Chapter 7 Spread-Spectrum

Modulation

Spread Spectrum Technique simply consumes

spectrum in excess of the minimum spectrum
necessary to send the data.

7.1 Introduction
o Definition of spread-spectrum modulation
n Weakly sense
o Occupy a bandwidth that is much larger than the
minimum bandwidth (1/2T) necessary to transmit a
data sequence.
n Strict sense
o Spectrum is spreading by means of a pseudo-white
or pseudo-noise code.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-2

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7.2 Pseudo-noise sequences
o A (digital) code sequence that mimics the (second-order)
statistical behavior of a white noise.
o For example,
n balance property
n run property
n correlation property
o From implementation standpoint, the most convenient way
to generate a pseudo-noise sequence is to employ several
shift-registers and a feedback through combinational logic.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-3

7.2 Pseudo-noise sequences

Exemplified block diagram of PN sequence generators

n Feedback shift register becomes “linear” if the feedback

logic consists entirely of modulo-2 adders.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-4

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7.2 Pseudo-noise sequences
o Example of linear feedback shift register

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-5

7.2 Pseudo-noise sequences

o A PN sequence generated by a (possibly non-linear)
feedback shift register must eventually become periodic
with period at most 2m, where m is the number of shift
registers.
o A PN sequence generated by a linear feedback shift register
must eventually become periodic with period at most 2m - 1,
where m is the number of shift registers.
o A PN sequence whose period reaches its maximum value is
named the maximum-length sequence or simply m-sequence.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-6

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7.2 Pseudo-noise sequences
o A maximum-length sequence generated from a linear shift
register satisfies all three properties:
n Balance property
o The number of 1s is one more than that of 0s.
n Run property (total number of runs = 2m-1)
o ½ of the runs is of length 1
o ¼ of the runs is of length 2
o …

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-7

7.2 Pseudo-noise sequences

n Correlation property c(t)

o Autocorrelation of an
ideal discrete white
process = a·d[t], where
d[t] is the Kronecker
delta function.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-8

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7.2 Pseudo-noise
sequences
o Power spectrum view

Suppose c(t) is perfectly white with

c2(t) = 1. Then,

m(t) = b(t)c(t) and b(t) = m(t)c(t).

Question: What will be the power

spectrum of m(t)?

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-9

7.3 A notion of spread spectrum

b(t) m(t) b(t)

c(t) c(t)
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7.2 Pseudo-noise sequences
o Please self-study Example 7.2 for m-sequences.
n Its understanding will be part of the exam.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-11

7.3 A notion of spread spectrum

Make the transmitted signal to hide
behind the background noise.

b(t) m(t) b(t)

c(t) c(t)
Spreading code
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o Example
n Recall Slides 6-35 ~ 6-38

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-13

n Noting that

we obtain

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© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-15

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 7.3 A notion of spread spectrum

Lowpass filter
that (only) allows
signal b(t) to pass!
transmitter channel receiver

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-17

7.4 Direct-sequence spread spectrum with

coherent binary phase-shift keying
o DSSS system

transmitter

receiver

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-18

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© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-19

(As the conceptual system below.)

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-20

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 7.5 Signal-space dimensionality and processing
gain
o SNR before spreading Assume “coherent detection”.
In other words, perfect
o SNR after spreading synchronization and no phase
mismatch.

o Orthonormal basis used at the receiver end

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-21

o SNR before spreading

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o SNR after spreading

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-23

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© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-25

Mismatch with the text in SNRI

o SNR before spreading Assume “coherent detection”.
In other words, perfect
o SNR after spreading synchronization but with
phase mismatch.

o Orthonormal basis used at the receiver end

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-26

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o SNR before spreading

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-27

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o SNR after spreading

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-29

Same as Slides 7-20 and 7-21, we derive

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-30

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7.6 Probability of error
The analysis for SNRI and SNRO assumes perfectly white noise
j(t) for simplicity. Note that a white noise j(t) has infinite power
such that j(t) and c(t)j(t) will have the same PSD !

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-31

Slide 6-32 said that

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-32

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6.3 Coherent phase-shift keying – Error
probability
o Error probability of Binary PSK
n Based on the decision rule

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 6-32

7-33

7.6 Probability of error

o Comparing system performances with/without spreading,
we obtain:

o With P = Eb/Tb, where P is the average signal power,

n J/P is termed the jamming margin (required for a

specific error rate).

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-34

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o Example 7.3
n Without spreading, (Eb/N0) required for Pe = 10-5 is
around 10 dB.
n PG = 4095
n Then, Jamming margin for Pe = 10-5 is

n Information bits can be detected subject to the required

error rate, even if the interference level is 409.5 times
larger than the received signal power (in the price of the
transmission speed is 4095 times slower).

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-35

7.7 Frequency-hop spread spectrum

o Basic characterization of frequency hopping
n Slow-frequency hopping

n Fast-frequency hopping

n Chip rate (The smallest unit = Chip)

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-36

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7.7 Frequency-hop
spread spectrum
o A common modulation
scheme for FH systems is
the M-ary frequency-shift
keying

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-37

0
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
The smallest unit
= Chip

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu
Slow-frequency hopping
Chapter 7-38

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7
6
5
4
3
2
1
The smallest unit
= Chip

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu
Fast-frequency hopping
Chapter 7-39

7.7 Frequency-hop spread spectrum

o Fast-frequency hopping is popular in military use because
the transmitted signal hops to a new frequency before the
jammer is able to sense and jam it.
o Two detection rules are generally used in fast-frequency
hopping
n Make decision separately for each chip, and do majority
vote based on these chip-based decisions (Simple)
n Make maximum-likelihood decision based on all chip
receptions (Optimal)

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-40

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7.8 Computer experiments: Maximum-length and
gold codes
o Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
n Each user is assigned a different spreading code.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-41

7.8 Computer experiments: Maximum-length and

gold codes
o So, if

then signal one (i.e., s1) can be exactly reconstructed.

o In practice, it may not be easy to have a big number of PN
sequences satisfying the above equality. Instead, we desire

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-42

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7.8 Computer experiments: Maximum-length and
gold codes
o Gold sequences

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-43

7.8 Computer experiments: Maximum-length and

gold codes
o Gold sequences
n g1(x) and g2(x) are two maximum-length shift-register
sequences of period 2m - 1, whose “cross-correlation”
lies in:

n Then, the structure in previous slide can give us 2m - 1

sequences (by setting different initial value in the shift
registers).
n Together with the two original m-sequences, we have 2m
+ 1 sequences.
© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-44

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7.8 Computer experiments: Maximum-length and
gold codes
o Gold’s theorem
n The cross-correlation between any pair in the 2m +1
sequences also lies in

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-45

o Experiment 1: Correlation properties of PN sequences

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 n Autocorrelation
27 - 1 = 127

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-47

n Cross-correlation of two maximum-length shift-register

(PN) sequences, which are not Gold sequences.

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-48

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o Experiment 2: Correlation properties of Gold sequences

© Po-Ning Chen@cm.nctu Chapter 7-49

n Cross-correlation

15

-1

-17

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