Welding Part 2

Arc Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode:
Gas tungsten arc welding

• Formerly known as TIG welding (tungsten inert gas)
• A filler metal is supplied from a filler wire.
• Composition of filler metals must be similar to metals
that are to be welded.
• Cost of the inert gas is expensive but provides a high
quality and good surface finish.
Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials https://youtu.be/P5m9-Xmqrk8
© 2008 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd https://youtu.be/uO5pVLOAmD4
Atomic hydrogen welding
• Arc generated between 2 tungsten electrodes in a
atmosphere of flowing hydrogen gas.
• Hydrogen breaks down and absorbs a large amount of
heat from the arc.
• Expensive process due to massive usage of hydrogen
gas.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials https://youtu.be/NEktRlcrrM4
© 2008 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Plasma arc welding
• Developed in the 1960s
• A concentrated plasma arc is produced and directed
toward the weld area.
• Arc is stable.
• 2 methods of plasma arc welding:
a) transferred arc method
b) non-transferred method

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials
Plasma arc welding
a) Transferred arc method
• The part being welded is part of the electrical circuit.
• The arc thus transfers from the electrode to the
workpiece, hence the term transferred.
b) Non-transferred method
• the arc is between the electrode and the nozzle, and the
heat is carried to the workpiece by the plasma gas

Plasma arc welding
• Compared with other arc welding processes:
• The key difference from GTAW is that in PAW, the
electrode is positioned within the body of the torch, so
the plasma arc is separated from the shielding gas
envelope.
• Plasma arc welding has a greater energy concentration,
hence deeper and narrower welds can be made
• Better arc stability
• Less thermal distortion
• Higher welding speeds, such as 120–1000 mm/min.
High-Energy-Beam Welding
- Electron-beam welding
• Heat is generated by high-velocity electrons
• Kinetic energy is converted into heat to strike the
workpiece.
• Higher the vacuum, more beam will be able to
penetrate into the part and greater depth-to-width
ratio.
• Produces high-quality, deep and narrow welds.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials https://youtu.be/xYi2x0o--34
© 2008 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd https://youtu.be/grzbTs69wuw
High-Energy-Beam Welding
- Electron-beam welding
Comparison of the size of weld beads in (a) electron beam or laser-beam

welding with that in (b) conventional (tungsten arc) welding.

Laser-beam welding
• Uses a high-power laser beam as heat to produce a
fusion weld.
• Has a high energy density and a deep penetrating
capability.
• Process can be automated, used on a variety of
materials and effective on thin workpieces.
• Produces good quality weld with minimum shrinkage
and distortion, good strength, ductile and free of
porosity.

Laser-beam welding

The Fusion Welded Joint
• Fusion welding processes include:
1. nature, properties, and quality of the welded joint
2. weldability of metals
3. testing welds
• 3 distinct zones of weld are:

1. base metal
2. heat-affected zone (HAZ)
3. fusion zone
The mechanical properties of a welded joint depend on

several factors:
• The rate of heat application and the thermal properties
of metals
• The microstructure and grain size in the joint
• Various other factors, such as the geometry of the weld
bead and the presence of cracks, residual stresses,
inclusions, and oxide films.

Solidification of the weld metal
• After heat is applied molten weld joint will cool to
ambient temperature.
• Begins with the formation of columnar grains that are
long and form parallel to the heat flow.
• Grain structure size depend on alloy, welding process,
and filler metal used.
• Structure has low strength, hardness, toughness and
ductility.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials Grain structure in (a) a deep weld
© 2008 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd and (b) a shallow weld.
Heat-affected zone
• The heat-affected zone is within the base metal itself.
• It has a microstructure different than that of the base
metal prior to welding.
• It has been subjected to elevated temperatures for a
period of time during welding

Heat-affected zone
• The strength and hardness of the heat-affected zone
depend partly on how the original strength and
hardness of the particular alloy had been developed
prior to welding.
• The grain structure of such a weld that has been
exposed to corrosion by chemical reaction.
Intergranular corrosion of a
weld joint in ferritic
stainless-steel welded tube,
after exposure to a caustic
solution.

Weld quality
• Discontinuities that affect weld quality are:
1. Porosity
• Caused by:
a) trapped gases
b) chemical reactions
c) Contaminants
• Can be reduced through a proper selection of
electrodes and filler metals, improvement of welding
operation, cleaning of the weld zone and having a lower
welding speed.

Weld quality
2. Slag inclusions
• Compounds such as oxides, fluxes, and electrode coating
materials that are trapped in the weld zone.
• If the shielding gases used are not effective, contamination
from the environment may also contribute to slag inclusions.
• Prevented by cleaning weld-bead surface, providing shielding
gas and redesigning the joint.

Weld quality
3. Incomplete fusion and incomplete penetration
• Lack of fusion produces poor weld beads.
• Better weld obtained by raising temperature of base
metal, cleaning weld area and provide shielding gas.
(a) Incomplete fusion in fillet welds, (b) incomplete fusion from oxide or dross at the center of a joint,
and (c) incomplete fusion in a groove weld.

Weld quality
4. Weld profile
• Affects the strength and appearance of the weld.
• Underfilling is due to joint not filled with proper amount
of weld metal.
• Undercutting is due to melting away of base metal.
• Overlap is a surface discontinuity due to poor welding
practice.

Weld quality
5. Cracks
• Types of cracks: longitudinal, transverse, crater,
underbead and toe cracks.
• Results from a combination of temperature gradients,
variations in composition of weld zone, embrittlement
of grain boundaries and hydrogen.
• Crack-prevention measures modifying joint design,
change welding process parameters, preheating the
components and avoids rapid cooling.

