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Negative effects of the Elements of Weather and Climate on

Human Health and its Adaptation and Mitigation

By Indrajit Pal
M.A. in GEOGRAPHY, UGC NET (DEC 2015), WBSET (DEC 2017)

CSJM University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Abstract
Human health, comfort, and responses are affected more by climate than by any other
element of the physical environment (Critchfield, 1983, p. 355). Not only these, but many
diseases also occur mainly due to the temperature, humidity, and other requirements of
pathogenic organisms in certain climates or even in a certain season. Although different human
beings do not react similarly to the same climate; the relationship is very complicated by
individual physical differences, age, diet, past climatic experience, and cultural-economic
influences. Our selection of amounts and types of food and clothing also tends to reflect weather
and climate (Critchfield, 1983, p. 355). The primary objectives of the present paper are to discuss
the effects of various elements of weather and climate on health, and in what way people can be
adapt and mitigate extreme weather or climatic conditions.

Keywords: Human Bioclimatology, heat stroke, hypothermia, frostbite, heat cramps,

asthma, wind chill

Introduction
The major elements of weather and climate, such as air temperature, humidity, wind,
sunshine, cloudiness, etc. are as prevalent in the life of today‘s civilized people as any other
organism on earth. However, nowadays people have used modern technology to create artificial
environments to protect themselves from adverse weather and climate. Since the advancement of
technology and the financial capacity of the people are not equal in all the countries of the world,
not everyone can maintain their health by using modern technology. Also, this inequality can be
noticed at the regional level of any country. Yet it can be said that human health still depends on
elements of weather and climate. Some examples can be mentioned in this context, e.g. more
than 600 people die each year in the US, more than 2500 in India in 2015, and about 2000 in
Pakistan in 2015 due to the heat wave (Wikipedia, 2020), and according to the report of Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, an average of 1301 deaths per year during the period 1999 to
2011 were associated with cold exposure or hypothermia in the United States.
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In early 2000 years ago Hippocrates, known as the father of medicine, believed that
diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods (Wikipedia, 2020), and
discuses the natural elements in relation to medicine and medical care in his treatise ‗On Airs,
Waters, and Places‘ (Hippocrates, c.460-c.377 B.C). Ellsworth Huntington (1876-1947) (Husain,
2012), known for the climatic determinism, in his book ‗Civilisation and Climate‘, he formulated
that man‘s civilisation could only develop in regions of stimulating climate and that monotonous
heat of the tropics would forbid attainment of the higher level of civilisation (Adhikari, 2015).
Also, he is noted for showing ―the effects of climate on human life‖ (Husain, 2012). Many have
since followed him and explain the role of weather and climate in human life and health. As a
result, Human Bioclimatology has been established in recent times, mainly to discuss the effects
of various elements of weather and climate on human health.

Weather, Climate and Human Health

Air Temperature and Human health
Both heat waves and cold spells have adverse effects on mortality. A recent study by
Gasparrini and colleagues estimated that 7.7%
of the mortality was attributable to non-
optimum temperature using data from 384
locations (Gasparrini et al., 2015). The summer
heat waves in mid-latitudes create extremely
difficult conditions for human comfort and
health. Most people in world feel comfortable
while the air temperature is between 200C to
270C. But when the temperature the air is
Figure 1 Average Annual Temperature of the world in
higher than this, people feel uncomfortable. 1998. [Adapted from Atlas of the Biosphere, Center for sustainability and the
According to the CCOHS (2016), ―such Global Environment, University of Wisconsin- Madison]
situations do not cause harm as long as the
body can adjust and cope with the additional heat. Very hot environments can overwhelm the
body‘s coping mechanism leading to a variety of serious and possibly fatal conditions‖. In a
very hot environment, the rate of ―heat gain‖ is more than the rate of ―heat loss‖ and the body
temperature begins to rise (CCOHS, 2016). Rising body temperature leads to thermal illness. The
negative effects of temperature on human health are described below:

 Exposure to extreme heat can lead to heat stroke and dehydration, as well as
cardiovascular, respiratory, and cerebrovascular disease (United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 2017).
 Regarding the effects of temperature on physical and mental functioning of human
beings, the CCOHS (2016) mentioned:
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The heart rate increases to pump more

