) The desired level of confidence that the actual sampling error
will be between the allowable limits.
Preparing survey data

Data preparation activities are undertaken to ensure the accuracy of the data
and to convert data from raw form to reduced classified forms that are more
appropriate for the analysis. The first step in converting data from the raw
form to information is called editing.
Editing
After the questionnaire or interview, responses or observational data are
collected, the data is then required to pass through an editing stage.
The purpose of editing is to ensure that data are:-
- Accurate
- Consistent with other information.
- Complete
- Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.
Editing can take place in the field or in house.
a) In the field, editing should take place soon after the interview experiment
or observation has been completed. When gaps in information rather
than guessing what information might be.
b) In house, editing occurs at a centralized office to ensure a vigorous
editing job has been done. It occurs after the preliminary field process or
the case of mail surveys when they are turned to the central office.
Coding
Data coding involves the translation of the collected data into codes usually
numerical values, for the purpose of transferring it to a data storage medium
and subsequent analysis. Example, a yes or no answer can be numerically
coded: 1 – yes 2 – no. From a practical part, the translation of the variables
into codes facilitates the computer analysis.
57
Data entry and verification
If the questionnaire data is not collected on scanner answer sheets which can
be directly entered into the computer as data file or computer assisted
methods, the raw data will have to be manually keyed into the computer.
Recording is referred to as a process of changing codes to facilitate analysis.
This process of recording data is handled by statistical packages.
Recording is required for a number of reasons:-

i) There may be a need to create a new variable based on one or more existing
variables in the data set.
ii) Collapsing the number of categories due to limited number of responses
in certain categories. This is useful especially in chi- square test.
Exercise
1. Read and make notes on the following
i. Simple random sampling
ii. Stratified sampling
iii. Systematic sampling
iv. Cluster sampling
v. Multi stage sampling
vi. Quota sampling
vii. Convenience sampling
viii. Purposive sampling
2. Outline procedures for achieving relevance and accuracy in
Questionnaire design.
3. Outline strategies for maximizing questionnaire response rates.
58
CHAPTER 9: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Cause-effect relation
In the designs we have discussed, case study, ethnography etc up to now, we
have made no attempt to determine the causes of the phenomena being
studied. Ultimately, we often want to know what causes what. In other words,
we want to identify cause and affect relationships. A researcher can most
conveniently identify cause and effect relationships by using an experimental
design. In such a design, the researcher considers many possible factors that
might cause or influence a particular condition or phenomenon. The research
then attempts to control all influential factors except those whose possible
effects are the facts of investigation. An example can help to clarify the point.
Imagine that we have two groups of people. We take steps to make sure that
those two groups are an average so similar that we can call them equivalent.
We give them a pretest to measure a particular characteristic in which we are
interested, perhaps blood pressure, achievement test, spending habits etc then
we expose one of the groups to a treatment or invention of some sort perhaps a
new drug, instructional manual, etc that we think may have an effect on the
characteristic we are studying. If the characteristic changes, for the group that
received the intervention but doesn’t change for the other group and if
everything about the two groups has been the same except for the intervention
then we can reasonably conclude that the treatment brought about the change
we observed.
Because we have not only observed the situation but also manipulated it, we
have used an experimental design. Some of the research designs we describe,
in this chapter are true experimental designs; they allow us to identify cause –
effect relationships. Under designs discussed, eliminate some but not all
alternative explanations of an observed change. However, all of the designs
have one thing in common; clearly identifiable independent and dependent
variables.
Importance of control
You have already been introduced to the concept of internal validity. The
interval validity of a research study is the extent to which its design and the
data it yields allow the researcher to draw accurate conclusions about cause
and effect and other relationships.
In experimental designs, internal validity is essential without it, any results the
researcher obtains cannot be interpreted. As an example, suppose we have a
new method of teaching science in school. We want to conduct an experiment
to investigate the methods effect on students’ science achievement test scores.
We find two teachers who are willing to participate in the study. One teacher
agrees to use the new method; the other teacher wants to continue using the
same method that has been in use. Both teachers agree that at the end of the
school year, their students sit for a science achievement test. Are the two
59
classes that same? If the students are taught with the new method obtained
per science achievement test scores at the end of the year will we know that the
method was the cause of the scores? The answer to the questions is no. The
teachers are different- one female and the other male, educational background
are different and teaching styles and personalities are different.
In addition, the two groups of students may be different. They would have
different intelligent capabilities. Any one of these factors and perhaps others
may have contributed to the differences in achievement test scores we obtain.
Whenever we compare two or more groups that are or might be different in
ways in addition to a particular treatment we are studying we have
confounding variables in our study.
To maximize internal validity, when a researcher wants to identify cause-effect

