Introduction to space Science

The Smiley Face Moon and Companions in the Sky

Ednilson Oliveira 08-09-2013

Why to space science ???

Space Science or Space Technology is the branch

of science (or engineering) that deals with the study of the
Universe. Originally, all of these fields were considered part of
astronomy. ... The various sub-branches of Space Science are
Astronomy, Astrophysics, Cosmology, Stellar Science and
Planetary Science etc.
What are the benefits of space technology?

Some of the more direct benefits of space exploration include an increase in

the knowledge that is out there about space and the discovery of distant planets
and galaxies, it also gives us insight into the beginnings of our universe.

How does space technology benefit society?

The introduction of the novel technology mostly leads to a number

of advantages to the society. The space technology has shown
such benefits in many fields including the areas of health and education,
communication sectors, land and water resources management, weather
forecasting and disaster management.

How has space technology improved our lives?

Each year, hundreds of technical innovations generated by space programs

make their way into our earthly technology such as: better home appliances,
advancements in farming equipment, faster communications, more precise
maritime and aerospace technologies, safety through dangerous weather
warnings, improved medical systems.

How has NASA benefited our society?

Since its creation in 1958, NASA has contributed to the advancement of space-
related industries that have a broad impact on our daily lives. NASA has made
major contributions to world- changing industries like satellite
telecommunications, GPS, remote sensing, and space access.
How space technology benefits
The potential benefits of space-based capabilities for life on Earth from
environmental, social, and economic perspectives, including:
1. Space activities having a positive impact today (such as Earth
observation for weather and climate)
2. Space activities that could have a positive impact in the next 5 to 20
years (such as communications satellite megaconstellations)
3. Space activities that could have a positive impact in the more distant
future (such as widespread space manufacturing and industrialization)

Space activities with positive impacts today

1. Earth observation for weather prediction and climate monitoring

2. Earth resources observation
3. Space-based communication services
4. Space-based Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) services
5. Increasing economic opportunities in expanding commercial space
and non-space sectors
6. Inspiration for STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, the Arts
and Mathematics) Education a access points for guiding student inquiry,
dialogue, and critical thinking
7. International space cooperation countering geopolitical tensions
8. Space spinoffs for Earth
Space activities with the potential for positive impact in the next 5 to 20
years

1. Mega constellations
2. Space manufacturing of materials hard to make on Earth
3. Fast point-to-point suborbital transport
4. Space tourism
5. The Overview Effect
6. Asteroid impact prevention
7. Space solar power
8. Space-based data centres
9. Space mining of high-value elements
10. Closed-loop ecosystems, material recycling, and in situ resource utilization
11. Intensive organic agricultural techniques
12. Science projects and programs that can only be (or better be) done in space
13. Orbital debris management

Space activities with potential for positive impact in the more distant
future

1. Widespread space manufacturing and industrialization

2. Waste disposal in space
3. Construction of a space-based “sunshade” to reduce global warming
4. Physical benefits of low gravity
5. Food production in space for people on Earth
6. Migration of the human population into space
7. Opportunities for social, economic and political experimentation
8. Studying and preserving ecosystems in space
Examples of the impact of space exploration and its
benefits for humanity.

Improving our understanding of the human body

Experiments performed in space help us understand the health
problems associated with aging and sedentary lifestyles.

Talking on cellular phones

Long distance and overseas calls would be impossible without
satellites.

Satellites in our everyday lives

Learn more about the satellites that orbit the Earth and the
important role they play in our daily lives.

Creating jobs in technology - Space robotics, which creates

employment.
Taking action on climate change
Some satellites monitor signs of climate change, such as melting ice
and rising waters.

Making scientific discoveries

Researchers conduct many important scientific experiments on board
the International Space Station.

Performing risky surgical procedures

Some medical technologies are inspired by robotics in space.

Getting young people interested in science

Astronauts encourage young people to study science, technology,
engineering and mathematics.

Cooperating with countries around the world

International Space Station, a research laboratory in space.

Transforming surgery on Earth

Technologies for industry, medicine, and other applications.
 The Universe
(Latin: universus)

It is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars,
galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy.

Age (within Lambda-CDM model) - 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years

Diameter - Diameter of the observable universe 8.8×1026 m (28.5 Gpc or 93 Gly)

One gigaparsec (Gpc is one billion parsecs)
One parsec is the distance at which one astronomical unit subtends an
angle of one arc second.
A parsec is equal to about 3.3 light-years (31 trillion kilometres or 19
trillion miles) in length.
Light Year - A unit of astronomical distance equivalent to the distance that
light travels in one year, which is 9.4607 × 1012 km (nearly 6 million million
miles)

Mass (ordinary matter) - At least 1053 kg

Average density (including the contribution from energy) - 9.9 x 10−30 g/cm3
Average temperature - 2.72548 K
Shape - Flat with a 0.4% margin of error

Main contents - Ordinary (baryonic) matter (4.9%), Dark matter (26.8%),

Dark energy (68.3%)

Baryonic matter include protons, neutrons and all the objects composed of them
(i.e. atomic nuclei), but exclude things such as electrons and neutrinos which are
actually leptons.
What is space in universe?

Space is everything in the universe beyond the top of the

Earth's atmosphere – the Moon, where the GPS satellites orbit,
Mars, other stars, the Milky Way, black holes, and distant
quasars.

Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in

which objects and events have relative position and direction.

Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions,

although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be
part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known
as spacetime.

The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental

importance to an understanding of the physical universe.

However, disagreement continues between philosophers over

whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or
part of a conceptual framework.
 ASTROPHYSICS

The branch of astronomy that deals with

(i) the physical properties of the celestial bodies

(ii) the interaction of matter and radiation in the

material universe beyond the earth’s
atmosphere is known as astrophysics.

ASTRONOMY

• The science that deals with the material

universe beyond the earth’s atmosphere is
known as astronomy.
 COSMOLOGY

The branch of astronomy that deals with the

general structure and the evolution of the universe.
 Solar
System
 Solar System
The solar system is made up of the sun and everything that
orbits around it, including planets, moons, asteroids, comets and
meteoroids.

It is estimated that the edge of the solar system is about 9

billion miles (15 billion kilometers) from the sun.

Known minor planets: 796,354

Known planets: 8 (Mercury; Venus; Earth; Mars; Jupiter;

Saturn; Uranus; Neptune)
Stars: 1 (Sun)

Smallest planet: Mercury

Nearest star: Proxima Centauri (4.25 ly); Alpha Centauri (4.37 ly)

Known dwarf planets: 3 universally accepted Ceres; Pluto; Eris

and 2 more expected to be Haumea and Makemake
 Earth

• Earth is the third planet from

the Sun and the only astronomical
object known to harbor life.

• According to radiometric
dating estimation and other
evidence, Earth formed over 4.5
billion years ago.

• Earth's gravity interacts with other objects in space, especially the

Sun and the Moon, which is Earth's only natural satellite.

• Earth orbits around the Sun in 365.256 solar days, a period

known as an Earth sidereal year. During this time, Earth rotates
about its axis 366.256 times, that is, a sidereal year has 366.256
sidereal days.

• Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to its orbital plane,

producing seasons on Earth.
• The gravitational interaction between Earth and the Moon
causes tides, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and gradually
slows its rotation.

• Earth is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest and
most massive of the four rocky planets.

• Earth's outer layer (lithosphere) is divided into several

rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over many
millions of years.

• About 29% of Earth's surface is land consisting

of continents and islands. The remaining 71% is covered with
water, mostly by oceans but also lakes, rivers and other fresh
water, which all together constitute the hydrosphere.

