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Sayra Feng Wu

HNSC 2220

Instructor: Nicholas Sayegh

04/06/2021

Food Safety Analysis

1. What are the three forms of food contamination? Define each form and provide several

examples of varying levels of concern for each category.

● Biological hazards - are the microorganisms that existed in the food products and

are involved throughout the food processing. The main sources of biological

contamination are bacteria, viruses, molds, and parasites. Bacteria is the

number-one cause of foodborne illnesses; according to Brown, “more than 90% of

foodborne illnesses are caused by bacteria, but only about 4% of identified

bacteria are pathogenic, … and the remaining 96% are benign” (2019, p.63).

● Chemical hazards - are any type of chemical contamination that is harmful to

health. Some chemical contaminants that possibly contaminated the food products

are plant toxins, animal toxins, certain metals, and food additives that are

unintentionally inserted into the food products (Brown, 2019, table 4-8).

● Physical hazards - are the foreign objects that are not supposed to have in the food

supply. Some examples are hair, glass, bone, metal pieces, woods, stones, false

fingernails, toothpicks, watches, jewelry, and even insects (2019, p.73).

2. Discuss the difference between food infection and toxin-mediated infection. Give

examples of both, researching which is more prevalent within today’s food industry?
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By definition, food infection is a type of illness from ingesting food containing large

numbers of pathogenic microorganisms. Some common bacteria that caused food

infections are Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella species, Shigella species,

Streptococcus pyogenes, and Yersinia enterocolitica (Brown, 2019, table 4-3).

Meanwhile, toxin-mediated infection happens when consuming food with pathogenic

bacteria, and it started to produce the toxin inside the body. The common bacteria that

caused toxin-mediated infections are Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Vibrio

cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus (table 4-5).

According to Gordon, CDC has listed the most common pathogenic bacteria that caused

food infection: Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes; and toxin-mediated infection are

Campylobacter and E. coli (2019). Thus, the latest updates had shown that both types of

illnesses are common within today’s food industry might be caused by

cross-contamination and inadequate sanitation in animals. Therefore, cook the meats

thoroughly and sanitize before and after cooking can greatly reduce the chances of having

the foodborne illness. Also, if possible, recognize the food source and avoid suspicious

unknown food products.

3. Food type, pH or acidity level, moisture content, time left in the temperature danger zone,

and oxygen requirements all contribute to determining whether a food is potentially

hazardous. Discuss these requirements for bacterial growth and their specific

characteristics.

The typical foods for bacterial growth are high levels of proteins and water, such as raw

or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood; dairy; raw eggs, and more (Brown, 2019, fig.
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4-12). These food sources provide a good environment for different kinds of bacteria to

grow. Therefore, the pH level of food must be kept below 4.6 because the high acidity

can prevent most bacteria from growing. Also, food with low moisture content will have

a longer shelf life because “bacteria cannot survive without water; if they dry out, they

die” (p. 78). Similarly, food products that done vacuum packaging have greatly reduced

the chance of growing bacteria in the food. Lastly, it’s always essential that do not leave

the food in the temperature danger zone (40℉ to 140℉) for more than 2 hours

continuously.

4. Define the following terms: Pathogenic, temperature danger zone, and

cross-contamination. Explain how healthy, non-pathogenic bacteria, can become harmful.

● Pathogenic - to describe a microorganism that is capable of causing disease.

● Temperature danger zone - the temperature range that is suitable for bacterial

growth (40℉ to 140℉).

● Cross-contamination - infection of pathogenic microorganisms or food allergens

from one food to another.

As mentioned previously, although 96% of identified bacteria-caused foodborne illnesses

are harmless, they can become harmful too as pathogenic ones. According to an article

from ScienceDaily, harmless bacteria such as E. coli can live initially in the intestine

tract, but E. coli would adapt to the intestinal environment after generations passed. Later

on, E. coli of new generations have evolved to be resistant to the immune system and

started to create toxins in the organisms. Thus, benign bacteria have evolved into

bacterial toxin-mediated infections.

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5. Indicate the following for the agents of the following foodborne illnesses: whether it was

an infection or intoxication; the general symptoms of infection or intoxication; commonly

associated foods; and the severity of the last known outbreak. (Brown, 2019, table 4-2,

4-3, 4-4, 4-5).

