Accepted Manuscript

Title: Emotional Development in the Context of Mother-Child

Relationships

Author: Tom Hollenstein Alexandra B. Tighe Jessica P.

Lougheed

PII: S2352-250X(16)30238-X
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.010
Reference: COPSYC 493

To appear in:

Received date: 23-12-2016

Revised date: 7-7-2017
Accepted date: 11-7-2017

Please cite this article as: T. Hollenstein, A.B. Tighe, J.P. Lougheed, Emotional
Development in the Context of Mother-Child Relationships, COPSYC (2017),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.010

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
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Highlights
-How dyads move in and out of emotions together predicts children’s outcomes
-Current research integrates cognitive, behavioral, and physiological processes
- Methodological advances enable modeling real-world emotional parent-child experiences
- There is evidence for the transmission of autonomic arousal between mother and child

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-Advanced modeling tests new theory on emotion dynamics between mother and child

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Emotional Development in the Context of Mother-Child Relationships

Tom Hollenstein1
Alexandra B. Tighe1

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Jessica P. Lougheed2

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Addresses
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Queen’s University, Canada
2
The Pennsylvania State University, United States an
Corresponding author: Tom Hollenstein (tom.hollenstein@queensu.ca)
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Abstract

Emotions are generated and regulated in the context of close relationships, such as mother-child
relationships. Children’s emotional development is primarily directed by mother-child emotional

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processes. In the current review, we examine the advances in understanding how mother-child

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relationships impact emotion development. In particular, we explore novel and advanced
techniques in measurement and design, autonomic psychophysiology, the structure of emotion
socialization, and modeling of parent-child dynamics. As these innovations continue to progress,

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we expect that theoretical models of emotional development will be further refined.

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Emotional Development in the Context of Mother-Child Relationships

The mother-child relationship is central to the development of children’s emotions and

their regulation. Development progresses from infancy through childhood from a dependence on

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caregivers to co-regulate emotions towards the ability to self-regulate [1]. Mother-child emotion

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dynamics—the ebbs and flows of emotions over time—lay the foundation of what later becomes

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individual differences in the ability to regulate emotions in childhood and adolescence [2].

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However, most research to date on emotional development in mother-child relationships have

used methods for measurement (e.g., self-report questionnaires) and analysis (e.g., linear

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regression) that obscure the dynamic nature of emotions. Recent methodological advances are

enabling examinations mother-child emotion dynamics that are both more nuanced and
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ecologically valid than traditional methods. Our review will focus on innovations in several key

areas: measurement and design, the expression and regulation of positive emotions, autonomic
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psychophysiology, the structure of emotion socialization, and advanced modeling of parent-child

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dynamics.
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Measurement and Design

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One difficulty of emotion research is determining how to ethically elicit emotions and

measure them as they rise and fall. Several innovative techniques have been adapted or
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developed in recent years. First, with young children, it is of interest to examine emotion

dynamics while being able to separate the impact of self-regulation from caregiver co-regulation.

Caregiver sensitivity to infants’ distress is a well-established factor of emotional development [3,

4]; however, because of the bidirectional relationship – infants influence caregiver behavior as

much as caregivers influence infants – it has been difficult to attribute the effects of caregiver

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sensitivity to the caregiver alone. Infant simulators – realistic babies that can be programmed for

variations in emotionality, typically used to instruct high school students on the demands of

parenthood -- provide opportunities to experimentally manipulate infant behavior and measure

parental responses. The Leiden Infant Simulator Sensitivity Assessment (LISSA)[3,4] was

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developed to assess caregiver sensitivity. Maternal sensitivity with one’s own child was

correlated with maternal sensitivity to the simulator, but this association was not moderated by

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maternal ratings of their own child’s emotionality [3]. This new simulation application holds

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great promise for future examinations of individual differences related to psychopathology, age,

or epigenetics as researchers can control the intensity, rate of emotional escalation, and source of
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distress (e.g., hunger, diaper), while disentangling the influences of self- and co-regulation.