relationships, the researcher needs to control confounding variables so that
these variables are ruled out as explanations for any effects observed.
There are a variety of strategies to control for confounding variables:-

i) Keep some things constant.
Researchers ensure different treatments are imposed in the same or similar
events. They may also seek the research participants who share certain
characteristics such as gender, age, social-economical status, etc.
ii) Include a control group
To control for extraneous variables, researchers frequently include a control
group, a group that receives either no intervention or a neutral intervention
that should have little if any effort. They then compare the performance of this
group to an experimental group also known as treatment group that participate
in the intervention.
Note: People sometimes show different relations because they know they are
participating in a research study in effect known as reactivity or Hawthorne
effect. To take this fact into consideration, a researcher sometimes gives the
people in a control group a placebo that has the appearance of having an effect
but in reality does not have an affect. For instance, a research study the
effects of new arthritis mediation might give some participants a particular
message of the medicine and give others a similar looking sugar pill.
iii) Randomly design people to groups. In any research study, human beings
or living things members of the sample are likely to be different from one
another in ways that are relevant to the variable under investigations. In
experimental studies, researchers use random selection to assign participants
within their sample to various groups.
iv) Access equivalence before treatment with one or more pretests.

v) Expose participants to both or all experimental conditions.
vi) Statistically control for confounding variables.
60
In true experimental research, their researcher manipulates the independent
variables and examines its effects on another, dependent variable. A variety of
research designs have emerged that differ in the extent to which the researcher
manipulates the independent variable and controls for confounding variables.
We shall present a number of possibilities and we will illustrate the designs
using the tables that have those general format.
Group Time
Group 1
Group 2
Each group in a design will be shown in a different row. The things that
happen to the group over time will be shown in separate cells within the row.
The cells will have one of four notations.
Tx : Treatment Independent variable
Obs : Observation dependent variable
- : Nothing occurs
Exp : Experience independent variable.
It is not possible to show cause-effect relationship because either:-

i) The independent variable does not vary.
ii) Experimental and control groups are not equivalent or randomly selected
individuals. Such designs are useful only for forming hypotheses that should
be followed up and controlled studies.
Design I: One shot experimental case study

It’s the most primitive type of experiment. Treatment is introduced and then
measurement is administered to determine the effects of the treatment.
Time
Group 1 Tx Obs
It has low internal validity because its impossible to determine whether

participants performance on the post-test is the result of the treatment per
second.
Design 2: One group pretest, posttest design:-

It has
a) Pre-experimental evaluation
b) Administration Tx
c) Evaluation after the Tx
Group Time
Group 1 Obs Tx Obs
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Design 3: Static group comparison
It involves both experimental group and a control group
Group 1 Tx Obs
Group 2 - Obs
Experimental group is exposed to a particular Tx and control group is not.

