ROOM NOISE REDUCTION
 The building up of sound levels in a room is due to the repeated
reflections of sound from its enclosing surfaces
 This building up is affected by the size of the room and the
amount of absorption within the room
 The difference in decibels in reverberant noise levels or noise
reduction under two conditions of room absorption can be found
as follows:
NR = 10 log R2/R1
Where NR is
R1
R2
 NR is the reduction in Reverberant Noise Level
 This does not affect the noise level very near the source of sound
in a room
 A reduction in reverberant noise level of 10 dB is the practical
limit for most remedial situations
 Since sound absorption efficiencies very with frequency, the NR
should be calculated at al frequencies for which sound absorption
coefficients known
Example Problem
a) A small room 10 ft x 10 ft x 10 ft has all walls and floor finished in
exposed concrete. The ceiling is completely covered with sound-
absorbing spray on material. Sound absorption coefficients  are
0.02 for concrete and 0.70 for spray material, both at 500 Hz.
b) Find the noise reduction NR in this room of sound absorbing
panels are added to two adjacent walls. The sound coefficient  is
0.85 for panels at 500 Hz.
c) Find the noise reduction NR if all four surfaces are treated with
fabric-covered panels and the floor is carpeted. The sound
absorption coefficient of the carpet is 0.50 at 500 Hz.
NOISE REDUCTION FOR HIGH-NOISE ENVIRONMENT
Low ceiling, Machines Widely Spaced
 In the example shown, machines are widely spaced so that
installing efficient sound-absorbing treatment on the ceiling and
upper walls can reduce reverberant noise levels throughout the
room.
 However, the sound-absorbing treatment will be of little benefit
tot eh individual equipment operators in the free-field because
the direct sound energy will reach the operator before it reaches
the sound-absorbing materials.
High Ceiling, Machines Closely Spaced
 In the example of closely spaced machines in a room with a high
ceiling, room surface treatment can be effective if reverberant
noise levels are higher than the free-field noise of some machines.
 A reduction in reverberation will help make machine noise more
directional (by reducing the reflected sound), allowing workers to
be more responsive to their own machines. However, operators of
closely spaced machines may be in the free-field of several
machines, which would be unaffected by ceiling and upper-wall
treatment.
Enclosure to Contain Machine Noise
 The sound isolating enclosure shown can be design to provide
noise reduction near the source so individual operators can be
close to their machines without experiencing high noise levels.
 Enclosures can be designed with operable viewing panels to allow
rapid access when needed.
TRANSONDENT FACING
 Transondent – sound transparent facing
 Facing tend to reduce the effectiveness of sound-absorbing
materials by reflecting high frequency sound waves
 Usually used over sound-absorbing materials to protect the facing
 Transondent facings such as perforated sheet metal, expanded
metal, or punched and pressed metal can be used alone in front
of sound-absorbing materials, or in combination with wood slats
or other large-scaled protective elements.
Example Problem
a) A lecture hall has all walls and floor finished in exposed concrete.
SAC for concrete is 0.02 at 500 Hz. Find the Noise Reduction NR if
acoustic panels are added to the back and half of the two side
walls. The sound absorbing coefficient is 0.70 for panels at 500 Hz.
b) A lecture hall has all walls and floor finished in exposed concrete.
The entire ceiling is covered with acoustic panels. SAC for
concrete is 0.02 and 0.60 for acoustic panels. Find the Noise
Reduction NR if acoustic panels are added to the back and front
walls. The sound absorbing coefficient is 0.75 for acoustic wall
panels at 500 Hz.
PROTECTIVE FACINGS FOR WALL ABSORPTION
 When absorption of high frequency sound energy is not critical,
the open area of protective facings need only greater than about
10% to control reverberation or noise build up within rooms.
 When absorption is used to control echoes, however protective
facing should have higher percentage of open area from
numerous, closely spaced openings.