Causative agent Infection or General symptoms Commonly Severity of

intoxication? associated foods outbreak

V. vulnificus Bacterial Chills, fever, Raw oysters and Severe

toxin-mediated prostration, and clams hazard level
infections often death

Salmonella Bacterial food Diarrhea, abdominal Raw or Severe to

infections pain, chills, fever, undercooked eggs, extensive
vomiting, raw milk, meat, moderate
dehydration and poultry, fresh hazard level
produce

E. Coli Bacterial Watery and bloody Raw or Extensive

toxin-mediated diarrhea, cramps, undercooked beef, moderate
infections vomiting, fever, raw milk, raw hazard level
dysentery; foods

Staphylococcus Bacterial food Nausea, vomiting, Meat and poultry Limited

aureus intoxications diarrhea, cramps products, ham, moderate
cream-filled hazard level
pastries, whipped
butter, cheese

Listeria Bacterial food Meningoencephaliti Raw milk, soft Extensive

Monocytogenes infections s, stillbirths, cheeses, moderate
septicemia, or vegetables, deli hazard level
meningitis in meats
newborns

Hepatitis A Virus Viral food Fever, weakness, Raw or Severe

infections discomfort, nausea, undercooked hazard level
and often jaundice shellfish,
sandwiches,
salads, etc.
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6. What are three parasites that can cause foodborne illness? How are parasites different

from bacterial foodborne illnesses?

Foodborne parasites are different from foodborne bacteria because parasites need a host

such as living cells to survive. Then they “live and reproduce within the tissues and

organs of infected human and animal hosts” (FSIS, 2017). However, some parasites and

bacteria may be transmitted through human or animal fecal contamination. Therefore, to

prevent this type of contamination from crossing, strict sanitation, and thorough cooking

are necessary.

● Roundworms (Nematodes) - some examples of roundworms are Trichinella

spiralis, Ascaris lumbricoides, Anisakis simplex, and Pseudoterranova decipiens

(Brown, 2019, table 4-7). Thus, the food needs to deep freeze and cook them

thoroughly to avoid consuming these living parasites.

● Protozoa - some examples of this organism are Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium

parvum, Entamoeba histolytica, and Toxoplasma gondii (Brown, 2019, table 4-7).

These protozoans are mostly caused by mishandled foods and raw/undercooked

foods. Therefore, sanitation and cooking time is crucial to prevent consuming

these microorganisms.

● Tapeworms (cestodes) - this category of parasites are commonly seen in the meat

and fish, for example, Taenia saginata (beef), Diphyllobothrium latum (fish), and

Taenia solium (pork) (Brown, 2019, table 4-7). Similarly, these parasites are

avoidable by keeping the food away from the temperature zone and sanitizing it.
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7. Identify three natural toxins which are found in food. (This may require additional

research). In what ways do these natural toxins cause harm to the body? (What are their

mechanisms of action?)

● Ciguatera poisoning - caused by consuming contaminated fish that produce

ciguatoxins. Ciguatoxin causes harm to the body because it is a lipid-soluble

substance, and it “opens voltage-dependent sodium channels in cell membranes

which induces membrane depolarization” (Fleming). It resulted in excitable

membranes and thus increases in “sodium permeability in the nerve cells, and

striated muscle can be counteracted by calcium ions and tetrodotoxins” (Fleming).

Therefore, this mechanism triggers symptoms including nausea, vomiting,

weakness, and if the poisoning develops chronically, it further triggers malaise,

depression, headaches, muscular aches, and paresthesia.

● Lectins - plant lectins consisted of many kinds of beans. Within all, red kidney

beans have the highest concentrations, and consuming as few as “4-5 raw beans

can cause severe stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhoea” (Natural toxins, 2018).

The symptoms are caused by phytohaemagglutinin, a type of plant lectin that

clumps up the red blood cells. Also, lectins can binds to cell membranes of the

digestive tract, thus trigger disruption of intestinal function and malabsorption of

nutrients. If lectins bind to cells chronically, it can cause “inflammatory

conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and type 1 diabetes” (Lectins, 2019).

● Cyanogenic glycosides - the phytotoxins that consisted in more than 2000 plant

species, and within this amount, cassava, bamboo roots, and almonds contain a
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significant amount of cyanogenic glycosides. The toxicity occurs when this

compound releases hydrogen cyanide through chewing and digestion, and these

actions “lead to hydrolysis of the substances, causing cyanide to be released”

(Bolarinwa, 2016). Then, cyanide poisoning happens when consuming a notable

amount (0.5-35 mg of HCN) of cyanogenic glycosides and triggers symptoms like

vomiting, diarrhea, headache, convulsion, and even death.

