WELDING

Introduction: -
Welding is the process of joining two metal or plastic parts by melting them, with or without using
a further filler/molten material. The heat produced by an arc is used in welding to melt metal rods,
which solidify to provide a strong joint between two metal surfaces.
The durability and performance of any structure is largely dependent on the quality and the design
of the component joints, Whole structure cannot be made in one piece. Two fundamental option’s
for joining materials and components.
• Mechanical joining and
• Metallurgical joining
Weldability: -
• The capability of a material to be welded under the imposed fabrication conditions into a
specific, suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
• Weldability depends on various factors such as, nature of metals, weld designs, welding
techniques, skills, etc.
• It has been stated that all metals are weldable but some are more difficult than another.
• Steel is readily weldable (in many ways) than aluminum and copper.
• Copper is not easily welded due to its high thermal conductivity which makes it difficult to
raise the parent metal to its melting point, require preheating ~300-400oC.
• Some aluminum-based die casting alloys give weld pool too large to control, and aluminum
welds normally have oxide inclusions and porosity
Weldability—steels
• Steels -- Weldability of steels is inversely proportional to its Hardenability, due to martensite
formation during heat treatment
Carbon content Hardenability Weldability
• There is a trade-off between materials strength and weldability.
• Austenitic stainless steels tend to be the most weldable but suffer from distortion due to
high thermal expansion. Cracking and reduced corrosion resistance.
• Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are not easily welded, often to be preheated and use
special electrodes.
• Ferritic steels are susceptible to hot cracking if the ferrite amount is not controlled.

Detail of welding arrow and the components

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

ARC WELDING: -
• Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and join
metals. A power supply creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-consumable
electrode and the base material using either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents.
• This electric arc can create temperatures of 3500°C, which is sufficiently high to melt high
strength metals like carbon steel. This method also uses shielding gas in conjunction with arc
welding.
• This is because the atmospheric air can interact with the weld pool and cause oxidation.
• There are different types of arc welding such as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Flux-Cored
Arc Welding (FCAW), Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), Plasma Arc welding (PAW), etc.

Applications of Arc Welding:

• Shipbuilding
• Automotive industries
• Construction industries
• Mechanical industries
Advantages of Arc welding:
• Suitable for high-speed welds
• Simple welding apparatus
• Portability as a result of the simple equipment
• Can work on AC or DC
• Superior temperatures
Disadvantages of Arc Welding:
• Not suitable for welding thin metals
• Requires skilled welders
• Cannot be used for reactive metals like Al or Ti

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
• Also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding or stick
welding is a process where the arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode flux coated) and
the work piece, both the rod and work piece surface melt to form a weld pool.
• Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on the rod will form gas, and slag, which protects the
weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere. This is a versatile process ideal for joining ferrous
and non-ferrous materials with a range of material thicknesses in all positions.

Applications
• Storage tanks, gear blanks, machinery, steel furniture, truck bodies, foundry equipment, shaft
build-up, etc. Structures, building construction, tanks, pipelines, machinery parts, automobile
bodies, steel window frames, farm machinery, etc.
• Building construction, vessels, tanks and boilers, pipelines, bridges, railway wagons, ships,
trailers. Pressure pipelines which cannot be welded from inside, oil storage tanks, railway coach
panels.
• Locomotive fire-boxes, scooter frames. Used for welding of heavy structures like crane and
bridge girders, assembly of earth moving equipment, heavy machinery parts, etc.
Advantages
• Lower equipment cost than GTAW, FCAW and GMAW. (No bottle, gas hose, flowmeter, and tig
rig/Wire feeder needed.
• Quick Change from one material to another.
• The process lends itself to welding in confined spaces and various positions with few problems.
• Deposition Rates faster than GTAW Manual.
• Easy to move from one location to another. No Wire Feeder and Bottle.
• Some special electrodes are made for cutting/gouging.
• Requires no outside shielding gas and can be used outdoors in light to medium wind.
Disadvantages
• Low deposition rate compared to GMAW/FCAW.
• Filler metal cost per weld can be greater due to a low deposition efficiency that can vary greatly
with stub length.
• Production factor is typically lower due to rod changes and chipping slag.
• Needs more hand eye coordination than GMAW/FCAW.
• Slag must be removed as compared to GTAW/GMAW.