• The majority of Earth's polar regions are covered in ice, including

the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack.

• Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a

liquid outer core that generates Earth's magnetic field, and a
convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics.
• Within the first billion years of Earth's history, life appeared in the
oceans and began to affect Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading
to the proliferation of anaerobic and, later, aerobic organisms.

• Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as

early as 4.1 billion years ago.

• Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun,

physical properties and geological history have allowed life
to evolve and thrive.

• In the history of life on Earth, biodiversity has gone through long

periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinctions.

• Over 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct.

• Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely;

most species have not been described.

• Over 7.7 billion humans live on Earth and depend on

its biosphere and natural resources for their survival.
Atmosphere of Earth
• The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known
as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's
gravity.

• The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by

creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the
Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the
surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing
temperature extremes between day and night.

• The volume of earth atmosphere contains dry air (78.09% nitrogen,

20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide and small
amounts of other gases.

• Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average

around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere.

• Air composition, temperature, and atmospheric pressure vary with

altitude, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial
plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in
Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.
• The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15×1018 kg, three
quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of
the surface.

• The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing

altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere
and outer space.

• The Karman line at 100 km (62 mi) or 1.57% of Earth's

radius, is often used as the border between the
atmosphere and outer space.

• Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric

reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi).

• Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on

characteristics such as temperature and composition.

• The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is

called atmospheric science (aerology).
Several layers in the atmosphere
The Troposphere

•This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in.
•It contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow.
•In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance
above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre.
•The actual change of temperature with height varies from day to day,
depending on the weather.
•The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere,
and almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain).
•The decrease in temperature with height is a result of the decreasing
pressure.
•If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands (because of the lower
pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up is cooler than air
lower down.

•The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary

layer. This is where the air motion is determined by the properties of the Earth's
surface.
•Turbulence is generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface, and by
thermals rising from the land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence redistributes
heat and moisture within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants and other
constituents of the atmosphere.

•The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at

the poles, where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about
17 - 18 km) near the equator.
The Stratosphere

This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km.

It contains much of the ozone in the atmosphere.
The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone.
Temperatures in the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole,
and lowest over the winter pole.
By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere
protects us from skin cancer and other health damage.
However chemicals called CFCs (Chloro-Fluro-Carbon) or freons, and
halons which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire
extinguishers have reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere,
particularly at polar latitudes, leading to the so-called "Antarctic
ozone hole".
Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we
expect the ozone hole will eventually recover over the 21st century,
but this is a slow process.

The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere.

Here the temperature again decreases with height, reaching a

minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause".
The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
• The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which
temperatures again increase with height.
• This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic
ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.
• The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the
"ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off
molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge.
• The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day and
between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons which are
present.
• The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive
shortwave radio broadcasts other parts of the world.

The Exosphere
• The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere.
• It contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of
them that they rarely collide - they follow "ballistic" trajectories under the
influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out into space.

The Magnetosphere
• The earth behaves like a huge magnet.
• It traps electrons (negative charge) and protons (positive), concentrating
them in two bands about 3,000 and 16,000 km above the globe - the Van
Allen "radiation" belts.
• This outer region surrounding the earth, where charged particles spiral
along the magnetic field lines, is called the magnetosphere.
 History of Age of The Earth

The History of the Earth Practical: Dawn of a New Age -

Radiometric dating

Age of the Earth: Eternity - Aristotle (384-322 BC)

In classical philosophy the Earth was eternal, so Age of the
Earth irrelevant

Age of the Earth: The Bible 4004 BC

In 1654 Bishop Ussher calculated that the Earth was
created in 4004 BC. He got this figure using evidence from
the Bible and other Middle Eastern literature. The date
became so popular that it was printed with the Book of
Genesis (Bishop Ussher (1581-1656))

Age of the Earth: Comte de Buffon (1707-1788)

In 1760, Buffon measured the cooling time of red-hot iron
balls of different sizes with experiments. He scaled up to the
size of the Earth (75,000 years to cool) iron ball.
Age of the Earth: Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
In 1858, calculated the time it would take for the sun to
condense to present diameter from gas nebula (around 20
million years)

Age of the Earth: More Physics - Lord Kelvin (1824-1907)

In 1862, Lord Kelvin assumed that Earth originally had a
temperature of 7000°F.
Recognized Geothermal gradient (1°F/50 ft) Calculated cooling
age (20 million years)

Age of the Earth: Geology - Charles Lyell (1797-1875) -

Sediment accumulates at the same rate today as in the past
so Earth must be really ancient to account for geological
record (hundreds of millions of years)

Age of the Earth: Sea Salt - John Joly (1857-1933)

In 1899, John Joly calculated the Earth’s age using the
saltiness of the ocean (80-150 million years)
How much salt was in the Ocean?
How much did rivers add each year?
Age of the Earth: Assumptions

Exit Slip - Name one idea that scientists had in the past about
the age of the earth.
Identify the scientist,
the time period,
the method they used to calculate the age of the earth,
their calculation for the age of the earth,
the assumptions they made in order to calculate the age of
the earth
 Space science

• It encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that

involve space exploration and study natural
phenomena and physical bodies occurring in
outer space, such as space medicine and
astrobiology.

• space science - Any of several scientific disciplines,

such as exobiology, that study phenomena occurring
in the upper atmosphere, in space, or on celestial
bodies other than Earth.

• A discipline related to or dealing with the problems

of space flight.
Branches of space sciences
Fields of astronomy defined by approach

– Observational astronomy – Observatories on the ground as well

as space observatories take measurements of celestial entities and
phenomena

– Astrometry – studies the position and movements of celestial objects

– Amateur astronomy - Amateur astronomy is a hobby where

participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects in the sky using
the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes.
– Even though scientific research may not be their primary goal, some
amateur astronomers make contributions in doing citizen science, such
as by monitoring variable stars, double stars, sunspots or occultations of
stars by the Moon or asteroids or by discovering transient astronomical
events, such as comets, galactic novae or supernovae in other galaxies.

– Theoretical astronomy – mathematical modelling of celestial entities

and phenomena
 ……..Branches of space sciences

Fields of astronomy defined by scope

o Astrophysics – study of the physics of the universe; of extra-

terrestrial objects and interstitial spaces
o Space plasma physics - Space physics is the study of plasmas as
they occur naturally in the Earth's upper atmosphere (aeronomy)
and within the Solar System
o Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics, which also has applications
to spacecraft
o Stellar astronomy – the study of stars
o Solar astronomy – the study of the Sun
o Planetary science – the study of planets, especially those other
than Earth
o Planetary geology - alternatively known as astrogeology or
exogeology, is a planetary science discipline concerned with the
geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons,
asteroids, comets, and meteorites.
o Galactic astronomy – the study of the Milky Way galaxy
o Extragalactic astronomy – the study of the larger universe beyond
the Milky Way
o Physical cosmology – the study of the Universe as a whole
Aerospace engineering
o Aeronautics - science and engineering
of spacefaring and spaceflight, a subset of Aerospace
engineering (which includes atmospheric flight)

o Astronautics

• Life in space
o Living organisms in space
▪ Humans in space
▪ Women in space - The first woman in space, Soviet
cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, flew in 1963

▪ Animals in space -
▪ 1947: First animal in space
▪ 1949: First monkey in space
▪ 1951: First dogs in space
▪ 1957: First animal in orbit
▪ 1963: First cats in space
▪ 1968: First animals in deep space and to circle the Moon
▪ 2007: First animal survives exposure to space
▪ 2009: First Monarch and Painted Lady butterflies in space
▪ Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey - Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey were
five mice who traveled from Earth and circled the Moon 75 times on
the 1972 Apollo 17 mission