Second, emotion is comprised of multiple processes (i.e., behavioral, physiological,

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cognitive), yet research rarely focuses on more than one of these at a time. Several recent

innovative designs have emerged to capture multimodal emotional processes [5,6]. In the Parent-
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Child Challenge Task, mothers and children are instructed to complete difficult tasks such as
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puzzles, and task difficulty can be escalated through a surprising perturbation (suddenly reducing

time to complete task) to reveal emotional dynamics of expression, goal-directed behavior, and
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psychophysiology [6]. One advantage of this design is that it elicits both self- and co-regulation

simultaneously. In one study, the perturbation elicited greater child negativity and variability in
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dyadic emotional expressions, and less parental teaching and variability of dyadic behaviors.

Designs such extend past findings on only one process to show the complex interactions among

multiple processes.

Finally, technology has allowed research to move further beyond short-term naturalistic

observations of children’s emotion (e.g., video-recorded parent-child interactions) to capture

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emotional behavior in children’s day-to-day lives. One promising new measurement is the

passive recording of audio on a digital recorder, which allows for unobtrusive recording over

hours or days that would not be possible with video. Electronically Activated Recording (EAR)

has been used to examine mother and child positive behaviors [7], negative behaviors [8,9],

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family conflict [10,11], and children’s psychological recovery after injury[12]. For example, in

the Slatcher and Trentacosta studies [8,9], pre-school children wore a special shirt with the

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digital recording device secured in a pocket for two 1-day periods. In support of theoretical

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models of susceptibility and risk, parent and child tendencies to express emotions moderated

associations between maternal negativity and poor child outcomes. With the inevitable increase
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in accessibility and feasibility for research, digital audio and video recording will take

naturalistic observation to the next level, greatly advancing theoretical understanding of mother-
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child emotion dynamics and emotion socialization in situ [13].

Research on Autonomic Psychophysiology Has Come of Age

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As a complement to observations, and because self-report is a challenge with children,

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measures of psychophysiological processes underlying emotions are advantageous. Recent

advances have gone beyond simple examinations of low vs. high autonomic reactivity to
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examine psychophysiology dynamically and dyadically. Several studies have explored

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autonomic variation, typically respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA, an index of parasympathetic

activity thought to underlie emotion regulation processes), in relation to mother-child synchrony

[14, 15,16]. Physiological synchrony is considered an indicator of how emotionally responsive

mothers and children are to each other. Synchrony can be positive (as when both partners’

arousal changes together in the same direction) or negative (partners’ arousal diverges from one

another). Although some have examined average RSA’s relation to expressive synchrony [e.g.,

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14], a few have investigated the synchrony of mother-child RSA time series [e.g. 15,16]. For

example, Lunkenheimer and colleagues[37] examined mother-toddler co-regulation using

multilevel coupled autoregressive models, and showed overall positive co-regulation among

mothers’ and their toddlers’ RSA, but that dyads with children who have externalizing behavior

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problems showed “negative co-regulation”.

Dyadic autonomic reactivity has also been conceptualized as arousal attenuation, as

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decreases in partners’ arousal over time during a stressful situation [17]. Lougheed and

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colleagues[18] examined mother-adolescent dyads arousal attenuation as an indicator of the

degree to which emotions were regulated in close relationships[19], while the daughter
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experienced an emotional challenge in a public speaking task. Dyads were randomly assigned to

hold hands or not during daughters’ speeches, with the expectation that physical touch would
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convey more support and more arousal attenuation. Analysis of the mothers’ and daughters’ time

series revealed that low relationship quality dyads in the no touch condition showed the highest
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arousal and the least attenuation over the course of the task. Thus, having a close relationship
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functioned in much the same way as physical touch to reduce distress.

The Structure of Emotion Socialization

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The structure of emotion socialization—the patterns of bidirectional influences between

mothers and children—has been a theoretical cornerstone for decades[20], yet most studies still
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focus on unidirectional maternal influences on children[e.g., 21]. As an exception, Premo and

Kiel [22] showed how infant behaviors elicited emotion socialization from their mothers.