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW):

• Created as an alternative to SMAW, FCAW uses a continuously fed consumable flux cored
electrode and a constant voltage power supply, which provides a constant arc length. This
process either uses a shielding gas or just the gas created by the flux to provide protection from
contamination.
• There are two types of flux cored arc welding - Self-Shielded vs. Gas-Shielded Flux-Cored
welding. Self-shielded flux core welding produces slag and gas from the flux that is positioned
inside the electrode when they get hot enough. They do not require the use of an external
shielding agent.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• Flux-cored arc welding uses a consumable electrode for the welding process. FCAW cannot be
used on non-ferrous metals like Aluminium, copper, etc.

Applications:
Manufacturing plants, Shipbuilding, Industrial piping, Railroads, Maintenance and repair.
Advantages:
Excellent weld penetration, Suitable for thicker joints, Flexibility in terms of torch movement and
orientation, does not require skilled welders, The highest metal deposition rate.
Disadvantages:
Can result in slag inclusion, Flux-cored wires are more expensive, Weld is often not aesthetically
pleasing.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):

A frequently-used process with a continuously-fed consumable electrode and a blanket of fusible
flux which becomes conductive when molten, providing a current path between the part and the
electrode. The flux also helps prevent spatter and sparks while suppressing fumes and ultraviolet
radiation.

Applications:
• The submerged arc process is widely used in heavy steel plate fabrication work. This includes the
welding of structural shapes, the longitudinal seam of larger diameter pipe, the manufacture of
machine components for all types of heavy industry, and the manufacture of vessels and tanks
for pressure and storage use.
• It is widely used in the shipbuilding industry for splicing and fabricating subassemblies, and by
many other industries where steels are used in medium to heavy thicknesses. It is also used for
surfacing and buildup work, maintenance, and repair.
Advantages:
• High quality of the weld metal & Extremely high deposition rate and speed.
• Smooth, uniform finished weld with no spatter & Little or no smoke.
• No arc flash, thus minimal need for protective clothing & High utilization of electrode wire.
• Easy automation for high-operator factor & Normally, no involvement of manipulative skills.
Disadvantages:
• A major limitation of welding is its limitation to welding positions. The other limitation is,
primarily used only to weld mild and low-alloy high-strength steels.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• The high-heat input, slow-cooling cycle can be a problem when welding quenched and tempered
steels. The heat input limitation of the steel in question must be strictly adhered.
• In semiautomatic submerged arc welding, the inability to see the arc and puddle can be a
disadvantage in reaching the root of a groove weld and properly filling or sizing.

Electro-Slag Welding (ESW):

• A vertical process used to weld thick plates (above 25mm) in a single pass. ESW relies on an
electric arc to start before a flux addition extinguishes the arc. The flux melts as the wire
consumable is fed into the molten pool, which creates a molten slag on top of the pool.
• Heat for melting the wire and plate edges is generated through the molten slag's resistance to
the passage of the electric current. Two water-cooled copper shoes follow the process
progression and prevent any molten slag from running off.
• ESW in which the heat is generated by an electric current passing between the consumable
electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through a molten slag covering the weld surface.
• Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a welding flux. Electroslag
Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the work piece (or starting plate).
• Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing powder and forms molten slag. The slag, having
low electric conductivity, is maintained in liquid state due to heat produced by the electric
current.
• The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C). This temperature is sufficient for
melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges. Metal droplets fall to the weld pool
and join the work pieces. Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.

Advantages:
• High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs./h (20 kg/h). & Unlimited thickness of work piece.
• Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight). & Low distortion.
Disadvantages:
• Coarse grain structure of the weld.
• Low toughness of the weld. & Only vertical position is possible.

Arc Stud Welding (SW):

• Similar to flash welding, SW joins a nut or fastener, usually with a flange with nubs that melt to
create the join, to another metal piece.
• The arc stud welding method provides highly reliable fastening for a wide variety of applications.
This method allows almost any size or configuration of a metal stud to be welded quickly to a
workpiece, while providing maximum weld penetration and reliability.
• The process can quickly weld almost any size or configuration of metal stud to a workpiece, with
maximum weld penetration and reliability. Arc stud welding creates strong, one-sided welds on
base metals as thin as 0.048 inch. It produces welds in as little as 0.06 second.
Benefits of Stud Welding
• Strength. The strength of the weld is much greater than that of the parent material or even
the stud.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• Fast Attachment. Not every kind of welding join two items together easily or in a short amount
of time. Cost-Efficient. No Weld Splatter. Painted or Pre-coated Items.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

• The PAW method is related to GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding). This arc can be formed
among the metal as well as an electrode. The major difference among the PAW and GTAW is, in
PAW the welder is capable to placing the electrode in the torch’s body, so this will allow the PAW
to be divided from the protecting gas.
• Plasma is fed throughout a nozzle which will compress the arc to force the plasma away at high
speed as well as temperature. The plasma arc method utilizes a non-consumable tungsten
electrode & an arc can be formed by strengthening the plasma throughout a bore nozzle. This
arc welding can be productively applied to every metal that can be connected with the help of
the gas tungsten arc welding technique.