▪ Plants in space

o Space habitation
▪ Architecture in space
▪ Space station
▪ Space Habitation Module
▪ Food in space
▪ Medicine in space
▪ Neuroscience in space
▪ Survival in space
o Human spaceflight
Space-related interdisciplinary fields
• Astrobiology
• Astrobotany
• Astrochemistry or cosmochemistry
• Cosmology
• Planetary science – overlaps with Earth science
• Micro-g environment research
• Forensic astronomy
• Space archaeology – the study of human artifacts in outer
space
• Space medicine
• Space architecture
• Archeoastronomy – the history of human understanding of the
universe
Historical Development of Space Science and
Technology
A brief history of space

• As late as the 17th century it was assumed that space could not be empty, and René
Descarte argued that the entire universe must be filled.
• This was gradually shown to be wrong through work on air pressure by Blaise Pascal,
Florin Périer and finally Otto von Guericke, who demonstrated that the density of the
Earth’s atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude, and concluded that there
must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon.
• Astronomers began to get an idea of the scale of our galaxy in 1838 when Friedrich
Bessel made the first successful measurement of the distance to another star, working
out that 61 Cygni (a small star) is more than 10 light years away.
• What we now know to be other galaxies were thought to be contained within our own
galaxy until 1923 when Edwin Hubble measured the distance to the Andromeda galaxy.
Getting to space

• The boundary of where space begins is not well defined.

• A common working definition is the Kármán Line at a height of 62 miles.
• This is where an aircraft would have to travel at a speed greater than orbital velocity to get enough lift from
its wings to stay in the air.
• The US defines an astronaut as someone who has flown above 50 miles, while NASA use 76 miles as their
re-entry altitude, the point at which atmospheric drag is noticeable and the space shuttle can switch from
steering with thrusters to maneuvering like a conventional aircraft.
• In 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky became the first person to realise that getting to space using chemical fuel
would require a rocket made up of multiple stages. The idea was developed further by Herman Oberth 20
years later in his thesis By Rocket Into Planetary Space.
• To achieve orbit, the horizontal velocity is as important as the altitude.
• To stay in orbit at the Kármán line requires a speed of around 18000 miles per hour.
• It takes 20 times more energy to gain enough speed for a low-earth orbit than to simply climb to that
altitude.
• A German V2 rocket was the first to cross the Kármán line during a 1944 test flight, and in 1957
the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 became the first man-made object to orbit the Earth.
• This was followed in 1961 by Vostok 1, in which Yuri Gagarin made the first human spaceflight.
Space travel in the near future

• Until recently, only governments had the necessary resources to reach space.

• The first privately funded human spaceflight took place in 2004, when Space Ship One,
developed by Mojave Aerospace Ventures, reached more than 62 miles twice in two weeks
to win the $10m Ansari X Prize.

• The technology was then licensed by Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic, which plans to build a
fleet of five spacecraft twice as large as the original, offering commercial trips into space for an
initial price of $2,00,000 each.

• Meanwhile, the US Air Force launched its X-37B test vehicle as part of a programme aimed at
developing a reusable space vehicle to succeed the space shuttle, and then President Obama
has predicted that astronauts will reach Mars by the middle of the 2030s.
Top 10 Space Research Organisations in the World

• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

• China National Space Administration (CNSA) ...
• European Space Agency (ESA) - is an international organisation with 22
member states.
• Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) ...
• Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) ...
• SpaceX - private American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation
services company
• Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) ...
• German Aerospace Center (DLR) ...
• National Centre for Space Studies, France
• Italian Space Agency (ASI)
Indian Space Programme

•In 1962, history of space activities reached its first milestone when Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru with scientist Vikram Sarabhai established the Indian National
Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR).

•In 1963, the first rocket was launched from India in November 1963.

•Despite being a developing economy with its attendant problems, India has
effectively developed space technology and has applied it successfully for its rapid
development and today is offering a variety of space services globally.

•During the formative decade of 1960s, space research was conducted by India
mainly with the help of sounding rockets.

•The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was formed in 1969.

•Space research activities were provided additional fillip with the formation of the
Space Commission and the Department of Space by the government of India in 1972
and ISRO was brought under the Department of Space in the same year.

•In the history of the Indian space programme, 70s were the era of experimentation
during which experimental satellite programmes like Aryabhatta, Bhaskara, Rohini
and Apple were conducted.
• The success of those programmes, led to era of operationalisation in 80s during
which operational satellite programmes like INSAT and IRS came into being.

• Today, INSAT and IRS are the major programmes of ISRO.

• For launching its spacecraft indigenously, India is having a robust launch vehicle
programme, which has matured to the state of offering launch services to the
outside world.

• Antrix, the commercial arm of the Department of Space, is marketing India’s space
services globally.

• Fruitful co-operation with other space faring nations, international bodies and the
developing world is one of the main characteristics of India's space programme.

• The most significant milestone of the Indian Space Programme during the year
2005-2006 was the successful launch of PSLV-C6.

• On 5 May 2005, the ninth flight of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C6) from
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota successfully placed two
satellites - the 1560 kg CARTOSTAR-1 and 42 kg HAMSAT - into a predetermined
polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO).
• Coming after seven launch successes in a row, the success of PSLV-C6 further demonstrated the
reliability of PSLV and its capability to place payloads weighing up to 1600 kg satellites into a 600
km high polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO).

• The successful launch of INSAT-4A, the heaviest and most powerful satellite built by India so far;
on 22 December 2005 was the other major event of the year 2005-06.

• INSAT-4A is capable of providing Direct-To-Home (DTH) television broadcasting

services.

• Besides, the setting up of the second cluster of nine Village Resource Centres (VRCs) was an
important ongoing initiative of the Department of Space during the year.

• VRC concept integrates the capabilities of communications and earth observation satellites to
provide a variety of information emanating from space systems and other IT tools to address the
changing and critical needs of rural communities.
History of Indian Space Research

India's experience in rocketry began in ancient times when fireworks were first used in the country,
a technology invented in neighbouring China, and which had an extensive two-way exchange of
ideas and goods with India, connected by the Silk Road.
Military use of rockets by Tipu Sultan during the Mysore War against the British inspired William
Congreve to invent the Congreve rocket, predecessor of modern artillery rockets, in 1804.
After India gained independence from British occupation in 1947, Indian scientists and politicians
recognized the potential of rocket technology in both defence applications, and for research and
development.
Recognizing that a country as demographically large as India would require its own independent
space capabilities, and recognising the early potential of satellites in the fields of remote sensing
and communication, these visionaries set about establishing a space research organisation.
1960-1970:

Dr. Vikram Sarabhai was the founding father of the Indian space program, and is
considered a scientific visionary by many, as well as a national hero.
After the launch of Sputnik in 1957 he recognized the potential that satellites provided.
India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who saw scientific development as an essential part
of India's future, placed space research under the jurisdiction of the Department of Atomic
Energy in 1961.
The DAE director Homi Bhabha, who was father of India's atomic programme, then established
the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) with Dr. Vikram
Sarabhai as Chairman in 1962.
The Indian Rohini programme continued to launch sounding rockets of greater size and complexity,
and the space programme was expanded and eventually given its own government department,
separate from the Department of Atomic Energy.
On 15th August 1969 the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was created from
the INCOSPAR programme under the DAE, continued under the Space Commission and finally the
Department of Space, created in June of 1972.
1970-1980:

In the 1960s Sarabhai had taken part in an early study with NASA regarding the feasibility of
using satellites for applications as wide as direct television broadcasting, and this study had
found that it was the most economical way of transmitting such broadcasts.
Having recognized the benefits that the satellites could bring to India from the very start,
Sarabhai and the ISRO set about designing and creating an independent launch vehicle,
capable of launching into orbit, and providing the valuable experience needed for the
construction of larger launch vehicles in future.
Recognizing the advanced capability India had in building solid motors with the Rohini series,
and that other nations had favoured solid rockets for similar projects, the ISRO set about
building the technology and infrastructure for the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV).
Inspired by the American Scout rocket, the vehicle would be a four-stage all-solid vehicle.
Aryabhata - India's first satellite
India began developing satellite technology anticipating the remote sensing and communication
needs of the future.
India concentrated more on practical missions, directly beneficial to people instead of manned space
programs or robotic space explorations.
The Aryabhata satellite, launched in 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Soviet Cosmos-3M launch
vehicle, was India's first satellite.