After the treatment, both groups are observed and their performance
compared. However, no attempt is made for paying equivalent groups or at
least to examine the groups to determine whether they are similar before the
Tx.
True experimental designs

People or other nits of study are randomly assigned to groups. Such random
assignments guarantee that any differences between the groups are probably
small and are due to entirely chance.
Design 4: Pretest, protest, control group design

Both experimental and control groups are carefully selected through
appropriate randomization procedures. Experimental group is observed,
subjected to Tx and observed once again. Control group is isolated from
treatment. It is simply observed both at the beginning and at the end of the
experiment.
Group 1
Rando
assign
Obs Tx Obs
ment
Group 2
m
Obs - Obs
Design 5: Pretest only control group

Some life situations, defy pretesting. Also at times, you may not be able to
locate a suitable pretest or the act of pretesting an influence the results of the
experimental manipulation.
Random Group 1 Tx Obs

assignment Group 2 - Obs
Design 6: Within Subjects Design.

Participants receive two or possibly more different treatments simultaneously,
and the potential effect of each Tx is observed.
Group 1 TXa Obs a

Txb Obs b
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Quasi Experimental Designs
Sometimes, randomness is not possible or practical. In such situations,
researchers often use quasi-experimental designs. In these designs, there is no
control for all confounding variables.
Non randomized control grokup pretest – posttest designs
Group 1 Obs TX Obs

Group 2 Obs - Obs
Simple time series design.
Control group time series design
Group 1 obs Obs obs Obs TX Obs obs Obs Obs

Group 2 Obs obs Obs Obs - Os Obs Obs Obs
Exercise
1. Explain the importance of internal validity for experimental method.
2. Differentiate pre- experimental, true experimental and quasi-
experimental designs.
63
CHAPTER 10: DATA ANALYSIS
In chapter the student is required to review statistical concepts. These include:

i. Data presentation
ii. Measures of central tendency
iii. Measures of dispersion
iv. Regression and Correlation
v. Estimation
vi. Tests of hypotheses
vii. Analysis of variance
viii. Non parametric methods
64
CHAPTER 11: PRESENTING RESULTS: WRITTEN AND ORAL REPORTS
Report writing is the last step in the research process. After data have been
collected, analyzed and interpreted, the researcher has to prepare a report of
the findings of the study. It may be seen unscientific and even unfair, but a
poor report or presentation can destroy a study.
Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Explain the role of the research report.
2. Explain the criteria by which research reports are evaluated.
3. Describe the research report components.
4. Explain oral presentation.
The role of the Research Report

The main role of the research report is to communicate the findings of the
research project. The project should answer the questions raised in the
statement of objectives of the study. The researcher should be clearly aware of
the purpose of the research when preparing the report. A research project can
being out a lot of information but much of this information may not be relevant
to the problem initially defined. Only information that is likely to be useful to
the decision maker in decision making should be included in the report. The
researcher will need to use his own judgment in deciding what information
should be omitted.
For the report to be of maximum use to the decision maker, it must be

objective. The researcher should therefore have the courage to present and
defend their results as long as they are convinced that they are valid. They
should also clearly indicate any limitations of the study.
Research Report Criteria
The main criteria by which research reports are evaluated is communicated

with the reader. The report is prepared for a specific purpose and for a specific
type of audience. It should therefore communicate effectively with the intended
audience.
The report should be written with due consideration for the readers, their level
of interest in the subject, understanding of technical terms and what they will
make of the report.
In order to tailor the report to meet the needs of the readers, the researcher
should understand the readers’ preferences. One may find that different
readers have different preferences and this may at times bring conflicts. Some
readers may want to have the basic information only while others prefer to
have the technical details clearly brought out in the report. One way to
65
reconcile these conflicting interests is to prepare a basic report with a
minimum detail and to have appendices that give the technical details. Again,
in some cases, the researcher may indicate that certain details have been
omitted but are available upon request.
Another point to consider regarding the report’s ability to communicate with

