INTRODUCTION Man lives on land; his activities find expression on earth's surface. Physical factors like landform, climate, vegetation, soil and water conditions have either faciliated or get limits to his activities. These factors has influenced him also in the choice of his dwelling place, including the location of villages and towns. Hence, man has made consistent efforts to understand ‘land’,- the most important component of his habitat; since times immemorial, This curiosity to understand land has ultimately given rise to the modern since of geomorphology which seeks to make an appraisal of the earth’s various surficial forms and to elucidate the processes contributing to their formation. Geomorphology, an important branch of geography deals with the evolution of landforms including the sequential developments that might have taken place in shaping them since their initial appearance above the base level of erosion. The study of landforms provides information useful to human as well as physical geographers. Now, such studies are not only of academic interest but have occupied important place in applied fields, viz., civil engineering, geological and geophysical explorations, ground-water hydrology and also in regional planning and defence arrangements. Before the present century, there was no question as to whether the approach was geolagical or geographical. But during the early decade of the present century, there was a controversy regarding the definition and approach to the study of landforms. Russel's in his paper, i.e., ‘Geographic geomorphology’ prints out that, "geographers geomorphology is interested in horizontal cross- section while geologis’s geomorphology is interested in the vertical cross- section". Kesseli in his paper,” A neglected field; geomorphology" suggested that the geographers should not concern too much with the origin of the landforms. He formulates three concepts, ie., (i) concepts of descriptive landform analysis, (ii) concept of landform types, and (iii) concepts of landform types regions.INTRODUCTION The down of the modern geomorphic idea started after Hutton and his followers who gave the deterministic approach to physical geography although very little progress was made upto 17th century. The scientists like Davis, Wooftidge and Kessely, the land surface forms is the only record which helps to weave out the past story of the earth's stratification's. The interrupted stratification marked by unconfermites, can well explain the breaks in form building processes under operation and possibly more correctly, correlate the analysis assumption of burried landscapes with the present one. Fenneman rightly holds that, "the study and interpretation of the records lefts by erosion constitute the longer part of the science of geomorphology.” TLe early diachotomy of the study in quite apparent from the fact that the geologis: viewed the landforms as the products of the operation and interactions of the geomorphic process at the work in production, transportation and depositions of materials, forming rocks and giving it ultimate shapes, through in accordance with topography, mode of occurrence, physio-chemical compositions, lithology, etc., while the geographers were confirmed mainly to the description o* natural landscape classification and levelling of the landforms or more precisel Russel (1949) starts that, “the respective vertical and horizontal cross section orientation." The geographical concept in landform study was towever, advocated as early as 1935 by Smith who observed that, "whatever agencies and processes may have caused the sculpturing or construction of landforms, it is the resulting configuration that is the principal consideration of topographers and geographers, Strahler acceptes is as a branch of geology but suggests that is the must turn to the physical and mathematics for vitality which is now needs as the days of qualitative approaches are gone. Even during the time of Davis (1924), "the subject remained confined to the geological circles although the always considered it as intermediate between geology and geography".INTRODUCTION iii One of the greatest geomorphologists, W.M. Davis introduced the idea of, ‘structure, process and stage’ in the evolution