SLV - India's first satellite launch vehicle

By 1979 the SLV was ready to be launched from a newly-established second launch site, the Satish
Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC).
The first launch in 1979 was a failure, attributed to a control failure in the second stage.
By 1980 this problem had been worked out.
The first indigenous satellite launched by India was called Rohini-1.
1980-1990:

Following the success of the SLV, ISRO was keen to begin construction of a satellite
launch vehicle that would be able to put truly useful satellites into polar orbits.
Design of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) was soon underway.
This vehicle would be designed as India's workhorse launch system, taking
advantage of both old technology with large reliable solid-stages, and new liquid
engines.
At the same time, it was decided by the ISRO management that it would be
prudent to develop a smaller rocket, based on the SLV, that would serve as a
testbed for many of the new technologies that would be used on the PSLV.
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) would test technologies like
strap-on boosters and new guidance systems, so that experience could be gained
before the PSLV went into full production.
Eventually, the ASLV was flight tested in 1987, but this launch was a
failure.
After minor corrections, another launch was attempted in 1988, this launch again
failed.
Then a full investigation was launched into the cause, providing valuable
experience, specifically because the ASLV's failure had been one of control - the
vehicle could not be adequately controlled on removal of the stabilizing fins
that were present on the SLV, so extra measures like improved maneuvering
thrusters and flight control system upgrades were added. The ASLV
development had also proven useful in the development of strap-on motor
technology.
1990-2000:

• In 1992 that the first successful launch of the ASLV took place.
• At this point the launch vehicle, which could only put very small payloads into orbit, had achieved its objective.
• In 1993 the time had come for the maiden flight of the PSLV and this first launch was a failure.
• The first successful launch took place in 1994, and since then, the PSLV has become the workhorse launch vehicle - placing
both remote sensing and communications satellites into orbit, creating the largest cluster in the world, and providing unique
data to Indian industry and agriculture.
• Continual performance upgrades have increased the payload capacity of the rocket significantly since then.
• Under pressure, Glavkosmos halted the transfer of the associated manufacturing and design technology to India.
• Until then, ISRO had not been affected by technology transfer restrictions thanks to the political foresight of Sarabhai in
indigenizing technology.
• However, elements of the ISRO management cancelled indigenous cryogenic projects in anticipation of the Russian deal.
• Instead of cancelling the deal, Russia agreed to provide fully built engines instead, and India began developing an indigenous
cryogenic engine to replace them, in the GSLV-II.
• But there is still some controversy over the issue of the cryogenic engine acquisition, with many pointing to the decision to
cancel indigenous projects as being a grave mistake - India would have likely had a fully indigenous engine operating by the
time the GSLV launched if indigenous development had started from day one.
• Despite this one uncharacteristic slip in an otherwise extremely successful programme, and the loss of potential payload
capacity over the decade that occurred as a result, ISRO pressed on.
2000-2010:
Currently the most powerful Indian launch vehicle in operation; the first development
flight of the GSLV took place in 2001.
The program’s benefits have been scrutinized due to frequent payload cutbacks and
delays. The indigenous cryogenic engine for the GSLV's upper stage was tested in
2007.
ISRO has reconsidered the effectiveness of the GSLV for the needs of the 2000-2010
decade and began development of an indigenous and new heavy launch vehicle, GSLV
III containing liquid main stages and two solid strap-on boosters.
It will resemble the Ariane 5 and other modern launchers and will have sufficient
payload capacity for manned spaceflight. The inaugural flight is scheduled for 2008.
Chandrayaan 2008: ISRO intends to send a small robotic spacecraft into lunar orbit
mounted on a modified PSLV. It will survey the surface of the moon in greater detail
than ever before and attempt to locate resources. Countries, including the US have
expressed interest in attaching their own payloads to the mission. ISRO and NASA
have an agreement to carry two NASA probes as a payload.
AVATAR Scramjet: This is a long-term project to develop a reusable launch vehicle
(RLV) restricted to the launch of satellites.
AVATAR would be a cost effective launch vehicle for small satellites and therefore a
commercially competitive launch system. ISRO successfully tested a scramjet air
breathing engine which produced Mach 6 for seven seconds. ISRO will continue
research related to using scramjets in RLVs after 2010.
2000-2010:

ISRO has entered the lucrative market of launching payloads of other nations.
Prominent among them are the launches of Israel Space Agency’s, TecSAR spy
satellite, and Israeli Tauvex-II satellite module. The CARTOSAT-2, launched on the July
2006, carried a small Indonesian payload of 56 kg.
Leveraging its expertise in cryogenic technology to design Hydrogen fuel cells to store
and handling of hydrogen; ISRO teamed up with Tata motors to develop a prototype
hydrogen passenger car for Indian market, expected to hit road by end of 2008.
On November 15, 2007 ISRO achieved a significant milestone through the successful
test of indigenously developed Cryogenic Stage, to be employed as the upper stage of
India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). The test was conducted for
its full flight duration of 720 seconds on November 15, 2007 at Liquid Propulsion test
facility at Mahendragiri, in Tamil Nadu. With this test, the indigenous Cryogenic Upper
Stage has been fully qualified on the ground. The flight stage is getting ready for use
in the next mission of GSLV (GSLV-D3) in 2008.
On April 28, 2008 ISRO successfully launched 10 satellites in a single mission further
boosting it's capabilities in space.
This includes 690 kg CARTOSTAT-2 and another 83 kg mini Indian satellite, IMS-1;
and eight other nano satellites made by various universities; and research and
development institutions in Canada and Germany offered at a subsidized price as part
of a goodwill gesture by the Indian Department of Space.
2010 – 2020

GSLV MkIII-M1 Successfully Launches Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft

India’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV MkIII-M1, successfully launched the 3840 kg Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft into
an earth orbit today (July 22, 2019). The spacecraft is now revolving round the earth with a perigee (nearest point to Earth) of
169.7 km and an apogee (farthest point to Earth) of 45,475 km. Today’s flight marks the first operational flight of the GSLV Mk
III.

The spacecraft reached the Moon's orbit on 20 August 2019 and began orbital positioning manoeuvres for the landing of
the Vikram lander. The lander and the rover were scheduled to land on the near side of the Moon, in the south polar region at a
latitude of about 70° south on 6 September 2019 and conduct scientific experiments for one lunar day, which approximates to two
Earth weeks.

A successful soft landing would have made India the fourth country after the Soviet Union, United States and China to do so.

The lander Vikram (named Vikram after the father of India's space program, Vikram Sarabhai) deviated from its intended
trajectory and lost communications with ground stations up to an altitude of 2.1 km while attempting to land on 6
September 2019 which caused a 'hard landing'. According to a failure analysis report submitted to ISRO, the crash was
caused by a software glitch.