the intended reader is whether the reader has to keep referring to the
dictionary as this may seriously interfere with the flow of information and thus
affect communication.
Writing Criteria
A report should satisfy the following criteria to improve its chances of
communicating effectively with the reader:
(a) Completeness
(b) Accuracy
(c) Clarity
(d) Conciseness
Let us now discuss how each of these criteria enhances communication.
(a) Completeness
A report should provide all the information that readers need in a language
they understand. This means that the writer should continually ask himself
whether all the issues in the research objectives have been addressed.
The report should not be too long as to include findings that are not relevant to
the study. Yet, it should not be too short as to omit necessary definitions and
explanations.
The abilities and interests of reader’s should be considered in determining

completeness.
b) Accuracy
The preceding steps in the research process provide the basic input for the
report. This means that the data generated at the data collection and analysis
steps should be accurate in order for the report to be accurate.
c) Clarity
Writing clearly is not easy. Clarity is achieved by clear logical thinking and
precision of expression. The way the report is organized may contribute to
clarity or affect it negatively. Some principles of writing clearly are:
(i) Use short and simple sentences.
(ii) Use simple words which the reader is familiar with.
(iii) Ensure that words and phrases express exactly what the writer
means to say.
(iv) Avoid grammatical errors.
66
(v) Use uniform style and format. It may help to write a first draft and
then have another person review it before preparing the final report.
d) Conciseness
The criteria of completeness should not be complemented by conciseness. The
writer should be concise in his writing and selective with regard to what to
include in the report. The report should be brief and to the point – this means
that the report should not include everything that has been found but only
what is relevant to the study.
The writing style should render itself to conciseness. The findings should be
expressed completely and clearly in the fewest words possible.
Report Format
The organization of the report influences its ability to meet all the criteria of
report writing. There is no format that is appropriate for all reports. A report
should be use a format that best fits the needs of its readers. The following
format may be used for most types of reports. It should be seen as flexible and
open to changes and adjustments depending with needs of the reader.
1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Summary/Abstract/Executive summary
4. Problem statement
5. Statement of objectives
6. Background
7. Research methodology
(a) Research design
(b) Data collection method
(c) Sampling
(d) Fieldwork
(e) Analysis and interpretation.
8. Limitations of the study
9. Findings of the study
10. Summary and conclusions
11. Recommendations
12. Appendix
(a) Copies of data collection instruments
(b) Details of sample size determination.
(c) Table not included in the findings
(d) Bibliography.
Let us briefly discuss each of these terms
1. Title page
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The title page should indicate the subject of the report, the name of the
organization for whom the report is prepared, the name of organization or
person who prepared it and the date the report is prepared.
If the report is done by employees of the company, then the names of the
people or departments preparing the report are given.
2. Table of Contents
As a rough guide, any report of several sections that totals more than 6 to 10
pages should have a table of contents.
This shows in order of appearance the topics and subtopics of the report with
page references. It also includes table and charts and pages where they may
be found.
3. Summary/Abstract
Some authors consider the summary to be the most important part of the
report. This is mainly because most executives read only the summary or they
use it to guide them on what areas of the report to give more attention. It
should contain the necessary background information as well as the important
findings and conclusions. Two pages are generally sufficient for executive
summaries. Write this section after the rest of the report is finished.
4. Problem Statement
It contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually
represented by research question (s). it is followed by a more detailed set of
objectives.
5. Statement of Objectives
This states the objectives of the study and should clearly indicate the purpose
of the study and what the report tries to answer.
6. Background
Background material may be of two types. It may be preliminary results of
exploration from an experience survey, focus group, or another source.
Alternatively, it could be secondary data from the literature review.
7. Research Methodology
This section describes the research procedures or methods used. It should
indicate the research design, sampling procedures, data collection and data
analysis procedures used.
This section provides information on the manner in which the findings reported
were gathered, analyzed and interpreted.
8. Limitations of the study
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This topic is often handled with ambivalence. Some people wish to ignore the
matter, feeling that mentioning limitations detracts from the impact of the
study. This attitude is unprofessional and possibly unethical.
9. Findings of the study
In this section which makes the bulk of the report, the results of the study are
presented. The specific objectives of the study should be kept in mind and the
results should be presented in a logical manner. Only information that
contributes to answering the questions posed in the study objectives should be
reported. Tables, charts and figures should be presented in a logical manner to
facilitate flow of thought and appreciation.
10. Summary and Conclusions