of landforms. The Division cycle concept did provide a basis to this study with structural central as a dominant factor. Penk opposed this and stated that more commonly rise of the land at the beginning of period of uplift is slow and is followed by an accelerated growth of uplift. Bulla, a Hungarian worker certified the theories of Davis and Penk and has paid attention to a third form of peneplain, i.e., ‘tropical peneplain'. After Kessely, Hammond, Robinson and Zakrzewska tried to develop this branch as a geographical geomorpology rather than as a geological geomorphology. Hammond, a student of Kessely systematized the study of landforms and gave emphasis to the empirical rather than explanatory descriptions. Zakerzewska (1967) correlates the Hammond's idea of geography of landforms as one, "which ecompasses an empirical descriptive landform analysis followed by an explanation, and analysis of landform in relation to other physical and cultural phenomena." In spite of these works in the field of geomorphology in foreign countries, the geologists and geographers in India have paid little attention towards this branch of science. Here, credit for the first attempt may be go to S.C. Chatterjee (1946) and H.L. Chhibber (1948) on, "physiographic evolution of Chhotanagpur" and “classification and origin of plateaux with special reference to India." Both workers followed them by a few other articles concerning drainage, landforms, etc. but mostly qualitative in nature. From the proceeding it is evident that a comprehensive systematic approach towards landforms analysis is still tacking. Dury (1963) rightly remarked that, "for all its growing vocabulary and least of ideas, the systematic study of landforms has bonely reached full scientific status.” In some respects, it stands today where Botany and Zoology stood in the 18th century and whereINTRODUCTION Geology and Archaeology was put fourth by Weaver (1965) as (i) formul: iB the basis criteria, (ii) changing the scale of observation, (iii) dismantling landforms, and (iv) reassembling landforms. Recently, R.P. Singh and N.K.P. Sinha presented their Ph.D. thesis on, "Geomorphological Evolution of the Highlands of Chhotanagpur and adjoining Distt. of Bihar" and "Geomorphic evolution the Northern Rupununi basin, Guyana" respectively. Both works have been appreciated by the scientists abroad. R.L. Singh of Banaras Hindu University may be crediated for breaking the traditional pattern of landform studies in India. He, deviating from the beaten track of his predecessors, as the presidential address of the Geology and Geography section of the Indian Science Congress, Hyderabad, Session (1967) emphasized the need of an intermediate course which is neither purely based on stratigraphy and structure an qualitative interpretation, addressing a paper on" Morphometric Analysis of Terrain." The line of work as suggested by Singh, R.L. has been adopted by K.N. Singh (1968), V.K. Asthana (1969), S.C. Kharkwal (1969), M. Agrawal (1971) in different regions. These works are concerned with applied geomorphology. Some attempts of other workers like E. Ahmad (Ranchi), S.K. Pal (Delhi), S.K. Tondon (Delhi), Savindra Singh (Allahabad), Renu Srivatva (Allahabad), Anil Kumar (Bhagalpur), L.N. Ram (Patna), etc, are also worthmentioning. Later, Mukherjee, A.B. (1963-1964), dwelt upon the alluvial morphology of the Upper Ganga-Yamuna Doad in which he also tests some of Horton's laws of drainage composition. Morphometric evaluation of landforms has been attempted for Rajmahal Highlands, the neighbourhood of Almora and Mirzapur upland by Singh, R.L. (1967), Correlation between landforms elements and the distribution of settlements, earlier initiated by Ahlmann, H.W. (1928), Garnett, A. And A.E. Adams (1935), Mutton, A.F..M. (1939), Swainson, M.B.INTRODUCTION v (1944), Blache, Vidal de la (1926), has been attempted in India by, Singh, O.P. (1971), Gupta, B.P. (1976), Singh, $.B. (1978), Yadava, S.R.S. (1978), Yadava, S.S.S. (1984), Srivastava, U. (1980), Ram, M (1989), Prasad, H.