"There are ups and downs in life ... What you have accomplished is no small achievement," Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who
was present at the ISRO centre, told scientists after being briefed by Sivan about no soft landing of Vikram lander.

ISRO may re-attempt a landing by the second quarter of 2021 with Chandrayaan-3.
Reaching for the Sun : Aditya-1, 2019-2020

Aditya-I is India's first dedicated scientific mission to study the Sun. A 400 kg class
space telescope will be inserted into a halo orbit 1.5 million km from the Earth to
study the three layers of the sun — photosphere, chromosphere and corona, the
outer atmosphere of the star in our solar system. The mission is aimed at developing
insights on the weather in space and to understand why the outer atmosphere of
the Sun is 200 times hotter than the solar disc.

Back to Mars : Mangalyaan-2, 2024

ISRO plans to return to Mars through this mission. The success of Mangalyaan has
prompted the space agency to send a second probe by 2024, which will do deeper
studies of the Earth’s neighbour and understand the evolution of the red planet
better.

Origins of the universe : Astrosat-2, 2025

India plans to send a second observatory in space. It will be a followup mission of
Astrosat-1 — India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space telescope — aimed at
looking at the origin of the universe and discover new planets. ISRO is finalising a
plan for the mission.

Befriending a solar sibling : Mission Venus, 2023

ISRO is planning a mission to the Earth’s “twin sister”, Venus. Both the Earth and
Venus share similarities in size, mass, density, bulk composition and gravity. The
space agency will fly a spacecraft around 400 km over Venus to conduct research
and understand its formation, its atmosphere and its interaction with the solar wind.
The mission is expected by 2023.
Drilling with Japan : Moon Mission, 2023
ISRO and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency will send a joint mission to the Moon’s south pole. The mission includes
landing a rover that will drill the Moon’s surface to conduct scientific experiments. The primary focus will be to explore
the existence of water. Japan is likely to provide the rocket and a lunar rover, while India is likely to contribute with a
lander for the mission, a follow-up of Chandrayaan-2. It would explore the suitability of the region for establishing a
sustainable lunar base.

Manned space mission : Gaganyaan, 2021

Three Indian astronauts are expected to fly to space in the country’s first human space flight mission in 2021, nearly four
decades after Rakesh Sharma made his journey on a Russian rocket in 1984. This time, the Russians are helping India
make the space suits and train its astronauts to live in a space capsule for the week-long mission. A Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk-3, an upgraded version of the rocket that sent the Chandrayaan-2 mission to the Moon, will
fly the astronauts — fighter pilots selected from the Indian Air Force — to space.

Gazing at celestial bodies : X-Ray Polarimeter Satellite, 2021

This satellite will measure the degree and direction of X-ray photons from at least 50 potential celestial sources. The
satellite will have instruments built by the Raman Research Institute. These will collect data to help us understand the
composition, temperature and density of distant celestial instruments. This satellite will be launched in the circular lower
Earth orbit, around 500-700 km above Earth.

Staying up there : Space Station, around 2025

Within a decade, India wants to have a space station up there. The station will help astronauts stay longer in space to
conduct experiments. India wants to launch the space station by 2025 around the time the International Space Station is
decommissioned around 2028. China is also planning a large space station in the lower Earth orbit.
A glimpse into ISRO’s contributions to society

The advancements of ISRO have contributed to the welfare of the

common man in the country.

INSAT/GSAT satellites in the area of tele-education and telemedicine.

ISRO’s Disaster Management Support (DMS) programme, monitoring

and tracking of depressions and cyclones, and the prediction of
landfall through Early Warning Systems.

A pilot project was undertaken to identify coconut root-wilt disease in

Kerala. The project led to the development of the Indian Remote
Sensing (IRS) satellites.

IRS satellites have helped in agricultural crops inventory, handling

drought, forest fires, landslides, earthquakes, monitoring of
waterbodies and identification of potential fishing zones.

Various space science missions such as the Mars Orbiter Mission,

ASTROSAT, Chandrayaan 2 and Aditya
 ISRO’s timeline of Space Programme are as follows: 1960's:
Journey of the formation of ISRO
Year About Mission
The Indian National Committee for Space Research is formed under the leadership of Vikram
1962 Sarabhai who is also known as father of India's space program and physicist Kalpathi Ramakrishna
Ramanathan.
The first sounding rocket is launched from Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station in Kerala
1963 which is used for probing upper atmospheric regions and space research. It marks the beginning of
the Indian space program.
1965 Space Science and Technology Centre (SSTC) was established in Thumba on 1 Jan, 1965.
1967 Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad on 1 Jan 1967
1968 Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station set up in Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was formed to harness space technology for national
1969
development.

1970s: Era of launching Satellites began

Year About Mission
1971 Satish Dhawan Space Centre formed in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
1972 Department of Space (DoS) established and ISRO brought under it.
On 19 April, first Indian Satellite, Aryabhata was launched into space. It marked a milestone in
1975 India's space programme because it was completely designed in the country and launched from a
Russian facility.
1977 Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project
The first experimental remote-sensing satellite which was built in India was launched namely
1979 Bhaskara-I. The images send by it are used to study hydrology and forestry and oceanographic
studies.
1980s: Satellite launch Vehicle, Communication satellite, remote sensing
satellite launched

Year About Mission

India's first experimental satellite vehicle was launched namely Satellite launch
1980 Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) which makes ISRO sixth nation in space program. SLV-3 launched
second time with Rohini. The mission was successful.

1981 Rohini placed into orbit.

1982 Communication Satellite Insat-1A was launched
1983 Second developmental flight of SLV-3 placed Rohini into orbit.

A joint manned mission of India and Soviet Union has been launched. In this mission
1984 the first Indian cosmonaut, Rakesh Sharma, spends eight days in Russian space
station Salyut 7.
1987 ASLV was launched with SROSS-1 satellite.
1988 Indian Remote Sensing Satellite IRA-1A was launched
 1990s: Era of PSLV

Year About Mission

1991 Remote Sensing satellite IRS-1B was launched
1992 ASLV first time was successfully launched
Developed in 1990s and has become the Indian space mission's most reliable
workhorse. In 1993, PSLV carried out its first mission and its first successful
1993
mission was held in next year. No doubt for next 20 years, it launched several
satellites for historic missions like Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan.
1994 Successful launch of PSLV with IRS-P2
1996 PSLV was launched with IRS-P3
1997 PSLV was launched with IRS-1D
1999 PSLV started carrying foreign satellites
 2000s: GSLV and Chandrayaan-1 important missions was launched
Year About Mission
2001 GSLV was successfully launched
2002 Kalpana-1 satellite was launched
2003 GSat-2 was launched
2004 Edusat was launched
2005 Launch of Cartosat-1 and Hamsat by PSLV
2006 GSLV was launched with Insat-4C
2007 Cartosat-2 was launched
India's Chandrayaan-1 first moon mission was launched by PSLV. Almost a decade ago,
India's first unmanned lunar probe was launched and was a landmark in India's space
2008 mission. Do you know that after this ISRO joined an elite list of just six space organisations
to send an Orbiter to the moon? A Tricolour was hosted on the moon but ISRO lost contact
with Chandrayaan-1 soon after.
2009 Radar Imaging Satellite (Risat-2) was launched
2010 Launch of Cartosat-2B, STUDSAT and three small foreign satellites by PSLV
 2010s: Mangalyaan, Chandrayaan-2 important launches
Year About Mission
2011 Launch of Resourcesat-2 and two small satellites by PSLV
2012 Risat-1 was launched by PSLV

- PSLV-C22 was successfully launched with India's first indigenous Regional Navigation Satellite IRNSS-1A on 1st July, 2013.
2013
- PSLV-C25/Mars Orbiter Mission was launched in 5 November, 2013

- GSLV-D5 was successfully launched on 5 January, 2014.