RESONANT PANELS
 Sound absorbing panels which are designed to provide low-
frequency absorption ( 250 Hz)
 Resonant panels absorb energy from sound waves by vibrating at
a frequency determined by the geometry and damping
characteristics of the panel.
SUGGESTED SOUND ABSORBING TREATMENT FOR ROOMS
CHECKLIST FOR EFFECTIVE ABSORPTION OF SOUND
ANCIENT THEATERS
 Open-air Greek and Roman theaters most often had good
listening conditions for drama and instrumental recitals by small
groups
 Greek theaters usually were located on steep hillside in quiet rural
locations
 Successful sites had a few gusty winds
 Seating layouts were semi-circular so the audience would be close
to the stage, thus reducing sound energy loss by distance
 The tiers were constructed with a steep rise (> 20 degree) to
provide good sight lines, permit reflected sound energy from the
orchestra floor and reduce attenuation caused by the seated
audience
Attenuation/Sound Attenuation – lessening or reduction. Reduction in sound
level
 Actors wore masks which exaggerated their expressions and
reinforced their voices since conical-shaped megaphones were
built into the mouths of the masks
 The unoccupied seats (with backs or risers sloped backward by
about 10 degrees) and the heads of the audience also scattered
sound to adjacent areas
 Modern open-air theaters should be designed to achieve low
noise intrusion and satisfactory distribution of sound
 However an enclosure is required to achieve the reverberation
and fullness of tone needed for modern symphonic music and
opera

BASIC THEATER STAGES
3 Basic Theater Stages
1. Proscenium Stage – where the performing area is largely in a
coupled stage house viewed through a “picture frame” opening
2. Open or Thrust Stage – where the performance area extends into
the audience area
3. Arena Stage – where the performance area is entirely surrounded
by audience. In Open or Arena Stages, sound reflecting walls and
ceiling are extremely important to help compensate for the
directivity of high frequency speech signals
DIRECTIVITY CONTOURS FOR SPEECH (SPEECH DIRECTIVITY)
 Speaker orientation can be important factor in classrooms and
meeting rooms in particular
 The average sound level of a male speaker is about 64-65 dB at a
distance of 3 ft from the speaker. Female speaker is about 2-4 dB
lower at a 3 ft from the speaker
 Orientation of the speaker to the listener is an important
consideration. Considering the Inverse Square Law which teaches
us that every doubling of the distance, the signal/sound will
diminish in intensity by approximately 6 dB
 As shown in the diagram there is a difference of about 10 dB in
speech levels between the front and back of the speaker
 This amounts to about 1 ½ dB per 30 degrees of rotation from the
head on the direction of the speech signal.
SPEECH CONTOURS
AUDIENCE SEATING
 Sound level outdoors fall off with distance (Inverse Square Law)
and audience attenuation (as sound grazes the seated audience it
is scattered and absorbed)
 When steeply sloped seating is used, the sound level outdoors
falls off primarily with distance
 It provides good sight lines and less audience attenuation
 An overhead sound reflecting panel or ceiling, as shown by the
illustration can provide reflected sound to reinforce the direct
sound
 Installing a hard, sound reflecting enclosure outdoors near the
sound source can greatly improve listening conditions by
reflecting sound energy toward the audience and by shielding the
audience from noise sources behind the enclosure
SIGHT LINE BASICS
 Unobstructed sight lines from all seats to the front of the
forestage allow full view of performers and unobstructed
propagation of the direct sound.
 Sight lines are normally drawn to converge at a point on a stage
called the Arrival Point of Sight (APS)
 Audiences should be able to hear and to see clearly and
comfortably to fully perceive the intended effects of
performances
 Laterally staggered seating layouts can achieve satisfactory every-
other-row vision for back-to-back seat dimension B of 40 inches
for commercial seating and 36 inches for parallel seating.