(1980), Jha, V.C. (1983), Kodali, R.C, (1987), Yadava, S.N. (1998), Verma, V.D. (1999), Badshah (1998), Umashankar (2000), Yadava, R.C.S, (2001), Singh, P.K,(2001), Kumar, J. (2002), Singh, S.B. (2001) and Singh, N.R. (2002). The later Indian workers have also made a detailed morphometric evaluation of landforms in the respective areas under investigation. The study of landform of terrain is a basic necessity both for planning and defence purposes in a developing nation like India. The homogencous terrain types and the defence personnels in their well guided movement. The roads, dams, canals, etc., can be easily laid over such as well studied area. Inspired with the above thinking, the author undertook the study of landforms and settlements in ‘Upper South Koel Basin', a part of Chhotanagpur Highlands, Bihar, as a case of study. The present work (84°24’E to 85°14'E longitudes and 23°5'N to 23°37'N latitudes) is also an attempt to analysis the morphometric characteristics of landforms in Upper South Koel Basin, and to obtain correlation between morphometric attributes on the one hand and distribution, types and patterns of the settlements on the other hand, The study area forms a southwestern part of the Chhotanagpur highlands in Bihar, India and measures about 2673.0km’. It is represented on 1:50,000 topographical Sheet No. 73A/7, 8,9,10,11,12,14,15,16; 73E/2 and 3 issued by the Survey of India. Each morphometric attributes has been analysed and classified by dividing the study-area into grids of 9.0km* each. Application of statistical techniques, including calculation of mean, median, mode and Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation for suitable pairs of attributes, have been made to asses the interdependence of the attributes.INTRODUCTION Observation based on the analysis of morphometric attributes have been verified and correlated with geologic and tectonic conditions prevailing in the area. An attempt has been made also to obtain a hierarchy of morpho-units of like-form characteristics. Analysis of the distribution and types of settlements in terrain and terrain units forms an applied aspect of this study. The Upper South Koel Basin, being a part of the land surface since time immemorial, has experienced various phases of orogeny, epeirogeny, transgression, subsidence, etc.,which might have no direct effect over the area but all have left their imprints in forms of faulting or. crumpling or folding, etc., which are evidenced in the present landscape by the falls, knick points, gorges, scarps, etc., These imprints when krit together systematically, provide clues to the hystogenesis of this landmass in accordance with the premise, ‘present is the key to the past’, The emphasis here; has been land on the morphometric analysis of landforms. Significance of applied aspect of landform study has been shown in the relation to the settlements in the area. For the analysis 1:50,000 topo-sheets of Survey of India, have been used. The whole area (2673.0km?) has been divided into unit squares of 9.0 km? each and within these units, all the morphometric attributes as well as settlements have been enumerated, classified and reproduced in the form of maps and diagrams by suitable cartographic devices. Thus, the study has been evaluated under two parts. Part 'A', geomorphic analysis of landforms includes six chapters mostly devoted to the analysis and evolution of the morphometric attributes of terrain in the area. Part °B’, settlements distribution, comprising two chapters, relates to the distribution, types and patterns of the settlements and their correlation with morphometric attributes of landforms.INTRODUCTION vii The chapter I deals with the general survey of the physiographic elements which form the basis of landform studies, The distribution of major relief features, altitudinal zones and drainage along with elements of climate, soil and natural vegetation are dealts to aquaint the reader's with the general topographic character of the area. The geological and tectonic background and its significance in the evolution of landscape have been discussed in Chapter Il. Chapter III seeks to analysis the relief, both absolute and relative and establishes the quantitative relationship between the two. The dissection index, a more scientific expression of relief analysis and erosion potentials is also computed, The area-height relationship has been evaluated by the applying techniques of