- India's first interplanetary mission to the planet Mars known as Mars Orbiter mission (MOM) or Mangalyaan was launched.
On 24 September, 2014, MOM entered Mars orbit. India became the first country in the world to insert a spacecraft into the
2014
Martian orbit in its very first attempt.
- On 18 December, 2014, GSLV Mk-III, the first experimental flight of ISRO's heaviest and upgraded rocket vehicle was
launched from Sriharikota.

India's 4th navigation satellite was launched.

- 100 days of Mangalyaan.
- 5 British satellites are launched by ISRO.
- On 28 September, 2015, India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory Astrosat was successfully launched
2015 onboard a PSLV-C30 rocket.
- On 11 November, 2015, latest communication satellite of India GSAT-15 was successfully launched by Ariane-5 rocket from
the spaceport of Kourou in French Guiana.
- On 16 December, 2015, PSLV-C29, in its 32 flight, launched six satellites of Singapore. Of these six satellites, TeLEOS-1 is
the primary satellite whereas the other five are co-passenger satellites
 Year About Mission
- On 20 January, 2016 PSLV-C31 in its 33rd flight launches IRNSS-1E, the fifth satellite of the Indian
Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS).
- On 10 March, 2016, PSLV-C32 in its 34rth flight, launches IRNSS-1F, the sixth satellite of the
Indian regional navigational Satellite System (IRNSS).This is the thirty third consecutively successful
mission of PSLV.
- On 28 April, 2016, PSLV-C33 in its 35th flight, launches IRNSS-1G, the seventh satellite of the
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) to a Sub-Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (Sub-
GTO).
- On 23 May, 2016, RLV-TD was successfully flight tested.
- On 22 June, 2016, PSLV-C34, in its 36 flight launches the 727.5 kg Cartosat-2 Series Satellite for
2016 earth observation and 19 co-passenger satellites together weighing about 560 kg at lift-off into a
505 km polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO).
- On 28 August, 2016, The first experimental mission of ISRO’s Scramjet Engine towards the
realisation of an Air Breathing Propulsion System was successfully conducted.
- On 8 September, 2016, GSLV-F05 is the tenth flight of India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV), launching INSAT-3DR, an advanced weather satellite, weighing 2211 kg into a
Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO).
- On 26 September, 2016, PSLV-C35, in its 37th flight, launches SCATSAT-1 for weather related
studies and 7 co-passenger satellites into polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO).
- On 6 October, 2016, India's latest communication satellite GSAT-18 was inducted into the
INSAT/GSAT system.
 Year About Mission
On 15 February, 2017, ISRO successfully launched 104 satellites using a single rocket from Sriharikota
Space Centre.
On 5 May, 2017, GSLV successfully launches South Asia Satellite.
- On 5 June, 2017, First developmental flight of India's GSLV Mk III successfully launches GSAT-19
2017
Satellites.
- On 23 June, 2017, PSLV-C38 successfully launches 31 Satellites in a single flight.
- On 29 June, 2017, India's GSAT-17 Communication Satellite launches successfully.
- On 31 August, 2017, PSLV-C39 flight carrying IRNSS-1H Navigation Satellite unsuccessful.
- On 12 January, 2018 PSLV successfully launches 31 Satellites in a single flight.
- On 23 March, 2018 ISRO-BHEL tie up for the production of Space Grade Lithium-Ion Cells.
- On 29 March, 2018 GSLV successfully launches GSAT-6A Satellite.
- On 12 April, 2018 PSLV-C41 successfully launches IRNSS-11 Navigation Satellite.
- On 25 April, 2018 GSAT-11 launch rescheduled.
- 22 June, 2018, discovery of a Sub-Saturn like Planet around a Sun-like star.
2018
- On 16 September, 2018 PSLV-C42 launches 2 foreign satellites.
- On 14 November, 2018 GSLV MkIII-D2 successfully launches GSAT-29.
- On 29 November, 2018 PSLV-C43 successfully launches HysIS and 30 customer satellites.
- On 5 December, 2018, GSAT-11 India's heaviest communication satellite launched successfully from
French Guiana.
- On 19 December, 2018, GSLV-F11 successfully launches GSAT-7A
Year About Mission
- On 25 January, 2019, PSLV-C44 successfully launched Microsat-R and Kalamsat-V2.
- On 6 February, 2019 GSAT-31 India's Communication Satellite launched successfully from
French Guiana.
- On 1 April, 2019 PSLV-C45 successfully launches EMISAT and 28 customer satellites.
- On 22 May, 2019 PSLV-C46 successfully launches RISAT-2B
2019 - On 15 July, 2019 Chandrayaan-2 Moon Mission will be launched.
- On 22 July, 2019 Chandrayaan-2 Moon Mission was launched
- On 27 Nov 2019 Cartosat-3 was launched successfully for earth observation
- On 11 Dec 2019 RISAT-2BR1 was launched successfully through PSLV-C48 for Disaster
Management System and Earth Observation

2020 - On 17 January, 2020, GSAT-30 successfully launched Ariane-5 VA-251 for communication.
NASA: 60 Years of Space Exploration

NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, is the U.S. government agency responsible for leading the nation's explorations of space.
Its mission is "to reach for new heights and reveal the unknown so that what we do and learn will benefit all humankind“. Since its
formation in 1958, NASA has taken to the skies both on and off Earth.

Today, NASA consists of 10 different centres spread around the country. But it got its start by scrapping together pieces from existing agencies.

Getting off the ground

As part of the International Geophysical Year (from July 1, 1957, to Dec. 31, 1958), a cooperative effort to gather scientific data about the Earth,
President Dwight Eisenhower approved a plan to put into orbit a scientific satellite. The Soviet Union quickly announced its own intentions, and then
surprised the world by launching Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, on Oct. 4, 1957.

"This had a Pearl Harbor effect on American public opinion, creating an illusion of a technological gap and provided the impetus for increased
spending on aerospace endeavours," NASA's history website says.

The United States wasn't far behind their Cold War rivals. After some setbacks and failed rocket launches, the first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1, reached
orbit on Jan. 31, 1958. Not content to simply circle the Earth, Explorer 1 sought to study the planet and its environment.

"Explorer 1 was also a science mission," Willis Jenkins, the program scientist for NASA's Explorer Program, said on the agency's website. "This
wasn't just launched to get a satellite up in space, it was meant to bring science data back down."

Explorer 1 contained experiments that helped to identify the Van Allen radiation belts that surround the planet.

On Oct. 1, 1958, the United States consolidated its space exploration operations under a new agency, NASA, which replaced the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), founded in 1915 to explore aeronautical research when airplanes were just starting to take flight. Also absorbed
by NASA were Langley Research Center in Virginia and Ames Research Center in California, both still operational today. NASA also incorporated
other science groups, such as the Jet Propulsion Laboratoryin Pasadena, California, and the Army Ballistic Missile Agency in Huntsville, Alabama.

Since then, NASA has launched a series of satellites, orbiters and landers to explore Earth, the moon, other planets and the distant reaches of space.
Human explorers
On May 25, 1961, only 20 days after Alan Shepard had become the first American to reach space,
President John F. Kennedy told the United States, "I believe that this nation should commit itself to
achieving the goal, before the decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely
to Earth."
With Kennedy's announcement, getting to the moon became NASA's priority.

The Mercury and Gemini programs tested U.S. technology and human endurance in space.