8. What is the HACCP system and what do the letters HACCP stand for? Describe the

seven steps in order, how this system evolved, and what factors make it so successful.

Provide at least one example of a HACCP plan in action in the real world.

By definition, HACCP stands for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points. It is a

formal system to prevent any causative agent of foodborne illness involved in preparing

and processing food products. The seven principles are: (Brown, p. 88).

a. “Assessing potential hazards

b. Identifying critical control points (CCP)

c. Establishing quantifiable limits for each CCP

d. Monitoring CCPs to stay within the limits

e. Taking corrective action

f. Verifying through regularly evaluating records

g. Documenting through record-keeping”

Later on, HACCP has evolved to HARPC guidelines and was successful because it is

stricter than the HACCP guidelines. An example of the HACCP plan in the real world is

cooking chicken breast with a food thermometer.

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9. Which foodborne illnesses can be traced directly to poor personal hygiene behaviors such

as improper handwashing? Based on this knowledge, research an appropriate training

protocol for employees to ensure proper handwashing. Identify positive ways in which

you will train your employees (be descriptive) and how you would explain the

importance of the topic.

Foodborne illnesses traced directly to poor personal hygiene behaviors are: most bacterial

food infections; bacterial toxin-mediated infections; viruses such as Hepatitis A virus,

Norovirus, and Rotavirus; and parasites like roundworms, protozoa, and tapeworms.

Therefore, a poster with detailed training protocol in animation to avoid poor personal

hygiene behaviors in workplaces (attached below). Some ways to motivate the employees

can be to place several protocol posters on top or next to the sink to remind the employee,

make the handwashing part of the training and part of the work routine, and setting more

small sinks to make handwashing more convenient. Also, in a large company,

handwashing can be organized as a short course to teach them the importance of

handwashing and the severity of cross-contamination if they do not wash their hand

properly.
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10. Why, as a future registered dietician, is it important to have a clear understanding of food

safety?

As a future registered dietician, it is important to have a clear understanding of food

safety because we all are responsible for keeping everyone healthy. You only can enjoy

yourself more if you have a healthy life. Therefore, before starting to learn how to

prepare food, it is necessary to clean and sanitize all the foods and recognize the correct

way to store them to keep them away from the temperature danger zone. Ignoring these

points can lead you and others to sickness or even death. As this project is designed, a

future registered dietician needs to learn about different types of foodborne illnesses, the

causative agents of these illnesses, and the practice to avoid infections from occurring.

After gaining this knowledge, a future RD can ensure everyone’s safety.

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References

Bolarinwa, I. F., Oke, M. O., Olaniyan, S., & Ajala, A. S. (2016, October 26). A Review of

Cyanogenic Glycosides in Edible Plants. Retrieved from

https://www.intechopen.com/books/toxicology-new-aspects-to-this-scientific-conundrum/a

-review-of-cyanogenic-glycosides-in-edible-plants

Brown, A. C. (2019). Understanding food: Principles and preparation. Cengage.

Fleming, L. E. (n.d.). Ciguatera Fish Poisoning. Retrieved from

https://www.whoi.edu/science/B/redtide/illness/ciguatera_fish_poisoning.html

Foodborne Germs and Illnesses. (2020, March 18). Retrieved from

https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/foodborne-germs.html

Food Safety and Inspection Service. (2017, September 1). Retrieved from

https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/foodborne-illness-and-disease/pathogens/parasites-a

nd-foodborne-illness#:~:text=Several%20parasites%20have%20emerged%20as,are%20oft

en%20excreted%20in%20feces.

Gordon, B. (2019, September). Most Common Foodborne Pathogens. Retrieved from

https://www.eatright.org/homefoodsafety/safety-tips/food-poisoning/most-common-foodb

orne-pathogens

Lectins. (2019, November 04). Retrieved from

https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/anti-nutrients/lectins/

Natural toxins in food. (2018, May 9). Retrieved from

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food

Public Library of Science. (2013, December 12). From friend to foe: How benign bacteria evolve
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into virulent pathogens. ScienceDaily. Retrieved from

www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/12/131212185831.htm