 Non-staggered seating layouts cannot achieve satisfactory
condition for every-other-row vision
 Mid-tier
SIGHT LINE LAYOUT
 For Proscenium Theaters, “Lateral Sight Lines” normally should be
within a preferred “view angle” of 30 degrees
 View angle is measured from the perpendicular at the end of the
proscenium opening
 In multi-purpose auditoriums, the proscenium line may vary from
full width for ballet and symphonic orchestra, to smaller widths
for drama and music performance by soloist or small ensembles.
 Balconies should not have excessive floor slope (>26 degrees) and
the top balcony should not be more than 65 ft (20m) above the
stage to avoid vertigo
 A balcony view of the first few rows of main floor seating may be
desirable to achieve a sense of congregation with audience below
the proscenium arch should not obstruct the view of bottom 7 ft
the back stage wall.
REFLECTION, DIFFUSION AND DIFFRACTION
There are 3 basic uses of reflectivity of sound in a room acoustics
environment
1. Reflection (x > 4)
 It is the return of a sound wave from the surface
 Reflections can also be used to benefit sound distribution
within a space
 Direct sound diminishes in intensity as it travels
 In large spaces, the sound can diminish before it reaches all
of the receivers particularly those furthest away from the
source
 Reflection can be used to help distribute and amplify the
presentation to all of the listeners. Of course this specific
characteristics and location of reflective surfaces
 If the surface dimension X is larger than 2-4 times the
wavelength  of the impinging sound wave, the angle
incidence < i will equal the angle of reflection < r
2. Diffusion (x = )
 It is the scattering or random redistribution of sound wave
from a surface
 Sound energy is spread evenly in a given environment
 Diffusion occurs when the wavelength is equal to the surface
that reflects it
 Typical surfaces will make up a continuous surface but will
connect with each other at shallow angles to “break up”
sound evenly
 This is optimal when there is a large area of sound producers
and you want each one to sound amongst the others in all
corners of the room
 Whereas if you have a single performer, an angled reflective
surface will be most useful
3. Diffraction (x < )
 It is the bending of a sound around an object. This occurs
when the reflecting surface is smaller than the wavelength
of the reflected wave
 Typically these surfaces will be spaced out so that some of
the sound goes ‘through’ them.
PATTERN OF REFLECTED SOUND
Concave Reflector
 Concave sound-reflecting surfaces (such as barrel-vaulted ceilings
in churches and curved rear walls in auditoriums) can focus sound,
causing hot spots and echoes in the audience seating area.
 Because concave surfaces focus sound, they also are poor
distributors of sound energy and therefore should be avoided
where sound-reflecting surfaces are desired.
Flat Reflector
 Flat, hard-surfaced building elements, if large enough and
oriented properly can effectively distribute reflected sound
  The reflector shown below is tilted slightly to project sound
energy toward the rear of an auditorium
Convex Reflector
 Convex, hard surfaced building elements, of large enough, can be
most effective as sound-distributing forms. Reflected sound
energy from convex surfaces diverges, enhancing diffusion, which
is highly desirable for music listening. In addition, reflected sound
from convex surfaces is more evenly distributed across a wide
range of frequencies.
RAY DIAGRAMS
 Ray diagram analyses can be used to study the effect of room
shape on the distribution of sound and to identify surfaces which
may produce echoes.
 A Ray diagram is an acoustical analogy to the specular reflection
of light where the angle of incidence < i of an impinging sound
wave equals the angle of reflection < r, with angles measured
from the perpendicular to the surface (Law of Reflection – angle
of incidence equals angle of reflection)
Some limitations of Ray diagram studies are as follows:
1. Sound reflects in the manner indicated by ray diagrams only when
surface dimensions are large relative to the wavelength  of
sound being evaluated (> 4)
2. Normally, the source of speech or music will not radiate from a
fixed position. Optimum room shape therefore depends on a
careful balance of the best sound distribution from several source
position to the listening area.