The Apollo program was designed to take the final steps toward the moon.

There were challenges and setbacks, such as a fire that killed three Apollo 1 astronauts, but by 1968,
the agency sent astronauts around the moon, with Apollo 8.

On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the moon, famously declaring,
"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."

The Apollo program continued until 1972, with 12 astronauts walking on the lunar surface over 6
landing missions.
After the moon
Although humans had finished walking on the moon — at least temporarily — NASA
continued to send them into space.

In 1973, NASA's Skylab program sent three human missions to stay aboard a relatively
small workshop orbiting the Earth. "The Skylab program also served as a successful
experiment in long-duration human spaceflight," NASA's website says.

In 1975, NASA and the Soviet Union cooperated to achieve the first international human
spaceflight, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which successfully tested joint rendezvous and
docking procedures for spacecraft from the two nations.

On April 12, 1981, NASA launched Columbia, the first space shuttle. The shuttle
fleet eventually added four more ships — Atlantis, Challenger, Discovery and Endeavor —
as well as Enterprise, a test shuttle that never made it to space.

Two ships were lost in explosions, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, but when the
program concluded in 2011, it had launched 135 missions and put more than 300
astronauts into space.

The United States began work on International Space Station (ISS) in 1984, with Russia
and other international partners joining the venture in 1993. On Nov. 2, 2000, the first
humans began to inhabit the ISS.
NASA everywhere
NASA headquarters are in Washington, D.C. Agency leaders there oversee activities conducted at the 10 research centers
scattered around the country:

• Ames Research Center, in Moffett Field, Calif., leads "research and development in aeronautics, exploration technology
and science."

• Armstrong Flight Research Center, in Edwards, Calif., is NASA's "lead center for atmospheric flight research, operations
and testing."

• Glenn Research Center, in Cleveland, Ohio, "designs and develops innovative technology to advance NASA's missions
in aeronautics and space exploration."

• Goddard Space Flight Center, in Greenbelt, Md., manages operations for the Hubble Space Telescope and
communications between mission control and astronauts aboard the International Space Station.

• Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in Pasadena, Calif., is the leading center for robotic exploration of the solar system. Its
missions include the Juno spacecraft, Kepler Space Telescope and the Mars Curiosity rover.

• Johnson Space Center, in Houston, Texas, is the home of NASA's astronaut corps and center of mission control. NASA
astronauts have long used "Houston" when addressing their handlers in Mission Control, exemplified by Jack Swigert's
famous utterance during 1970's harrowing Apollo 13 moon mission: "Houston, we've had a problem."
NASA everywhere

• Kennedy Space Center, near Titusville, Fla., is America’s spaceport, hosting all of
the federal government's manned spaceflights since the late 1960s.

• Langley Research Center, in Hampton, Va., has studied the challenges of flight for
more than 100 years. Researchers at Langley designed the plane that broke the
sound barrier, figured out how to stay in contact with astronauts in space, hunted
for the best lunar landing spots and helped develop the space shuttle.

• Marshall Space Flight Center, in Huntsville, Ala., is where researchers design and
build the engines, vehicles, space systems, instruments and science payloads for
missions.

• Stennis Space Center, in southern Mississippi, is a test site for rocket engines,
including the Saturn V rockets that sent astronauts to the moon and the new
Space Launch System.
 International space agencies

Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
Algerian Space Agency
ASAL Algeria 16 January 2002
Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation
Organization APSCO International 28 October 2005

Australian Space Agency ASA Australia 1 July 2018

Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency AMAKA Azerbaijan 21 February 1974
Bahrain’s National Space Science Agency
NSSA Bahrain 9 April 2014
(NSSA)
Belarus Space Agency BSA Belarus 2009
Bolivian Space Agency ABE Bolivia 2012
SRI-BAS
Bulgarian Space Agency Bulgaria 1987
STIL-BAS
Canadian Space Agency CSA Canada 1 March 1989
Central American Association for
ACAE Costa Rica 2010
Aeronautics and Space
 Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
Centre for Remote Imaging, Sensing and
CRISP Singapore 1995
Processing
China National Space Administration CNSA China 22 April 1993
show
Consultative Committee for Space Data
CCSDS 1982
Systems
International
Ministry of Transport of the Czech Republic Ministry of
- Space Technologies and Satellite Systems Transport of the Czech Republic 2003
Department Czech Republic
1 January
Danish National Space Center DNSC Denmark
1968
1 January
Danish Space Research Institute DSRI Denmark
2005
 Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy BISA Belgium 25 November 1964
Netherlands Institute for Space Research SRON Netherlands 1983
European Space Agency ESA ESA 31 May 1975
former Egypt Remote Sensing Center EASRT-RSC Egypt 1971
National Center of Space Research CNES France 19 December 1961
National Remote Sensing Center of Tunisia CNCT Tunisia 1988
Centre Royal Center for Remote Sensing CRTS Morocco December 1989
Geo-Informatics and Space Technology
GISTDA Thailand 3 November 2002
Development Agency
Austrian Space Agency ALR Austria 12 July 1972
German Aerospace Center DLR Germany 1969
Hellenic Space Center HSC Greece 9 August 2019
Hungarian Space Office HSO Hungary January 1992
 Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
Indian Space Research Organisation ISRO
India 15 August 1969
भारतीय अंतररक्ष अनुसंधान संगठन इसरो
National Institute of Aeronautics and Space LAPAN Indonesia 27 November 1964
Institute of Technical Aerospace INTA Spain 1942
Iranian Space Agency ISA Iran 2004
Israeli Space Agency ISA Israel April 1983
Italian Space Agency ASI Italy 1988
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency JAXA Japan 1 October 2003
Korea Aerospace Research Institute KARI South Korea 10 October 1989
Korean Committee of Space Technology KCST North Korea 1980s
Lithuanian Space Association LSA Lithuania 2007
Luxembourg Space Agency LSA Luxembourg September 2018
Malaysian National Space Agency ANGKASA Malaysia 2002
Mexican Space Agency AEM Mexico 30 July 2010
 Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
6 February 2006 (as
Dubai, United
Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre MBRSC EIAST)
Arab Emirates
2015 (as MBRSC)
National Aeronautics and Space
NASA United States 1 October 1958
Administration
National Aerospace Development
NADA North Korea 2013
Administration
National Authority for Remote Sensing and
NARSS Egypt 1994
Space Sciences
National Remote Sensing Center of Mongolia NRSC Mongolia 1987
National Space Agency NSA Kazakhstan 1991
Republic of
National Space Organization NSPO 3 October 1991
China (Taiwan)
National Space Program NSP Australia 1986
National Space Research and Development
NASRDA Nigeria 1998
Agency
 Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
New Zealand Space Agency NZSA New Zealand April 2016
Norwegian Space Centre NSC Norway 1987
Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere
SUPARCO Pakistan 16 September 1961
Research Commission
Paraguayan Space Agency AEP Paraguay 26 March 2014
Philippine Space Agency PhilSA Philippines 8 August 2019
Polish Space Agency POLSA Poland 2014
Brazilian Space Agency AEB Brazil 10 February 1994
Romanian Space Agency ASR Romania 1991
Soviet space program СССР Soviet Union ca. 1955
Russian Federal Space Agency ROSCOSMOS Russia c.1992
Serbian Office for Space Sciences, Research
SERBSPACE Serbia August 2016
and Development
South African National Space Agency SANSA South Africa 9 December 2010
Space Research and Remote Sensing
SPARRSO Bangladesh 1980
Organization
 Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
Bolivarian Agency for Space Activities ABAE Venezuela 1 January 2008
Colombian Space Commission CCE Colombia 18 July 2006
National Space Activities Commission CONAE Argentina 28 May 1991
National Commission for Aerospace Research
CONIDA Peru 11 June 1974
and Development
National Commission for Space Research CNIE Argentina 1961
Sri Lanka Space Agency SLSA Sri Lanka 2010
Swedish National Space Agency SNSA Sweden 1972
Swiss Space Office SSO Switzerland 1998
Turkish Space Agency TUA Turkey 2018
Turkmenistan National Space Agency TNSA Turkmenistan 2011
UK Space Agency UKSA United Kingdom 1 April 2010
National Space Agency of Ukraine NSAU Ukraine 2 March 1992
 Initialisms
Name Country Founded
/Acronym
United Arab
United Arab Emirates Space Agency UAESA 2014
Emirates
United Nations Committee on the Peaceful
UNCOPUOS United Nations 12 December 1959
Uses of Outer Space
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs UNOOSA United Nations 13 December 1958
United States Space Force USSF United States 20 December 2019
Uzbek State Space Research Agency USSRA Uzbekistan 2001
Space Technology Institute (Vietnam) VAST-STI Vietnam 20 November 2006
 List of space agencies with launch capability