• The power supply used in the PAW is a DC power source, and the suitable voltage for this type
of welding is 70 volts otherwise above.
• The typical welding parameters are voltage, current, and gas flow rate. These parameter values
can be ranges like the current is 500A, voltage is 30V to 250V, the speed of cutting is: 0.1 to7.5
m/min, the thickness of the plate is up to 200mm, required power is 2KW to 200KW, the rate of
material removal is 150 cm3/min, and plasma velocity is 500m/sec
• Current limiting resistors, as well as a high-frequency generator, are used for arc ignition.
• The plasma torch includes an electrode as well as water-cooling arrangement, and these are
used to save the nozzle & the electrode’s lifespan from dissolving due to the extreme heat
generated while welding.
• The fixture is necessary to avoid atmospheric pollution from the molten metal beneath bead.
• Shielding gas is used for protecting the arc region from the atmosphere.
Applications
• PAW can be used in industries like aerospace as well as marine
• PAW is used to join stainless tubes and pipes
• This type of welding is mostly applicable for electronic industries.
• PAW is mainly used to fix tools, mold and die.
• PAW is used to coating otherwise welding on the turbine blade.
Advantages:
• Power consumption is low.
• Welding speed is high, so it can simply utilize to join thick and hard workpieces.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• Penetration rate and strong arc are high.
• It can function at little amperage.
• The arc arrangement doesn’t affect by the distance among tool as well as the workpiece.
• By using this method, the steadier arc can be produced.
Disadvantages:
• The process is noisy.
• Equipment cost is high.
• High expertise labor required.
• Radiation is more.

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG/GMAW): -

• MIG or Metal Inert Gas Welding is another welding method that uses an electric arc to create
welds. However, when compared with arc welding, MIG requires a consumable electrode to join
metals.
• A consumable electrode is a metal that supplies electricity to the weld joint. The electrode itself
undergoes melting when it is near the weld pool. Hence it gets consumed during the welding.
• In MIG welding, the melted electrode facilitates the joining of the two metals. Hence, MIG is
ideal for joining dissimilar metals. Shielding gas [argon (Ar), Helium (He) or argon/helium
mixtures] is supplied through the weld gun to ensure that the weld pool does not interact with
the atmospheric air.
• The arc melts the parent metal and electrode wire to form a weld pool which is protected from
the atmosphere by shielding gas. For non-ferrous materials-Argon and helium, For steels- Carbon
dioxide, argon +5-20% carbon dioxide, or argon +1-5% oxygen.
• The wire is fed at a constant speed give the desired weld current.
• High welding current can only be used in the horizontal orientation since metal transfer is by arc
spray. The voltage control arc length, the process may be readily mechanized.
• Lower welding current which allow dip transfer used in other orientations.

Some of the popular applications of MIG welding:

• Used for most types of sheet metal welding
• Fabrication of pressure vessels and steel structures
• Automotive industry and home improvement industry
Advantages of MIG welding:
• Creates high-quality welds
• Minor weld splatter
• Can be used to join dissimilar metals
• Can be fully or semi-automatic
• Good weld speed
Disadvantages of MIG welding:
• Unsuitable for outside welding
• Unsuitable for thick metals

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

 • Needs metal preparation

TIG Welding - Tungsten Inert Gas Welding: -

• Tungsten Inert Gas welding uses a tungsten electrode to create an arc between the metals. TIG
welding is a non-consumable electrode welding method, therefore the tungsten doesn’t get
consumed with the process. Argon is the most commonly used inert gas in TIG welding.
• TIG welding also doesn’t use any form of flux or slag for shielding. Instead, an inert gas is used
as a shielding agent in the entire process.
• TIG welding can work on both AC and DC power sources. One of the greatest strengths of TIG
welding is that it can be used for welding non-ferrous metals like aluminum, copper, magnesium,
copper, nickel, titanium, etc.
• Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded- Argon, Argon + 2 to 5% H2,
Helium and helium/argon mixtures.
Applications:
• Aerospace and aircraft construction.
• Automotive industry & Auto body repairs.
Advantages:
• Very clean welds.
• Offer a high degree of control to the welder.
• Can be used with or without filler material.
• Can be done in manual or automatic methods.
• Creates strong welds.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