Figure 2 Heat Index shows the relationship between
temperature-humidity and human health. As the
temperature and humidity rise, so increases the
severity of sunstroke or heat stroke and other thermal
related health problems. [Adapted from
https://www.ambientweather.com/heind.html]
blood through outer body parts and skin so
that excess heat is lost to the environment,
and sweating occurs. These changes place
additional demands on the body. Changes
in blood flow and excessive sweating
reduce a person‘s ability to do physical and
mental work. Manual work creates
additional metabolic heat and adds to the
body heat burden. When the environment
temperature rises above 300C, it may
interfere with the performance of mental
tasks. (CCOHS)
 Critchfield (1983) mentioned that:

Heat stroke, or hyperthermia, develops when the body is unable to maintain its
heat balance at high relative humidity and air temperature above that of the body;
it may lead to death if deep body temperature rises above the critical level of
420C. Symptoms are fever, nausea, dizziness, and headache. (p. 364)

 Hypothermia occurs when the human body temperature drops below 350C. As a result of
more heat loss than the heat created in the human body, when a person comes in contact
with cold or water. Radcliffe (2019) says about the effects of hypothermia on humans
that—―hypothermia can show up as shivering, clumsiness, confusion, tiredness, or
urination more than usual. If not treated quickly, hypothermia can cause severe health
problems, including death‖.
 Frostbite at extremely low temperatures can
damage various parts of the body, especially
ears, nose, cheeks, chin, fingers, and toes.
There may be blisters in those frostbite
affected areas.
 Excessive cold weather increases the chances
of heart attack in humans because our heart
works harder to keep warm us—which
increases heart rate and blood pressure. Figure 3 there are blisters on the
Sudden lowering of temperature puts a severe fingers due to frostbite. [The image is taken
from Britannica]
strain on persons with cardiac disorders
(Critchfield, 1983, p. 365).
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Adaptation and Mitigation

 Treatment entails reducing body temperature by means
of cold baths (Critchfield, 1983, p. 364).
 Drinking water or commercial isotonic sports drink may
be used for hydration—hydration is important to keep a
person cool.
 Air temperature can be controlled by installing A.C.,
Cooler, high-speed fan, electric heater, fireplace, etc.
 Wear several layers of light-weight and warm clothing.
Loose-fitting traps warm air better than tight-fitting one. Figure 4 Multi-layered clothing
is ideal clothing for winter. It
 Cover your head and face with a hat and scarf or mask protects against frostbite,
to protect your skin. Wear sunglasses and goggles to hypothermia, and cold. [The image is
taken from
protect your eyes. Wear mitten are always warmer than https://commonsensehome.com/best-cold-
weather-clothing/]
gloves.
 For frostbite, move to warm place and take off any wet clothing. Use warm–not hot–
water or body heat to warm the affected areas.

Moisture and Human Health

Both very low and high relative humidity may cause some physical discomfort.
Extremely low (below 20%) relative humidity may also cause eye irritation (Mcintyre, 1978) and
moderate to high levels of humidity have been shown to reduce to severity of asthma (Strauss,
McFadden, Ingram, Deal, & Jaeger, 1978). Weather it is indoors or outdoors, excessive humidity
combined with high temperatures can overheat our bodies. This combination reduces the rate of
evaporative cooling of the body and can cause considerable discomfort (Figure 2) or lead to heat
stroke, exhaustion, and possibly death (Arundel, Sterling, Biggin, & Sterling, 1986). The most
comfortable relative humidity values lie in the
range of 30 to 70 percent (Critchfield, 1983, p.
356). High humidity hinders the human body‘s
ability to regulate body temperature and cool
down. Too much moisture or humidity can
actually raise the body temperature. Also, the
bacteria and viruses that are causes of illness,
they thrive and grow in the air that is above 60
percent relative humidity. Temperature and
humidity are significant factors in the release of
Figure 5 Average Annual Relative Humidity of the
world in 1998. [Adapted from Atlas of the Biosphere, Center for pollens and consequently affect the incidence of
sustainability and the Global Environment, University of Wisconsin-
Madison] allergies (Critchfield, 1983, p. 365).