However, greater theoretical emphasis on dynamic systems modeling has moved the discussion

of bidirectionality beyond an additive combination of unidirectional influence (i.e.,

Mother child plus child mother) into consideration of the self-organizing or cascading

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dynamics that unfold in the parent-child system[2,23]. This shift has recently resulted in studies

adopting dynamic systems approaches to emotional development in mother-child dyads [e.g., 24,

25, 26, 27]. Several key aspects of the structure of emotion socialization have emerged from

these results.

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First, these studies examine the dyad as the unit of analysis. In fact, one study directly

compared dyadic versus individual measures of mother-child emotional flexibility (a key

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structural variable often indexed by measures such as number of transitions) and found that

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dyadic measures were better predictors of both mothers’ and adolescents’ depressive symptoms 6

years later[27]. Second, content-free structural patterns of mother-child emotion dynamics, such
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as the range of and transitions among dyadic states regardless of emotional valence, have

predicted psychosocial functioning of infants[e.g., 24], toddlers[e.g., 6], school-age children[e.g.,

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26], and adolescents[5]. Thus, despite the intuitive expectation that content (e.g., more negative

emotions) is the core indicator of functioning, dynamics of how and when these emotional states
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rise and fall are just as important. Third, these approaches have been extended to family triads
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(e.g., mother, father, and child). Rather than extracting individual behavior from triadic

interactions[e.g., 28], triads have been examined as a unit to reveal dynamic differences between
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families with depressed or non-depressed adolescents[25]. Finally, we know that negative

emotionality conveys risk and positive emotionality conveys resilience for children, but these
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studies have shown that it is not the absence of negativity but the structure, or how negativity and

positivity are expressed and unfold over time, that matters most[29,26].

Insights from Advanced Modeling

Advances in statistical modeling of emotions have made a significant impact on the field

in recent years. Person-centered approaches are more common in the field generally[30], and

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recently have been used to examine individual differences in emotional responses during mother-

child interactions[e.g., 31,32]. Building on previous research on the emotion regulation profiles

of children and adolescents[33,34,35], this approach involves using latent profile analysis (LPA)

to find homogeneous patterns among several variables. Turpyn and colleagues[32] used LPA to

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examine patterns among adolescents’ expressions of negative and positive emotions, self-

reported experience of anxiety and anger, and heart rate (HR) reactivity during a conflict task

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with their mothers. Four profiles indicating different emotional responses were identified: Low

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Reactive, High Reactive, Suppression, and Moderate HR with High Expression. Profile group

membership differentiated likelihood of internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and negative

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parenting. With younger children, Hooper and colleagues[31] used LPA to examine maternal

responses during two interactions with their children (cleaning-up and playing with a toy) via
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positive emotion expressions, and maternal self-reports of stress (frequency and intensity),

depressive symptoms, and positive and negative emotionality. Four maternal profiles were
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identified: Happy, Melancholic, Stressed, and Struggling. One primary finding was that children
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of the mothers in the Struggling group (high stress and depression) expressed more negative
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emotion during the positive play task. The growing use of person-centered approaches are a
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welcomed advance for examining emotional responses during mother-child interactions;

however, a truly dyadic-centered approach, with variables from both mother and child in the
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LPA, has yet to be attempted. This would be another means to tap into dyadic patterns of

mother-child behavior.

Another recent advance is in time-series approaches to capture emotion dynamics. Many

studies utilizing time-series approaches estimated the degree of influence that mother and child

had on each other[29, 36,37,38,39]. Three aspects of these approaches are worth noting. First,

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these models include both intra- and inter-individual processes simultaneously. For example,

adapting the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM)[40], Crowell and colleagues[41]

showed that dyads with depressed adolescents showed greater within-person concordance of

RSA and observed aversiveness during conflict interactions, whereas dyads with typically

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developing adolescents showed greater between-person concordance (e.g., matching RSA).