Disadvantages:
• Time-consuming
• Needs skilled welders
• Cannot be used for thicker metal joints

Carbon Arc welding: -

• CAW is a process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between
a carbon electrode and the work piece. The arc heats and melts the work pieces edge.
• If required, filler rod may be used in Carbon Arc Welding. End of the rod is held in the arc zone.
The molten rod material is supplied to the weld pool.
• Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool protection depending on type of welded
metal.
• The CAW is just similar to metal arc welding. Welding electrodes are different in both. In this
process, the electrode is having carbon material (Carbon rod) and it consist of negative pole and
work piece as positive pole. The arc is produced to heat the metal to melt temperature. In this
heat temperature in negative electrode as 2800⁰c and positive electrode as 3800⁰c.
• The carbon electrode using as negative pole because of low temperature generated on the tip
than work piece, and carbon electrode not fuse and mix up with the work piece. If happens, the
weld will be rich in carbon, and consequently more brittle and consumed excessively. In this
reason DC current used in carbon arc welding, AC current not used in the welding because of
fixed polarity can be maintained.
• This process is used for welding both ferrous and non-ferrous metals like steel sheet, Brass, Bronze, Gun
metal, M/S-sheet, carbon-steel etc. The temperature rises to approximately 600°C.

Advantages:
• Low cost of equipment and welding operation.
• High level of operator skill is not required.
• The process is easily automated.
• Low distortion of work piece.
Disadvantages:
• Unstable quality of the weld (porosity).
• Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides.

CO2 Arc welding: -

• CO2 arc welding, the welding wire wound in coil is fed into the welding torch by the feeding
motor automatically. The welding wire that is electrified through the contact tip becomes the
electrode to strike an arc between itself and the base metal.
• The arc heat melts the wire and the base metal to join pieces of base metal. In this case, in order
that the weld metal will not be affected by oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere, CO 2 gas is
supplied from the nozzle of the welding torch to shield the weld pool. Its schematic is shown
below.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• Iron becomes brittle when it combines with nitrogen that exists much in the atmosphere.
Therefore, the CO2 gas is used to shield the weld pool from the atmosphere. CO2 gas can be
decomposed by the ultra−high temperature arc heat into CO and O near the arc.

• The decomposed O combines with molten iron to form FeO.

• Sequentially, C that is contained in steel is easier to combine with O than Fe deprives O from FeO
to generate CO gas, which is apt to left in the weld metal to form blowholes. A weld metal that
contains blowholes cannot be deemed to be sound.

• To improve the soundness, a welding wire that contains Si and Mn that have stronger affinity
with O is used; in this case, O in FeO combines not with C but with Si and Mn and floats up on
the surface of the weld pool to form slag of SiO2 and MnO. Though slag is formed, the weld
metal becomes sound without blowholes.

• Besides Si and Mn that prevent blowholes, various other chemical elements are added to the
welding wire in order to let the weld metal possess required strength, impact toughness,
corrosion resistance and other properties.

Advantages:
• As the diameter of the wire is small, the welding current density is high and thus the deposition
rate is big. Good concentration of the arc realizes deep penetration.
• The deposition efficiency is high and formation of slag is little, which makes it unnecessary to
remove slag after each pass.
• The arc generation rate is high, thereby lowering the welding cost and making the process to be
more economical.
• Hydrogen in the weld metal is low, which contributes to good crack resistance and mechanical
properties.
Disadvantages:
• Windbreak screen is needed against high wind at a velocity of 2m/sec. or higher.
• Even if a long conduit cable is used, welder’s movable area is limited.
• The price of the power source is high.