hypsographic, clinographic and altimetric frequency curves. Chapter IV deals to analysis the nature and characteristics of drainage texture on the one hand with those of absolute and relative relief on the other. It also includes the morphometric analysis of some selected drainage basins. Analysis of slope and a comparative assessments of some of the cartographic technique to represent slope forms is the subject matter of chapter V. Chapter VI deals at dismantling of the area into morphological units of first, second, third and fourth orders based on the morphometric attributes. It also presents the terrain characteristics of each morpho-units. ChapterVII is represented to the study of applied aspect of landform studies has been brought out by way of analysing the distributional patterns and siting’s of settlements as well the special analysing through nearest neighbour statistic as well as the areal size of the village. The last Chapter VIII throws the light on the impact of the morphometric attributes on the distribution, types and patterns of settlements. The analysing of the density types of settlements and their correlation with various morhometric attributes like absolute and relative relief, dissection index, drainage density, drainage frequency. In this case negative correlation coefficients are observed.INTRODUCTION viii Reference Agrawal, M. (1971): Morphometric evaluation of landfroms and settlements in southeastern part of Jabalpur District. Unpubblished Ph.D. Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (India) Ahlmann, H.W, (1928): The geographical study of settlements examples from Italy, Germany, Denmark and Norway. Geographical Review, 18: 93-128 Ahmad, E. (1958): Geographic outline of Chhotanagpur. Geographical outlook, Ranchi, 23:16-22 Anderson, E. (1947): Field studies of Guatemalan. Maize, Ann. Missouri Botanical Garden, 34: 433-51 Asthana, V.K. (1968): Landforms and settlements in Almora and its environ. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Auden, J.B. (1934): Erosional pattern and fracture zones in Peninsular India, Geographical Magazine, XCI(2): 89-101 Baulig, H. (1926): Sur une methode altimetriqued. Analyse morphologique applique a la Bretagne peninsulaire. Bull. Asso. Geog. Francail, 10: 7-9 Bagchi, K. (1960): Drainage pattern in Ganga delta. Geographical Review of India, 22(4):15-3 Badshah (1999): Morphometric analysis and settlements of Palamau patland, Bihar (India).Unpublisheel Ph.D. Thesis, V.B.S. Purvanchal University, Jaunpur Chatterjee, $.C. (1945): Some aspects of the geomorphology of Ranchi plateau. Geographical Review of India, 2: 31-35 Chattarjee. S.C. (1946): The classification and origin of plateaus with special reference to India and adjacent countries. National Geographical Jounal of India (Varanasi), Bull 8:37 Clarke, J.L. (1967): Morphometry from maps. Essays in Geomorphology. (ed) G.H. Dury, Heinemann, London: 235-74INTRODUCTION ix Chorley, RJ. and M.A. Morgen (1962): Comparison of morphometric features in Unaka mountains, Tennessee and North Carolina and Dortmoor, New England. Bulletin of Geographical Society of America, 73: 17-34 Coleman, A. (1954): The use of the height- range diagram in morphological analysis. Geog, Studies, 8: 180-190 Davis, W.M. (1909): 'Geographical Essays. Bostan, Dover: 773 Dixit, K.R. (1970): Polycyclic landscape and erosion in the Deccan,trap, epuntr with special reference to upland, Maharastran. Nafonal’ Journal oF India, 16(3&4) :236-52 Dov Nir (1957): The ratio of relative relief and absolute altitudes of Mt. Carmel: A contribution to the problem of relief analysis and relief classification. Geog. Rev. 47:564-569 Dury, G.H. (1951): Quantitative measurment of available relief and depth of dissection. Geological Magazine, 88: 339-343 Dutt, A.B. (1963): The geology and coal resources of Bokaro coalfields. Memoirs, Geological Survey of India, 56: 20-33 Eric, A.C. (1967): Slope profiles of Mourne Mountains down. Irish Geography, 5: 311-318 Garnett, A.C.and A.F. Adams (1935): Insolation, topography and settlement in the Alps. Geographical Review, 25: 601-17 i Ghori, G.K.(1967): Geomorphology of Mysour plateau. Proceeding of Seminar on Geomorphological Studies in India. Deptt fo Applied Geology, University fo Saugar, M.P.:15-8 Gupta, B.P. (1976): Champawat and its environs: A study in landforms and settlements. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi . Hammond, E.H. (1954): Small- scale continental landform maps. Annals, Association of American Geographers, 44: 33-42INTRODUCTION x Horton, R.E. (1945): Erosional development of stream and their drainage basins: Hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology. Bull. Geol. Society of America, 56: 276-370 Jha, V.C.(1983): Geomorphology of the Himalayan Ram Ganga basin. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Kesseli, J.E. (1954): A geomorphology suited to the needs of geographers. Ann. Asso. Amer. Geog., 44:220-221 Krihanan. M.S. (1949): Geology of India and Burma’, Higgin Bathams (P)Ltd., Chennai Kharkwal, $.C. (1968): Landforms and settlements of Nainital and its environs. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi King, C.A.M. (1967): ‘Techniques in Geomorphology’. Edward Arnold (Pub). Ltd, London:51-60* Kodali, R.C. (1987): Geomorphology of Konar Basin, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis., B.H.U., Varanasi Kumar. A (1972): Morphologi Ranchi plateau, India. Geographical Research Bulletin, 2:4-5 classification of landform regions of Southwest Kumar, J. (2002): Geomorphic analysis fo landforms and soil conservation of Dalma range, Bihar. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, V.B.S. Purvanchal University Jaunpur (India) Linton, D.L. (1951): The delmitation of morphological regions in London. Essays in Geography (L.D. Stamp & $.W. Wooldridge, Langmans), University of London: 199-217 Melton, M.A. (1959): A deviration of Strahler's channel ordering system. Journal of Geology, 67:344-6 Miller, A.A (1964): ‘Skin of Earth,” Methuen & Co. Ltd, London: 63-65 Morisawa, M.E. (1957): Accuracy of determination of stream lengths from topographic maps. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 38: 86-88INTRODUCTION xi Mukerjee, A.B. (1961): Morphogenetic nature of Bhur. Journal of Indian Geographers, 36: 2-11 Mutton, A.F.A. and AE, Adams (1939): Landforms, settlements and land utilization in the Southern Allan, Economie Geography, 15: 169-78 Mukhopadhyay, $.C. (1980): ‘Geomorphology of Subarnarekha Basin’, The University of Burdwan Publications, Burdwan Pal, S.K. (1973): Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basins in Himalaya. Geographical Revies of India, 35(1):81-101 Prasad, 11.(1980): Landforms and settlements of Mussoorie and its environs. Published Ph.D. Thisis, Banaras Hindu Universtiy, Varanasi Penk, W.(1953): Morphological analysis of landforms. Translated by Hella, E. and K,C, Boswell. Mac Millan & Co. Ltd, London Powell, J.W. (1875): Exploration of the Colorado river of the west and its tributaries. U.S. Goverment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. : 191 Rai, R.K. (1989): ‘Geomorphology of the Sonar Berma Basin, M.P.' Concept Publication Company, New Delhi Ravishanker, (1975): Stratigraphic analysis of chert member, Lower Tal formations in Dehradun and Tehri Districts, U.P. Record Geplogical Survey of India, 106(2): 54-75 Ram, M. (1989): Chatra plateau: A study in landforms and_ settlement distributions, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Rohilkhand University, Bareilly Russell, R.J. (1949): Geographical geomorphology. Ann. Asso. Amer. Geogrs. 39: 1-1 Savigear, R.A.G. (1956): Technique and terminology in the investigation of slopeforms. Premier report de la Commission Pour | Ecudedy Uersants (IGU, Rio de Janeiro), Amsterdam Saran, A. (1958): Evolution of drainage system in Damodar basin. National Geographical Journal of India, 3: 130-6INTRODUCTION xii Schumm, S.A. (1956): Evolution of drainage system and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer, 67: 597-646 Smith, G.H. (1935): The relative relief of Ohio. Geog. Rev, 25: 272-284 Strahlar, A.N. (1953): Rivisions of Horton’s quantitative factors in erosional terrain. Paper read before Hydrology section of American Geophys. Union, Washington Strahlar, A.N. (1952): Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography. Bull. Geol, Soc. of America, 63, November: 1117-1142 Strahler, A.N. (1956): Quantitative slope analysis. Bull of the Geological Society of