The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional
summaries may be used if there are many specific findings. They may be
combined into an overall summary. In simple, descriptive research, a
summary may complete the report, because conclusion and recommendations
may not be required.
Findings state facts, conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings.
Conclusions should be drawn with reference to the objectives of the study. The
researcher should show the step by step development of conclusions and state
them with some detail.
Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form for easy reading and

reference. If for some reason the study does not obtain adequate data on
which to make conclusions, this should be acknowledged.
11 Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research,
the recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test
understanding of the subject area. In applied research the recommendations
will usually be for managerial action rather than research action. The writer
may offer several alternatives with justifications.
It is therefore, not always possible or necessary to make recommendations.

However, in some cases, the researcher may be asked to make
recommendations. In this case, he will need further information on the
background of the organization and its policies.
Appendix
The appendix provides a place for material that does not fit in the other parts of
the research report. This may be because its too detailed, technical or
specialized, or is not absolutely necessary for the text.
The appendix normally contains details on sample design and sample size
determination, an exhibit copy of the data collection instrument; maps used to
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draw up the sample; detailed statistical tables and figures. The appendix helps
those interested in the technical details to find them easily.
Presentation of Statistics
The presentation of statistics in research reports is a special challenge for
writers. Four basic ways to present such data are in
a) A text paragraph
b) Semi tabular form
c) Tables
d) Graphics
Text Presentation
This is probably the most common when there are only a few statistics. The
writer can direct the reader’s attention to certain numbers or comparisons and
emphasize specific points. The drawback is that the statistics are submerged
in the text, requiring the reader to scan the entire paragraph to extract the
meaning. The following material has a few simple comparisons but becomes
more complicated when text and statistics are combined.
A comparison of the three aerospace and defense companies from the high-tech
stratum of the Forbes 500 sample show that Sundstrand had the best sales
growth record over the years 1988-1989. its growth was 8.0 percent – with
sales significantly lower than the other two firms in the sample. This compares
to sales growth for Rockwell International of 3.3 percent, and Allied-Signal was
third at only 0.8 percent sales increase. Rockwell International generated the
most profits in 1989 among the three companies. Rockwell’s net profits were
$720.7 million as compared to $528 million for Allied-Signal and $120.0
million for Sundstrand.
Semi tabular presentation

When there are just a few figures, they may be taken from the text and listed.
Lists of quantitative comparisons are much easier to read and understand than
embedded statistics. An example of semi tabular presentation is shown below:
A comparison of the three aerospace-defense companies in the Forbes 500

sample shows that Sundstrand showed the best sales growth between 1988
and 1989. Rockwell International generated the highest net profits for the year
1989.
Annual Sales Growth 1989 Net Profits ($millions)