RESISTANCE WELDING: -
• Resistance welding is the science of joining two or more metal parts together in a localized area
by the application of heat and pressure.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• The heat is produced by the resistance of the material to carry a high amperage current. The
greater the path of resistance is, the higher the heat intensity. This heat is controlled via time
application and level of current applied.
• The pressure is applied to forge the joint and consolidate the nugget to provide the weld
strength.
• No extraneous materials such as rods, fluxes, inert gases, oxygen, or acetylene are required.
H=I2RT Joules.
• Type of resistance welding
– Resistance spot welding
– Resistance projection welding
– Resistance seam welding

Resistance Spot welding: -

• Spot welding is a resistance welding process that is used primarily for welding two or more metal
sheets together by applying pressure and heat to the weld area.
• Electrode materials used for spot welding copper include molybdenum and tungsten copper-
chromium or zirconium alloy.
• Heat is developed mainly at the interface between two sheets, eventually causing the material
being welded to melt, forming a molten pool, the weld nugget. The molten pool is contained by
the pressure applied by the electrode tip and the surrounding solid metal.
• Short weld time and hence high weld speed, Highly adaptable to automation and robotic
techniques.
• Typical BIW contains 5000 welds, Strength and durability of automobile largely depends on
quality of RSW.
• Due to its lower thermal conductivity and higher electrical resistance, steel is comparatively easy
to spot weld, with low carbon steel being most suited to spot welding.
• Other materials commonly spot welded include stainless steels (austenitic and ferritic grades),
nickel alloys and titanium. Copper and Aluminium also can be weld by this method but require
more current than steel.
• Spot welding has applications in a number of industries, including automotive, aerospace, rail,
white goods, metal furniture, electronics, medical building and construction.

Typical Spot-Welding Conditions for Coated and Uncoated Steels: -

Welding parameter Coating type
Hot-dip zinc
Uncoated Electro zinc Galvanneal
coated steel
mild steel coated steel (EZ) steel (GA)
(GI)

Welding force (KN) 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.7

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

Welding current (KA) 8 10 9.5 9

Welding time (cycles) 8 10 10 8

Resistance Projection welding: -

• Projection welding: The force and current to make the weld is localized by the use of projection
raised on one or more of the sheet surfaces.
• In most applications multiple small projections are formed on one surface of the parts to be
welded. These projections can be round dimples, elongated ridges, circular, or the extended
corners of weld nuts. Two round wires placed together at 90 degrees form a point contact.
• When the mating parts are brought together these projections concentrate the current flow and
generate the heat in these locations. When the projections get hot, they collapse as the weld
nugget forms. Used for mechanical fixing of autobody structures.

Advantages
• This welding requires a very small supply of current and thus, it saves the electricity usage, less
electricity requirement and a longer electrode life.
• Limitation on the thickness of the metal in spot welding. But in this welding, almost metals of all
thickness are welded.
• It can be used effectively for welding of the joints which are on the complicate locations.
• This welding gives a good heat balance while welding.
Disadvantages
• This welding process is not applicable for some types of the coppers and brasses.
• Projection formation is a quite complicated process and it takes time to form the projections.
• It is very difficult to form the spherical projection and a skilled person is required to form such
projections. While making those projections, a height of the projection has to be maintained
properly.
• This process is not applicable to all types of workpieces. The composition of the metal
workpieces has to be considered while this process and it has some limitations.
Application
• Automobile industry uses projection welding to a very large extent.
• This welding process is also used for the fan covers and hollow metal doors.
• It is also used for producing the compressor parts and for the semi-conductors.
• Have you heard about the diamond segment welding? In the diamond segment welding,
projection welding finds its applications.

Resistance Seam welding: -

• Seam welding: Continuous weld made by weld bead or a series of overlapping weld laps.
• Seam welding uses a roll for the purpose of welding in place of stick. The process of adjoining of
two objects is different from other types of welding that is spot welding. Here the operation is
carried out is regularly and the seams that are made are straight or in a curved line.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• This process is suitable to weld almost every type of metal, except for copper and copper alloys.
• Continuous motion seam welding and Intermittent motion seam welding are two methods.
• Used for the attachment of body structure bodyside to the roof.

Application
• It used to production of seam welded pipes as well tubing, the technique is also used to fabricating
various types of sheet metal containers.
• It is most commonly used for fabricating gas-tight or liquid sheet metal comprising of gasoline
tanks and heat exchanges and it is also widely used with automobile mufflers, filters components.
• Seam welding is continuous spot welding and it basically produces seamless welds and proves
effective against metal like aluminum, titanium, tungsten as well as stainless steel.
Advantages
• It makes it quite simpler for affixing gas-tight or liquid containers quite easily. When a continuous
overlapping is produced with the help of seam welding.
• It is used for the purpose of making gaseous or liquid joints for applications in sheet metal
fabrications. It is also utilized at the time of making tin cans, domestic radiators, steel drums.
• Seam welding is more or less similar to spot welding. Difference between two is, it uses disc-
shaped electrodes to fabricate or weld seems those are straight or have regular curvature.
• It is quite easier and requires lower operator skills when compared with other welding process.
higher rate of production can be achieved along with good repeatability and reliability.
• Seam welded objects witness lower overlapping in comparison to spot or projection welds.
Disadvantages
• The welding process is restricted to a straight line or uniformly curved line.
• The metals sheets having thickness more than 3mm can cause problems while welding.
• The design of the electrodes may be needed to change to weld metal sheets having obstructions.