Hence, greater coupling of emotional processes within individuals is possibly more problematic

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than coupling of emotional processes with one’s interaction partner.

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Second, time series models can incorporate time more directly than models of two-step

contingencies (child does X, parent does Y). For example, multilevel survival analysis
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(MSA)[42] estimates likelihood of transitioning into specific states based on both the time since

the last transition and other dynamic influences. For example, Lunkenheimer and colleagues[39]
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used MSA to better understand mixed findings on inconsistent parenting behaviors. They

showed mothers in poor functioning dyads overall tended to be overly consistent (i.e., rigid) with
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their behavior except when the child was misbehaving, when these mothers were inconsistent. In
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a series of studies examining children’s emotional expressions and maternal supportiveness,

Lougheed and colleagues used MSA to show that, compared to dyads with typically developing
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children, mothers of children with externalizing problems were less contingent in responding to

their children’s negative emotions with support and that maternal supportiveness for
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externalizing children was less effective in helping these children resolve negative emotions

[38]. In two other studies, maternal supportiveness in response to any adolescent emotion was

lower in dyads with depressive adolescents[36], and mothers of early maturing daughters

responded with greater supportive regulation to daughters’ positive and negative emotions[37].

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The growing accessibility of MSA allows for greater specificity in testing hypotheses about the

moment-to-moment processes that comprise the socialization of children’s emotions.

Finally, emotional development occurs through the repeated occurrences of emotion-

related opportunities to practice real-time emotion and regulation across hours, days, weeks,

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months, and years[,43]. Indeed, this is the fundamental developmental question: how do

moment-to-moment processes become stable habits and patterns over time? Answering this

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question requires examinations of dynamics at multiple time scales. The emotional rollercoaster

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task, a series of five 3-minute discussions about times when the dyad felt happy, sad/worried,

proud, frustrated/annoyed, and grateful toward or with one another, was designed to test dyadic
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emotional flexibility at several time scales [5]. Real-time flexibility derived from mother and

child expressed emotions within discussions (e.g., the number of transitions between emotional
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states) can be compared with flexible adaptation to changes in context (the rollercoaster of five

discussions alternating by valence). Using multivariate latent growth class analysis, the dynamics
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at both time scales could be modeled to show how rigidity was associated with maternal
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depressive symptoms and mother-daughter relationship quality[5]. Repetition of this task

longitudinally would add a third time scale to further understand the development of these
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mother-child emotional processes.

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Conclusions

Discoveries in emotion development in mother-child relationships continue to advance

the field. Here, we have reviewed many of the most interesting, novel, and insightful studies. We

believe the future of the field lies in greater specificity of emotion processes and limiting reliance

on self-report measures. There is also a great deal of expansion to different populations, such as

families from understudied cultural backgrounds [e.g., 44] and children with diagnoses other

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than externalizing and internalizing problems (e.g., ASD)[45]. With these broader and deeper

findings, we expect that theoretical models of emotional development will soon be refined.

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References and Recommended Reading

Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as:
* of special interest

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** of outstanding interest

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This comprehensive review addresses several key developments in emotion regulation research.
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2. Granic, I. (2005). Timing is everything: Developmental psychopathology from a dynamic
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simulator as your own baby. Infant Child Dev, 24(3), 220-227. doi:10.1002/icd.1905
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* 5. Lougheed, J. P., & Hollenstein, T. (2016). Socioemotional flexibility in mother-daughter

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The novel emotional rollercoaster task used in this study allows for the study of dyadic emotion
regulation at multiple time scales (i.e., within and across contexts) and within discrete emotion
contexts. The results demonstrate that dyadic emotional rigidity is associated with higher
maternal depressive symptoms and lower mother-daughter relationship quality.