America (New York), 67: 71-596 Swainson, M.B. (1944): Dispersion arid agglomeration of rural settlements in Somerset, Geography, 29: 1-8 Singh, R.L. (1967): Morphometric analysis of terrain, Presidential Address, Proc, 54" Indian Science Congress, Part II, Geology and Geography Section (Hyderabad): 115-135 Singh, S. (1978): Physiographic regions, landforms and erosion surfaces of the Ranchi plateau. National Geographer, XII (1): 43-45 Singh O.P. (1976): Structure, process and stage of Chhotanagpur plateau Bhoodarshan, Vol 1X (2): 1-10 Singh P.K, (2001): Quantitative analysis of landforms and_ settlements distribution in Chaibasa plain, Bihar, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis V.B.S, Purvanchal University, Jaunpur (India) Singh S.B. (1976): Simla and its environs: A study in landforms and settlements. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Banaras Hindu Unversity, Varanasi (India) Singh, S.B. (2001): Geomorphic analysis of landforms and soil conservation of Palamau patland, Bihar. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. V.B.S. Purvanchal University, Jaunpur (India) Singh, N.R. (2002): Geomorphic analysis of landforms and_ settlementts distribution in Northern Dissected Fringe, Bihar. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, V.B.S, Purvanchal University, Jaunpur (India)INTRODUCTION xiii Singh, K.N. (1968): Southern upland of eastern Uttar Pradesh: A study in landforms and settlements distribution. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Sinha, N.K.P. (1968): Geomorphic evolution of Northern Rupununi basin, Guyana, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Mc Gill University, Montreal, Canada Singh, R.P. (1979): Geomorphological evolution of Chhotanagpur highlands, India, National Geographical Society of India Varanasi: 97-101: Tamasker, B.G. (1959): The Jabra Basin: Its geomorphology and settlements. National Geographer, 2: 12-8 Thornbury, W.D. (1961): ‘Principles of Geomorphology.’ John Wiley & Sons, New York Umashanker (2000): Geomorphic analysis and settlements distribution of Purulia upland, Bihar (India). Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, V.B.S. Purvanchal University, Jaunpur (India) Verma, V.D. (1999): A Study of Geomorphic analysis of landforms and soil conservation in Dhanjori highlands, Bihar. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Purvanchal University, Jaunpur (India) Valdiya, K.S, (1979): An outline of the structural set-up of the Kumaun Himalaya. Journal, Geological Society of India, 20 (4): 145-57 Wadia, D.N, (1939): 'Geology of India’, Mac Millan & Co. Ltd., London Some observations 82 Wolman, M.G. & Leopold, L.B.(1957): River flood plain on their formation. U.S. Geol. Survey., Prof. Papi Wentworth, C.K. (1930): A simplified method of determining the average slope of land surfaces. American Journal of Science, Series 5 (New Haven, Connecticut.); 20: 184-194 Woodruff, J.E. (1964): A Camparative analysis of selected drainage basins. Prof. Paper, 16: 15-19 Wood, W.E. & J.B. Shell (1957): The disperstion of geomorphic data around measures of central tendency. Ann. Asso. Amer. Georg., 47: 184-185INTRODUCTION xiv Young, A. (1961): Characteristics and limiting of slope angles, Zeitfur. Yadava, Yadava, Yadava, Yadava, Zakrzewska, B. (1967): Trends and methods in landform geograph; Geomorpho; 5: 126-131 S.R.S. (1978): Hazaribagh plateau: A study in landforms and settlements. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Baranas Hindu University, Varanasi (India) $.S.S. (1984): Santal Parganas: A study in geomorphic analysis and land conservation. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur (India) S.N. (1998): Quantitative analysis of landforms and settlements distribution in Dhanjori highlands, Bihar. Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis Purvanchal University, Jaunpur R.CS. (2001): Quantitative Analysis of landforms and settlement distribution in the Western Palamau Upland, Bihar (India). Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, V.B.S. Purvanchal University, Jaunpur review article. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 57: 128-65 Young, A. (1972): Slopes. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh 0 eeeee