Gas Welding: -
• Gas Welding is utilizing heat of the flame from a welding torch. The torch mixes a fuel gas
with Oxygen in the proper ratio & flow rate providing combustion process at a required
temperature. Gas welding is possible with or without filler metal.
• The flame temperature is determined by a type of the fuel gas and proportion of oxygen in the
combustion mixture: 4500°F - 6300°F (2500°C - 3500°C). Depending on the proportion of the fuel
gas and oxygen in the combustion mixture, the flame may be chemically neutral (stoichiometric
content of the gases), oxidizing (excess of oxygen), carburizing (excess of fuel gas).
• Filler rod is used when an additional supply of metal to weld is required. Shielding flux may be
used if protection of weld pool is necessary.
• Most of commercial metals may be welded by Gas Welding excluding reactive metals
(titanium, zirconium) and refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum).
Gas Welding equipment:
• Fuel gas cylinder with pressure regulator, Oxygen cylinder with pressure regulator.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• Welding torch, Blue oxygen hose, Red fuel gas hose.
• Trolley for transportation of the gas cylinders.
Applications:
• Repair works: One of the most common applications of gas welding is for repair works.
• Fabrication of sheet metal: Thin to medium sheet metals are easily weld using gas welding.
• Aircraft industry: Oxy-Acetylene welding is used in joining various aircraft parts.
• Automotive industry: Used to weld parts of the frame and the chassis.
• Joining High carbon Steel: Gas welding is very effective in melting high carbon steel.
Advantages:
• Weld ferrous and non-ferrous metals: One of the great strengths of gas welding is that it can
weld non-ferrous and ferrous metals together.
• No requirement for electricity: When we compare gas welding to the other popular weld
methods like arc welding, gas welding does not require any electricity to operate. Hence, you
can use gas welding in places that do not have access to electricity.
• Cheap Equipment costs: The initial capital for gas welding is very low as it doesn’t require
specialized machinery.
• Doesn’t require specialized labor: Gas welding doesn’t require highly specialized labor. This
makes it easier to find gas welders, as well as keeps the labor charge low.
• Portable equipment: The whole setup for Gas Welding is easily portable.
Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for thick sections.
• Cannot be used for high strength steel.
• The slow rate of heating.
• Cannot reach the temperatures of arc welding.
• Doesn’t have a dedicated flux shielding system.

Oxyacetylene Welding:
• Gas welding uses the heat from a concentrated flame to melt metals and then join them.
• The flame is controlled using a welding torch. An oxygen gas canister and a fuel gas canister are
connected to the welding torch. The welder can control the flame by controlling the number of
gases fed to the torch using a pressure regulator.
• Most commonly, we see a gas combination of Oxygen and Acetylene which is capable of
producing 3200°C. Other fuel gases that are also seen in gas welding are Hydrogen, Butane, &
Propane.
Applications:
• Fabrication of sheet metal. Automobile and aircraft industries.
• Joining ferrous and non-ferrous metals & Joining thin metals.
Advantages:
• Easily portable equipment, Superior flame control.
• Low cost and maintenance, can also be used for Gas Cutting, Cheaper equipment cost.

Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for very think sections, Lower temperatures than arc welding.
• Harder to flux shield, No suitable for reactive metals.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW):
• Oxyhydrogen Welding is a Gas Welding process using a combustion mixture of Hydrogen (H2)
and oxygen (O2) for producing gas welding flame. Oxyacetylene flame has a temperature of
about 4500°F(2500°C).
• Combustion reaction is as follows: 2H2 + O2 =2H2O
• Oxyhydrogen Welding is used for joining metals with low melting points,
like Aluminium, Magnesium etc.