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6. Lunkenheimer, E., Kemp, C. J., Lucas-Thompson, R. G, Cole, P. M., & Albrech, E. C. (2016).
Assessing biobehavioural self-regulation and coregulation in early childhood: The parent-child
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7. Imami, L., Tobin, E. T., Kane, H. S., Saleh, D. J., Lupro, T. H., & Slatcher, R. B. (2014).
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** 15. Giuliano, R. J., Skowron, E. A., & Berkman, E. T. (2015). Growth models of dyadic
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The authors used cutting-edge multilevel modeling techniques to investigate dynamic changes in

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of the biological correlates of parenting-at-risk.

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The authors used person-centered approaches to detect patterns among a number of emotion
e

measures. Specifically, they apply latent profile analysis to examine the expression of emotion,
experience of anxiety and anger, and heart rate reactivity in adolescents during a conflict task,
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and extract four unique profiles of emotion regulation indicating individual differences in
adolescent emotion regulation during conflicts with their mothers.
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33. Lougheed, J. P., & Hollenstein, T. (2012). A limited repertoire of emotion regulation
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* 36. Lougheed, J. P., Craig, W. M., Pepler, D., Connolly, J., O’Hara, A., Granic, I., &
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depressive symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 44(5), 1-12. doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0084-x

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The authors used a cutting-edge approach in event-based time-series analysis—multilevel
survival analysis—to investigate real-time maternal and peer socialization of adolescent
emotions. The reported evidence underscores the role of maternal supportiveness, such that

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maternal supportiveness in response to any adolescent emotion was lower for adolescents with
depressive symptoms.

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37. Lougheed, J. P., Hollenstein, T., & Lewis, M. D. (2015). Maternal regulation of daughters'
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38. Lougheed, J. P., Hollenstein, T., Lichtwarck-Aschoff, A., & Granic, I. (2015). Maternal
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regulation of child affect in externalizing and typically-developing children. J Fam Psychol,

29(1), 10-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038429
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* 39. Lunkenheimer, E., Lichtwarck-Aschoff, A., Hollenstein, T., Kemp, C. J., & Granic, I.
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variability in parental responses to child misbehavior. Parent Sci Pract, 16(4), 1-39.
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The authors use multilevel survival analysis to address the inconsistent findings on the role of
parenting behaviors and risk factors for coercion in the mother-child coercive cycle. In
particular, they show that mothers in poor functioning dyads tend to be rigid in parenting overall,
yet also react inconsistently and ineffectively in response to child misbehavior.

40. Cook, W. L., & Kenny, D. A. (2005). The actor–partner interdependence model: A model of
bidirectional effects in developmental studies. Int J Behav Dev, 29(2), 101-109.
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41. Crowell, S. E., Baucom, B. R., Yaptangco, M., Bride, D., Hsiao, R., McCauley, E., &
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adolescents: Evaluating concordance across psychophysiological and observational measures.
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* 42. Stoolmiller, M. (2016). An introduction to using multivariate multilevel survival analysis to
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Coercive Relationship Dynamics (363-377). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

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This chapter provides an excellent overview of the application of multilevel survival analysis to
research on emotion development and regulation. Particularly, the author outlines research using
multivariate multilevel survival analysis to study hazard rates of observed emotional behavior in
coercive family processes.
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43. Hollenstein, T. (2015). This time, it’s real: Affective flexibility, time scales, feedback loops,
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and the regulation of emotion. EMOT REV, 7(4), 308-315. doi: 10.1177/1754073915590621

44. Lindsey, E. W., Caldera, Y. M., & Rivera, M. (2013). Mother–child and father–child
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emotional expressiveness in Mexican-American families and toddlers' peer interactions. Early

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Child Dev Care, 183(3-4), 378-393. doi:10.1080/03004430.2012.711589

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45. Hirschler-Guttenberg, Y., Feldman, R., Ostfeld-Etzion, S., Laor, N., & Golan, O. (2015).
Self-and co-regulation of anger and fear in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders: the role
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of maternal parenting style and temperament. J Autism Dev Disord, 45(9), 3004-3014.
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Current Opinion Conflict of Interest Statement

All authors of this manuscript have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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