Sweating is an important process by which the human body cools by evaporating from the
skin. The hypothalamus gland (a gland in the brain that regulates body temperature) activates the
body‘s heat-regulating mechanism, and more than 10 million sweat glands wet the body with as
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much as two liters of liquid per hour (Ahrens &

Henson, 2017, p. 104). When the air is already
saturated with water vapor (as it is when humidity
levels rise to 70 percent and higher) (Rosone, 2020),
sweat doesn‘t evaporate. At this point, the body is
forced to restore to other means to try to cool down.
The heart pumps more blood to your extremities, and
gives less blood to the internal organs and the brain.
The negative effects of temperature on human health Figure 6 this person’s leg has been affected
are described below: by heat cramps. [The image is taken from
https://aaptiv.com/magazine/heat-cramps]

 Excessive water loss through perspiring coupled with an increasing body temperature can
result in heat exhaustion—fatigue, headache, nausea, and even fainting (Ahrens &
Henson, 2017, p. 104); and heat
stroke can occur when body
temperature rises above the extreme
conditions. Also, rapid loss of water
and salt can result in a chemical
imbalance that may lead to painful
heat cramps (Figure 6) (Critchfield,
1983).
 The (Venta, 2020) article on
the effects humidity on human health
states that ―low humidity is associated
with the frequency of respiratory tract
infections‖ (Figure 7).
 Too little humidity results in
Figure 7 Asthma causes obstruction of airflow in the bronchial bloody noses and can eventually lead
tubes, which can lead to shortness of breath and even death. to cracks and swelling of the lungs,
[The anatomical diagram is taken from https://www.britannica.com/science/asthma]
according to Dr. Mehmet Oz (Venta,
2020).
 Low humidity makes the skin dry that causes
cracks, inflammation and peeling on the
skin. Eczema, according to the American
Academy of Dermatology, flares up in a sudden
drop of humidity (Venta, 2020).

Adaptation and Mitigation

 Adequate liquid and salt intake help to prevent heat Figure 8 a humidifier creates the
necessary moisture in a damp home.
cramps and also relieve the condition if it develops [The image is taken from
https://purennatural.com/products/aos7146-
(Critchfield, 1983, p. 364); and ice massage and ultrasonic-travel-humidifier]
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stretching the involved muscle can relieve from

heat cramps.
 Humidity of air can be controlled by
installing AC, Humidifier, and dehumidifier in
home, office, school, and workshop. It is the
function of the humidifier to create optimal
humidity by increasing the low humidity. On
the other hand, to create optimal humidity by
Figure 9 a dehumidifier creates the moisture in a dry reducing the high humidity is the function of
room. [The image is taken from https://norsecorp.com/best- the dehumidifier. Air condition (A.C.) can
dehumidifiers-with-pump/]
regulate humidity with temperature condition.
 Dress appropriately according to the character of the weather, e.g. in extremely hot and humid
weather, lightweight and light-colored clothing reflects heat and sunlight and helps our body
maintain a normal temperature.
 To avoid high temperature and high humidity, bathe in cold water, and drink plenty of water or
sports drink that hydrate the body.

Wind and Human Heath

Like other elements of
weather and climate, the wind has
a significant impact on human
health. The air or wind carries and
spreads a variety of pathogens
from which humans are infected.
Pathogenic organisms enter the
human body through breathing,
touch, eyes, nose, or mouth.
According to the Wikipedia
(2020)—―many common
infections can spreads by airborne
transmission at least in some cases,
including but not limited to:
Figure 10 Wind Chill Index shows the relationship between
measles morbillivirus, chickenpox temperature-wind speed and human health. With the decrease in
virus; Mycobacterium temperature and an increase in wind speed, the severity of
frostbite is increasing. [The image is adapted from
tuberculosis, influenza virus, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_chill ]
enterovirus, norovirus and less
commonly coronavirus, adenovirus, and possibly respiratory syncytial virus‖.

In addition to the spreading of pathogens, wind helps the human body to cool by
transferring heat to the surrounding environment. When the wind is calm and high temperature
and high relative humidity are prevail, humans feel uncomfortable. This condition reduces a
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person‘s ability to function physically and

mentally. But, as the wind speed increases, the
heat loss from the body at an intense rate and
lower both the skin temperature and ultimately
the internal body temperature.

Contaminated air is spread around

through the wind. Different types of
contaminants such as chemical contaminants
(e.g. sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxide, ozone, and various hydrocarbons), solid
particles, pollens, organic dust, etc. are spread Figure 11 the gas scrubber are specifically designed
to remove one or more types of gas pollutants such as
around in such away. This can lead to eye ammonia, chlorine or sulfur compounds. [The image is
irritation, shortness of breath, and even death. adapted from https://www.pollutionsystems.com/chemical-scrubbers-gas-
scrubbers.html]
Many people in different parts of the world
have fallen ill and even died due to the spread of polluted gases, smokes, and bad smell in the air.
About 4000 people died when sulfur dioxide was released into the air during the period
December 5 to December 9, 1952 at the Thames valley in London (Critchfield, 1983, p. 369).
Nowadays, such incidents have exacerbated human health problems and discomfort.