Pressure Gas Welding (PGW):

• PGW is a Gas Welding, in which the welded parts are pressed to each other when heated by a
gas flame. The process is similar to Resistance Butt Welding. Pressure Gas Welding does not
require filler material. Pressure gas welding is used for joining pipes, rods, railroad rails.
• This is an oxy-fuel welding process producing a weld simultaneously over the entire faying
surfaces with the application of pressure and without filler metal.
• There are two types of pressure gas welding according to the pressure level of gas.
1 Low pressure Gas Welding (LPGW), Pressure is below the atmospheric (0.1 Bar).
2 High pressure Gas Welding (HPGW), Pressure is above the atmospheric (up to 2 Bar).

• Heat each reinforce bar at cross section by acetylene and oxygen mixture gas at about 1200 -
1300 degrees and put the pressure, then join each bar firmly. Bars are steel, hence welding stick
each reinforce bar by their join of crystal.
• Then use heat to make re-arrangement of each atom easily at each reinforce bar joining both
atoms start to move actively by heating at once and also change structure of crystal as before
then diffuse.
Advantages:
• Portability, Versatility.
• Economical for simple and low-quality work.
Limitation:
• Very thin plates cannot weld & Lower strength.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

Solid State Welding (SSW): -
SSW in which two work pieces are joined under a pressure providing an intimate contact between
them and at a temperature essentially below the melting point of the parent material. Bonding of
the materials is a result of diffusion of their interface atoms.
Advantages:
• Weld is free from microstructure defects (pores, non-metallic inclusions, segregation of Alloying
elements). Mechanical properties of the weld are similar to those of the parent metals.
• No consumable materials (filler material, fluxes, shielding gases) are required.
• Dissimilar metals may be joined (Steel, Aluminium alloy steel, Copper alloy).
Disadvantages:
• Thorough surface preparation is required (degreasing, oxides removal, brushing/sanding).
• Expensive equipment.

Forge Welding (FOW):

• Forge Welding is a SSW process, in which low carbon steel parts are heated to about 1800°F
(1000°C) and then forged (hammered), Prior to Forge Welding, the parts are scarfed in order to
prevent entrapment of oxides in the joint.
• Forge Welding is used in general blacksmith shops and for manufacturing metal art pieces and
welded tubes.

Advantages:
• Good quality weld may be obtained.
• Parts of intricate shape may be welded.
• No filler material is required.
Disadvantages:
• Only low Carbon steel may be welded.
• High level of the operator’s skill is required.
• Slow welding process.
• Weld may be contaminated by the coke used in heating furnace.

Cold Welding (CW):

• It is an SSW, in which two work pieces are joined together at room temperature and under
pressure, causing formation of the substantial deformation of the welded parts and providing
intimate contact between the welded surface.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• Aluminium alloy, Copper alloy, low carbon steel, Nickel alloy, and Ductile metals may be welded
by cold welding.
• Cold Welding is widely used for manufacturing bi-metal steel - aluminum alloy strips, for cladding
of aluminum alloy strips by other aluminum alloys or pure aluminum (Corrosion protection
coating). Bi-metal strips are produced by Rolling technology. Presses are also used for Cold
Welding.

Friction Welding (FRW):

• It is an SSW process, in which two cylindrical pats are brought in contact by fiction pressure when
one of them rotates. Friction between the parts results in heating their ends. Forge pressure is
then applied to the pieces resulting the joints.
• Carbon steels, Alloy steels, Tool and de steels, Stainless steels, Aluminium steels, Copper alloys,
Magnesium alloys, Nickel alloys, Titanium alloys my joined by friction welding.

Explosive Welding (EXW):

• Explosive Welding is an SSW, in which welded parts (plates) are metallurgically bonded as a
result of oblique impact pressure exerted on them by a controlled detonation of an explosive
charge.
• One of the welded parts is rested on an anvil, the second part (flyer plate) is located above the
base plate with an angled or constant interface clearance. Explosive charge is placed on the flyer
plate.
• Detonation starts at an edge of the plate and propagates at high velocity along the plate.
The maximum detonation velocity is about 120% of the material sonic velocity. The slags (oxides,
nitrides and other contaminants) are expelled by the jet created just ahead of the bonding front.