Sundstrand 8.0% $120.8
Rockwell 3.3 720.7
Allied-Signal 0.8 528.0
Tabular Presentation
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Tables are generally superior to text for presenting statistics, although they
should be accompanied by comments directing the reader’s attention to
important figures. Tables facilitate quantitative comparisons and provide a
concise, efficient way to present numerical data. Tables are either general or
summary in nature. General tables tend to be large, complex and detailed.
They serve as the repository for the statistical findings of the stud and are
usually in the appendix of a research report.
Summary tables contain only a few key pieces of data closely related to a
specific finding. To make them inviting to the reader (who often skips them),
the table designer should omit unimportant details and collapse multiple
classifications into composite measures that may be sustained for the original
data.
Any table should contain enough information for the reader to understand its
contents. The title should explain the subject of the table, how the data are
classified, the time period, or other related matters. A subtitle is sometimes
included under the title to explain something about the table; most often this is
a statement of the measurement units in which data are expressed. The
contents of the columns should be clearly identified by the column heads, and
the contents of the stub should do the same for the rows. The body of the table
contains the data, while the footnotes contain any needed explanations.
Footnotes should be identified by letters or symbols such as asterisks, rather
than by numbers, to avoid confusion with data values. Finally, there should be
a source note if the data do not come from your original research.
Graphics
Compared with tables, graphs show less information and often only
approximate values. However, they are more often read and remembered than
tables. Their great advantage is that they convey quantitative values and
comparisons more readily than tables. With personal computer charting
programs, you can easily turn a set of numbers into a chart or graph.
Oral Presentations
Researchers often present their findings orally, these presentations, sometimes
called briefings, have some unique characteristics that distinguish them from
most other kinds of public speaking: Only a small group of people is involved;
statistics normally constitute an important portion of the topic; the audience
members are usually managers with an interest in the topic, but they want to
hear only the critical elements; speaking time will often be as short as 20
minutes but may run longer than an hour; and the presentation is normally
followed by questions and discussion.
Preparation
A successful briefing typically requires condensing a lengthy of complex body of
information. Since speaking rates should not exceed 100 to 150 words per
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minute, a 20-minute presentation limits you to about 2,000 to 2,500 words. If
you are to communicate effectively under such conditions, you must plan
carefully. Begin by asking two questions. First, how long should you plan to
talk? Usually there is an indication of the acceptable presentation length. It
may be the custom in an organization to take a give allotted time for a briefing.
If the time is severely limited, then the need for topical priorities is obvious.
This leads to the second question: what are the purposes of the briefing? Is it
to raise concern about problems that have been uncovered? Is it to add to the
knowledge of audience members? Is it to give them conclusions and
recommendations for their decision making? Questions such as these
illustrate the general objectives of the report. After answering these questions,
you should develop a detailed outline of what you are going to say. Such an
outline should contain the following major parts:
1. Opening. A brief statement, probably not more than 10percent of the
allotted time, sets the stage for the body of the report. The opening should be
direct, get attention, and introduce the nature of the discussion that follows. It
should explain the nature of the project, how it came about, and what It
attempted to do.
2. Findings and Conclusions. The conclusions may be stated immediately

after the opening remarks, with each conclusion followed by the findings that
support it.
3. Recommendations. Where appropriate, these are stated in the third stage;

each recommendation may be followed by references to the conclusions leading
to it. Presented in this manner, they provide a natural climax to the report. At
the end of the presentation, it may be appropriate to call for questions from the
audience.
Early in the planning stage you need to make two further decisions. The first
concerns the type of audiovisuals (AV) that will be used and the role they will
play in the presentation. AV decisions are important enough that they are
often made before the briefing outline and text are developed.
Then you must decide on the type of presentation. Will you give a memorized
speech, read fro your manuscript, or give an extemporaneous presentation?
We rule out the impromptu briefing as an option because impromptu speaking
does not involve preparation. Your reputation and the research effort should
not be jeopardized by ‘winging it’.
Memorization is a risky and time-consuming course to follow. Any memory slip

during the presentation can be a catastrophe, and the delivery sound stilted
and distant. Memorization virtually precludes establishing rapport with the
audience and adapting to the reactions while you speak. It produces a self or
speaker-centered approach and is not recommended.
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Reading a manuscript is also not advisable even though many professors seem
to reward students who do so (perhaps because they themselves get away with
it at professional meetings). The delivery sounds dull and lifeless because most
people are not trained to read aloud and therefore do it badly. They become
focused on the manuscript to the exclusion of the audience. This head-down
preoccupation with the text is clearly inappropriate for management
presentations.
The extemporaneous presentation is audience centered and made from