Wind chill, the term used to describe the rate of heat loss on the body resulting from the
combined effect of low temperature and wind (Shiel). Wind chill temperature is defined only for
temperatures at or below 100C (500F) and wind speeds above 4.8 kilometres per hour (3.0 mph)
(Wikipedia, 2020). The severe condition of wind chill (Figure 10) can result in hypothermia,
frostbite (Figure 3), and asthma (Figure 7).

Adaptation and Mitigation

 Do not leave the house in wind chill condition, and wear multi-layered clothing to keep
the body warm enough.
 Artificial heating the house with an electric heater or fireplace will protect us from the
cold weather and wind chill conditions.
 Wearing a face mask and maintaining social distance are very effective ways to protect
against airborne diseases, e.g. all countries around the world are concentrating on this
method to protect themselves from COVID-19.
 Decontaminate the air by installing scrubbers (e.g. chemical scrubbers, gas scrubbers) in
the source areas of air pollution (Figure 11).
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Sunshine and Human Health

The intense sunlight of the arid tropics or that reflected off snowfields can cause forms of
blindness, headaches, and related discomfort (Critchfield, 1983, p. 366). The solar spectrum
produces both good and bad effects on the human body. Ultraviolet rays are valuable for their
ability to form vitamin D in the skin and to devitalize bacteria and germs (Critchfield, 1983).
Also, Mead (2008) says about the benefits of ultraviolet rays—―exposure to both UVA and UVB
radiation can direct immunosuppressive effects through upregulation of cytokines and increased
activity of T regulatory cells that remove self-reactive T cells‖. On the other hand, ultraviolet
radiation can cause premature aging of the skin; sunburn which is caused by too much UVB
radiation (Mead, 2008); the skin
becomes pigmented (tanned) which is
caused by intense sunburn, and skin
cancer due to the deep penetration of
UVA radiation into the skin (Mead,
2008), etc. Also, combined with
intense heat, ultraviolet rays are also a
factor causing cataract of the eye
(Critchfield, 1983).

Adaptation and Mitigation

 Not going out in the hot sun is
one of the best ways to protect you
from the adverse effects of UV rays.
To avoid the most intense sunlight of
the day seek shade (Figure 12).
 When you go out of the house,
using an umbrella keeps the body cool
and protects it from the hot sun. Also,
if the body is well covered with
clothing, it will protect the skin from
Figure 12 this awareness poster image mentions various
ways to protect you from the negative effects of the hot sun. the harmful rays of the sun.
[The image is adapted from
https://sites.google.com/site/sunsafetyaustraliahpd1/products-services]
 When using sunscreen, it
creates a protective coating on the skin
which protects it from the harmful rays of the sun.
 Wear a hat, sunglasses or goggles, it keeps your face cool and protects your eyes from the
scorching sun and heat.

In addition to the elements of weather and climate described in the previous section,
cloudiness, heat wave, and cold wave adversely affect human health. Prolonged high temperature
and cloudiness weather may cause discomfort to human. Heat waves cause in various thermal
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related problems such as heat cramps (Figure 6), dehydration, heatstroke, etc. From mid-May to
mid-June 2019, due to heat waves, more than 184 people died in the state Bihar, with many more
deaths reported in other parts of the country (Wikipedia, 2020). Due to cold waves like the heat
waves, especially in northern India, people lost their lives and fell ill. According to the statista
(2020) report, in 2019, 61 people died across the country due cold waves. Hypothermia,
shortness of breath, discomfort, etc. are caused due to extreme cold waves.

Conclusion
It would be a complete misconception to assume that weather and climate have only
negative effects on human health. When humans are not able to extreme conditions of weather
and climate, then they harm humans. The pleasant weather is very comfortable for humans, and
there are many places in the world where the weather maintains the health of people and often
cures diseases. Fresh air, sunshine, mild temperatures, and moderate relative humidity all have
therapeutic values (Critchfield, 1983, p. 371).

If we are alert and aware in advance by looking at the weather forecast, we can be
protected from the extremely negative effects of weather and climate. If our clothing, food,
physical activities, etc. are according to the character of the weather, then we will maintain good
health.

References
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Arundel, A. V., Sterling, E. M., Biggin, J. H., & Sterling, T. D. (1986). Indirect health effects of relative humidity in
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Submitted by Indrajit Pal

Contact Address: Agradwip R.S., Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, India, 713502
Contact No: +917908070572, email-indrajitp08@gmail.com