Weld quality
Types of cracks in welded joints. The cracks are caused by thermal stresses that develop
during solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the welded structure: (a) crater
cracks and (b) various types of cracks in butt and T joints.

Weld quality
Crack in a weld bead, due to the fact that the two components were
not allowed to contract after the weld was completed.
Cold Welding
• Pressure is applied to mating faces of parts through dies
or rolls, where both mating parts to be ductile.
• Used to join small workpieces made of soft and ductile
metals.
Roll bonding
• Pressure for long pieces or continuous strips is applied
through a pair of rolls.

https://youtu.be/UFF-mymromI
Ultrasonic Welding
• Faying surfaces of 2 members are subjected to static
normal force and tangential shearing stresses.
• Shearing stresses are applied by tip of a transducer.
• Energy required increases with thickness and hardness of
the materials being joined.
• Process is reliable and versatile.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials https://youtu.be/HaMkiKrE-tg
Friction Welding
• Heat required is generated from friction at the interface
of the 2 members being joined.
• Weld zone depends on amount of heat generated,
thermal conductivity of materials and mechanical
properties of the materials at elevated temperature.

Friction Welding
• Sequence of operations in the friction welding process.
(1) The part on the left is rotated at high speed
(2) the part on the right is brought into contact under an axial
force
(3) the axial force is increased, and the part on the left stops
rotating; flash begins to form
(4) After a specified upset length or distance is achieved, the
weld is completed.

Friction Welding
Schematic illustration of the friction stir

welding process.
Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes https://youtu.be/y7rCTdxvGlg

Resistance Welding
• Welding is produced by means of electrical resistance
between 2 joined members.
• No need consumable electrodes, shielding gases, or
flux. H = heat generated (J)
• Heat generated is H  I 2 Rt I = current (A)
R = resistance in ohms
t = time (s)

https://youtu.be/mztI-YTjEps
Example 12.5
Heat generated in resistance spot welding
Assume that two 1-mm thick steel sheets are being spot welded at a current of 5000
A and current-flow time is 0.1s. Using electrodes 5 mm in diameter, estimate the
amount of heat generated and its distribution in the weld zone. Use an effective
resistance of 200 μΩ.
Solution
Heat produced is Heat  5000 2
0.00020.1  500 J
   
Weld nugget volume is V   d 2 t    52 2   39.3 mm 3
4  4 
Heat to melt the weld nugget is H  u Volume   9.7 39.3  381 J

Resistance spot welding
• Tips of the 2 opposing electrodes contact surfaces of lap
joint and resistance heating produces a spot weld.
• Good bond in the weld nugget is obtained by having
pressure continually applied till current is turned off.
• Strength of weld depends on surface roughness and
cleanliness of mating surfaces.
• Can perform by single or
multiple electrodes,
pressure can be mechanical
or pneumatic means.

Explosion Welding
• Contact pressure by detonating a layer of explosive over
one of the members.
• Impact mechanically interlocks the two mating surfaces.
• Suitable for dissimilar metals.
Schematic illustration of the explosion welding process: (a) constant interface

clearance gap and (b) angular interface clearance gap.

https://youtu.be/I3GhNAUccJY
Diffusion Bonding
• Solid-state joining process
• Process where strength of the joint results from diffusion
(movement of atoms across the interface).
• The pressure required may be applied by:
a) dead weights
b) a press
c) differential gas pressure
d) from thermal expansion of the parts
• Because diffusion involves migration of the atoms across the
joint, the process is slower than other welding methods.
https://youtu.be/7o9CfeS8cxs
Brazing
• First used as far back as 3000–2000 B.C.
• Filler metal is placed between faying surfaces where the
temperature is raised to melt the filler metal.
• Workpieces must melt in the weld area for fusion.
• Clearance is important as it affects the strength of the
brazed joint.

https://youtu.be/nBwRpI_0d50
Soldering
• Filler metal (solder) fills the joint by capillary action.
• Can be used to join various metals and to thicken parts.
• Temperatures are low and have a low strength as they
are for load-bearing structural members.
• Solders are tin-lead alloys.

https://youtu.be/oqV2xU1fee8
Adhesive Bonding
• Numerous components and products can be joined and
assembled.
• 3 basic types of adhesives:
1. Natural adhesives
2. Inorganic adhesives
3. Synthetic organic adhesives
• Adhesive are required to be strong and tough,
resistance to fluids, chemicals and environmental
degradation.

Adhesive Bonding
Various configurations for adhesively bonded joints: (a) single lap, (b) double
lap, (c) scarf, and (d) strap.

Mechanical Fastening
• A more preferred mtehod due to:
1. ease of manufacturing.
2. ease of assembly, disassembly and transportation.
3. ease of parts replacement, maintenance and repair.
4. ease in creating designs.
5. low overall cost of manufacturing the product.

Mechanical Fastening
Examples of rivets: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c)

split, or bifurcated, and (d) compression.

Joining Nonmetallic Materials
- Joining thermoplastics
• Thermoplastics soften when temperature increases.
• They are joined at the interface with the components,
external or internally.
• Oxidation can be a problem for some polymers.
• Due to low thermal conductivity, heat source may burn
or char the surfaces of the components.


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Arc Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode:

Gas tungsten arc welding

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Comparison of the size of weld beads in (a) electron beam or laser-beam

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

• 3 distinct zones of weld are:

The mechanical properties of a welded joint depend on

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Schematic illustration of the friction stir

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes https://youtu.be/y7rCTdxvGlg

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Heat to melt the weld nugget is H  u Volume   9.7 39.3  381 J

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Schematic illustration of the explosion welding process: (a) constant interface

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Examples of rivets: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c)

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

Chapter 12: Joining and Fastening Processes

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