• It is used for manufacturing clad tubes and pipes, pressure vessels, aerospace structures, heat
exchangers, bi-metal sliding bearings, ship structures, weld transitions, corrosion resistant
chemical process tanks.
• Dissimilar metals may be joined by Explosive Welding: Copper to steel, Nickel o steel, Aluminium
to steel, Tungsten to steel, Titanium to steel, Copper to aluminium.
• It is used for manufacturing clad tubes and pipes, pressure vessels, aerospace structures, heat
exchangers, bi-metal sliding bearings, ship structures, weld transitions, corrosion resistant
chemical process tanks.
Advantages:
• Large surfaces may be welded. Low cost and simple process & Surface preparation is not
required.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

• High quality bonding: high strength, no distortions, no porosity, no change of the metal
microstructure.
Disadvantages:
• Brittle materials (low ductility and low impact toughness) cannot be processed.
• Only simple shape parts may be bonded: plates, cylinders.
• Thickness of flyer plate is limited - less than 2.5” (63 mm).
• Safety and security aspects of storage and using explosives.

Diffusion Welding (DFW):

• It is an SSW, in which pressure applied to two work pieces with carefully cleaned surfaces and at
an elevated temperature below the melting point of the metals. Bonding of the materials is a
result of mutual diffusion of their interface atoms.
• In order to keep the bonded surfaces, clean from oxides and other air contaminations, the
process is often conducted in vacuum. No appreciable deformation of the work pieces occurs in
Diffusion Welding.
• Diffusion Welding is able to bond dissimilar metals: Steel to tungsten, Steel to niobium, Stainless
steel to titanium, Gold to copper alloys.
• Diffusion Welding is used in aerospace and rocketry industries, electronics, nuclear applications,
manufacturing Composite material.

Advantages:
• Dissimilar materials may be welded (Metals, Ceramics, Graphite, glass).
• Welds of high quality are obtained (no pores, inclusions, chemical segregation, distortions).
• No limitation in the work pieces thickness.
Disadvantages:
• Time consuming process with low productivity.
• Very thorough surface preparation is required prior to welding process.
• The mating surfaces must be precisely fitted to each other.
• Relatively high initial investments in equipment.

ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW):

• It is an SSW, in which two work pieces are bonded as a result of a pressure exerted to the welded
parts combined with application of high frequency acoustic vibration (ultrasonic).
• Ultrasonic vibration causes friction between the parts, which results in a closer contact between
the two surfaces with simultaneous local heating of the contact area. Interatomic bonds, formed
under these conditions, provide strong joint.
• Ultrasonic cycle takes about 1 sec. The frequency of acoustic vibrations is in the range 20 to 70
KHz. Thickness of the welded parts is limited by the power of the ultrasonic generator.
• Ultrasonic Welding is used mainly for bonding small work pieces in electronics, for
manufacturing communication devices, medical tools, watches, in automotive industry.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR

Advantages:
• Dissimilar metals may be joined. Very low deformation of the work pieces surfaces.
• High quality weld is obtained. The process may be integrated into automated production lines.
• Moderate operator skill level is enough.
Disadvantages:
• Only small and thin parts may be welded.
• Work pieces and equipment components may fatigue at the reciprocating loads provided by
ultrasonic vibration.
• Work pieces may bond to the anvil.

LASER WELDING:
• It utilizes a laser beam as a concentrated heat source to join multiple pieces together, delivering
a focused heat source, laser welding creates a strong seam at a high speed. The welding energy
required for the welding process is supplied by the laser beam generated in the laser system.
• The thermal conduction of an alloy also plays an important role, the energy required for laser
welding is higher, with higher conductivity of the processed material, with higher reflection of
the processed workpiece, with increasing penetration depth of the laser beam
• with increasing diameter of the laser beam to protect the processed welding location on the
workpiece from oxidation, it is flushed with highly pure argon gas during the entire welding
process.
• Laser welding automotive parts – such as roof, door or filter assemblies. Also used in the jewelry
and medical industries to put together metals on a smaller level.
• Any material with a high heat conductivity can be laser welded, whether it’s for an automobile
or a small medical/jewelry item. Laser welding is also frequently used in high capacity
manufacturing in the medical and automotive industries.
Advantages:
• Ultimate precision, Capable of creating complicated joins, Low heat application, Consistent and
repeatable welds, High strength welds, Manufacture from laser prototypes to mass production.
• High-quality laser solutions, for example for machine assembly or creation of jewelry.
• Laser marking and laser lettering work can be performed on nearly all materials.
• The whole welding process can be easily automated using a CAD/CAM setup.
• No electrode is used in the process, no form of tool wear occurs.
• Laser welding is highly specific in targeting, High-quality welds are obtained.

WELDING | BY SHAHABUDDIN KAMMAR