minimal notes or an outline. This mode permits the speaker to be natural,
conversation, and flexible. Clearly, it is the best choice of an organizational
setting. Preparation consists of writing a draft along with a complete sentence
outline and concerting the main points to notes. In this way, you can try lines
of argument, experiment with various ways of expressing thoughts, and
develop phraseology. Along the way, the main points are fixed sequentially in
your mind and supporting connections are made.
Audiences accept notes, and their presence does wonders in allaying speaker
fears. Even if you never use them, they are there for psychological support.
Many prefer to use 5-by-8 inch cards for their briefing notes because they hold
more information and so require less shuffling than the smaller 3-by-5 size.
Card contents vary widely, but here are some general guidelines for their
design:
Place title and preliminary remarks on the first card.
Use each of the remaining cards to carry a major section of the
presentation. The amount of detail depends on the need for precision and
the speaker’s desire for supporting information.
Include key phrases, illustrations, statistics, dates and pronunciation
guides for difficult words. Include also quotations and ideas that bear
repeating.
Along the margin, place instructions and cues, such as SLO, FAST,
EMPHASIZE, TRANSPARENCY A, TURN CHART,
Delivery
While the content is the chief concern, the speaker’s delivery is also important.
A polished presentation adds to the receptiveness of the audience, but there is
some danger that the presentation may overpower the message. Fortunately,
the typical research audience knows why it is assembled, has a high level of
interest, and does not need to be entertained. Even so the speaker faces a real
challenge in communicating effectively. The delivery should be restrained.
Demeanor, posture, dress, and total appearance should be appropriate for the
occasion. Speed of speech, clarity of enunciation, pauses, and gestures all play
their part. Voice pitch, tone quality, and inflection are proper subjects for
concern. There is little time for anecdotes and other rapport-developing
techniques, yet the speaker must get and hold audience attention.
73
Review questions
1. What information should be included in a research report?
2. Research reports often contain statistical materials of great importance that
are presented poorly. Discuss ways to improve statistical presentation.
3. What major problems do you personally have with writing good reports?
What can you do about these problems?
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KENYA METHODIST UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER INFORMATION SYSTEMS

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER INFORMATION SYSTEMS

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (3 CREDITS)

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Know the meaning and purpose of research.

BROAD AREAS TO BE COVERED

• Research and research Process.

TEACHING/ LEARNING METHODS

COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE TRIMESTER

Week 13 and Week 14

• Mugenda, O. M. and Mugenda, A. G.: Research methods: quantitative and qualitative

KENYA METHODIST UNIVERSITY

Week 1 Student Learning Objectives

• Define the concept of research.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 2 Student Learning Objectives

• Define a research problem and its characteristics.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 3 Student Learning Objectives

• Identify various sources of information for a particular research problem.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 4 Student Learning Objectives

• Explain the importance of conducting literature review.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 5 Student Learning Objectives

• State and differentiate between types of research proposals.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 6 Student Learning Objectives

• Explain the concept of a research design and its purpose in research.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 7 Student Learning Objectives

• Explain the nature of qualitative research.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 8 Student Learning Objectives

• Outline the survey method of data collection.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 9 Student Learning Objectives

• Outline the various experimental designs and their use.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 10 and 11 Student Learning Objectives

• Outline the various statistical concepts used for data analysis.

CISY 302 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Week 12 Student Learning Objectives

• Outline precaution taken when writing technical reports.

Research is a Greek word meaning “to know”.

What research is not?

6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions. In research, assumptions

How do we define science? According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary,

Science as defined above is sometimes called pure science to differentiate it

The steps of the Scientific Method are:

Using the example of the tomato experiment, here is an example of a

An important thing to remember during this stage of the scientific method is

Validity of Reliability of measurements

(ii) Applied Research

Difference between Applied and Basic Research

a) Locating research articles

Reading a research article

Evaluating Research Articles

c) Statistical Validity (conclusions)

Communication of research results

1. Find research problem