Space agency
Country Founded
Name Acronym
Australian Space Agency ASA Australia 1 July 2018
People's
China National Space Administration CNSA Republic of 22 April 1993
China
European Space Agency ESA ESA 31 May 1975
ISA
Iranian Space Agency Iran 2004
ISA
ISA
Israeli Space Agency Israel April 1983
‫ה"סל‬
Italian Space Agency ASI Italy 1988
National Aerospace Development
KCST North Korea 1980s
Administration
KARI
Korea Aerospace Research Institute South Korea October 1989
항우연
Indian Space Research Organisation ISRO 15 August
India
भारतीय अंतररक्ष अनुसंधान संगठन) इसरो 1969
1 October
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency JAXA Japan
2003
 List of space agencies with launch capability

Space agency
Country Founded
Name Acronym
National Aeronautics and Space
NASA United States 1 October 1958
Administration
National Center of Space Research CNES France 19 December 1961
National Space Agency of Ukraine NSAU Ukraine 2 March 1992
ROSCOSMOS
Russian Federal Space Agency Russia ca. 1992
RFSA
Russian Soviet space program СССР Soviet Union ca. 1955
United States Space Force USSF United States 20 December 2019
 List of space agencies with human spaceflight capability

Space agency
Country Founded
Name Acronym

China National Space People's Republic

CNSA April 22, 1993
Administration of China
December 26, 1991
ROSCOSMOS
Russian Federal Space Agency Russia
RFSA Dissolution of Soviet
Union

National Aeronautics and

NASA United States October 1, 1958
Space Administration

Soviet space program СССР Soviet Union July 22, 1951

 List of space agencies with lunar landing capability

Space agency
Country Founded
Name Acronym

People's Republic of
China National Space Administration CNSA 22 April 1993
China

Indian Space Research Organisation ISRO

India 15 August 1969
(भारतीय अंतररक्ष अनुसंधान संगठन) इसरो

National Aeronautics and Space

NASA United States 1 October 1958
Administration

Russian Soviet space program СССР Soviet Union 1955

 Expected and proposed future space agencies
Space agency Country/Cou Expected date of
Current status
Name Acronym ntries formation
Immediate goal is to construct and
launch two satellites. Sri Lankan
Telecommunications Regulatory
Sri Lanka Aeronautics and
SLASA Sri Lanka 2021 Commission has signed an
Space Agency
agreement with Surrey Satellite
Technology Ltd to get relevant help
and resources.
Proposed in 2015. AU plans to
launch the agency by 2019 with a
proposed headquarter in Cairo,
African Space Agency AfSA African Union 2023
Egypt. Funded by Egypt. See the
stamp issued by Egypt on 19
September 2019.
Proposed in 2013 with the goal to
launch satellites. Negotiating with
Armenian Space Agency ArmCosmos Armenia — the International
Telecommunications Union to clear
the path for its prospective launch.
 Expected and proposed future space agencies

Space agency
Country/Countries Current status
Name Acronym
Australia-New Zealand Space Australia Proposed in 2020, status
ANZSA
Agency New Zealand unknown.
Proposed in 2011, at
South American Space Agency South America
progress stage
Caribbean Proposed in 2017, at
Caribbean Space Agency
Community progress stage
Cambodian Aerounautics and Space Proposed in 2016, at
CASA Cambodia
Agency progress stage
Proposed in 2018, at
Haiti Space Agency HSA Haiti
progress stage
 Budgets

• The budgets are not normalized to the expenses of space research in different countries, i.e.
higher budget does not necessarily mean more activity or better performance in space
exploration.
• Budget could be used for different projects: e.g. GPS is maintained from the US defence budget,
whereas ESA's money is used for developing the European Galileo positioning system.
• For European contributors to ESA, the national budgets shown include also their contributions to
ESA.
The annual budgets listed are the official budgets for national space agencies
available in public domain.
Budgets of different space agencies.
Agency Budget (in Budget (in
Agency (country/region)
(country/region) millions of US $) millions of US $)
NASA (USA) 22,629 CSA (Canada) 246
CNSA (China) 11,000 ISAB (Belgium) 224
ESA (Europe) 7,430 INTA (Spain) 211
DLR (Germany) 4,233 SSO (Switzerland) 177
Roscosmos (Russia) 3,272 NSO (Netherlands) 110
CNES (France) 3,024 SNSA (Sweden) 100
ISRO (India) 1,900 NOSA (Norway) 97
ASI (Italy) 1,800 SSAU (Ukraine) 80
JAXA (Japan) 1,699 ALR (Austria) 75
KARI (South Korea) 583 AEB (Brazil) 47
UKSA (UK) 500 CONAE (Argentina) 45
ISA and ISRC (Iran) 393 ISA (Israel) 14.5
ASA (Algeria) 360
 Overall
Budgets
Country/ Region Agency
Budget (in millions of
Year
US $)
United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration 22,629 2020
China China National Space Administration 11,000 2018
ESA European Space Agency 7,430 2020
Germany German Aerospace Center 4,233 2017
Russia Russian Federal Space Agency 3,272 2015
France French Space Agency 3,024 2020
India Indian Space Research Organisation 1,900 2020
Italy Italian Space Agency 1,800 2016
Japan Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 1,699 2017
South Korea Korea Aerospace Research Institute 583 2016
United Kingdom UK Space Agency 500 2017
Iran Iranian Space Agency and Iranian Space Research Center 393 2018-19
Algeria Algerian Space Agency 360 2015
Canada Canadian Space Agency 246 2018
Belgium Interfederal Space Agency of Belgium 224 2018
Spain Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial 211 2018
Switzerland Swiss Space Office 177 2019
Netherlands Netherlands Space Office 110 2013
Sweden Swedish National Space Agency 100 2011
 Overall Budgets

Budget (in millions of

Country/ Region Agency Year
US $)
Austria Austrian Space Agency 75 2018
Poland Polish Space Agency 61.5 2019-2021
Israel Israel Space Agency 14.5 2019
Brazil Brazilian Space Agency 47 2018
Argentina Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales 45 2019
Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission 45 2018-19
Philippines Philippine Space Agency 38 2019
Nigeria National Space Research and Development Agency 32.3 2019
South Africa South African National Space Agency 11.8 2014-15
Mexico Mexican Space Agency 8.34 2010
Australia Australian Space Agency 32 2019
Turkey Turkish Space Agency 4.3 2019

World All space agencies (Total of listed budgets) About 60,482

Thanks