3. Detailed evaluation of diffusion of sound by room surfaces is not
possible with ray diagrams. Therefore, scale models which allow
frequency-scaled acoustical studies are often used in design,
particularly in rooms where music perception is important.
 In spite of these limitations, ray diagrams can be an important
design tool in establishing optimum room shape.
 The table is a design guide that can be used with ray diagram
analyses to evaluate general listening conditions.
 The difference in length between the reflected sound path and
the direct sound path at any listening position is directly related to
the time difference which the ear detects.
 Distance = Velocity (sound speed) x Time (seconds)
Sound Path Difference Time Delay Gap (ms) Listening Conditions
(ft)
< 23 < 20 Excellent for speech
and music
23 to 34 20 to 30 Good for speech, fair
for music
34 to 50 30 to 45 Marginal (blurred)
50 to 68 45 to 60 Unsatisfactory
> 68 > 60 Poor (echo if strong
enough)
An inexpensive protractor to measure angles, a pencil, scale and paper are all
the equipment required for ray diagram calculations
Path Difference = Reflected Path – Direct Path
Example of Ray Diagram Measurements
Front Location No. 1 – Path Difference = (11 ft + 18 ft) - (12ft) = 17 ft
Front Location No. 2 – Path Difference = (16 ft + 26 ft) - (33 ft) = 9 ft
Both are excellent for speech and music because path difference is less than
23 feet
This particular example only works for situations where there is one origin of
noise. In multiple origin contexts, such as a meeting room, the entire room
must be optimized for participants to be able to hear a speaker from
anywhere in the room.
SOUND PATHS IN AUDITORIUM
 The “Initial-Time-Delay Gap” (ITDG) is the time interval between
the arrival of the direct sound and the first reflected sound of
sufficient loudness.
 For good listening conditions, the ITDG should be less than about
30 ms (path difference < 34 ft)
 Early arriving reflected sound energy is important for clarity and
definition of music
 Early reflections/sound is usually defined as the direct and
reflected sound arriving within the first 80 ms.
 Clarity can be defined as the ratio of early sound energy to late or
reverberant sound energy
 Auditoriums with narrow shapes support direct and early-
reflected sound because the ITDG will be short
 In the design of auditoriums, ray diagrams can be used to
determine ITDG.
 The ITDG also strongly influences a listener’s perception of the
size of an auditorium (called intimacy)
 The listener in the auditorium shown in the chart will hear the
direct sound first and then, after the IITDG, reflections from the
walls, ceiling, stage enclosure, and so on
 These arrival times and sound levels are indicated by the bars on
the sound level vs time graph.
CEILINGS
 The preferred ceiling shape and height depend on the intended
use of the room
 For example, ray diagram analysis indicated that the hard, sound
reflecting flat ceiling shown below provides useful sound
reflections which cover the entire seating area in a lecture room
 Useful sound reflections for speech are those which come from
the same direction as the source and are delayed by less than 30
ms.
 For concert halls, where long reverberation is a design goal, high
ceilings are preferred and all walls should be sound reflecting. In
addition, ceiling that are diffusing can improve audibility of lateral
sound by diminishing the strength of ceiling reflections.
 However carefully reorienting the ceiling; the extent of useful
ceiling reflections can be increased so that the middle rear seats
actually receive reflections from both ceiling planes.
 The average ceiling height H in auditoriums with upholstered with
seats and absorptive rear walls is approximately related to the
mid-frequency reverberation time T as follows:
H  20 T
Where:
H = Ceiling height (ft)
T = Mid-Frequency Reverberation Time (s)
ECHOES
 Is the distinct repetition of the original sound and is sufficiently
loud to be clearly heard above the general reverberation and
background noise in a space
 To determine if echoes are present in completed spaces, sharply
clap your hands or slap two books together. Listen for any strong
repetition of the original clap.
 Note the direction and strength of any echoes and how long it
takes any “fluttering” or “ringing” to drop off to inaudibility.
 For speech signals, echoes can be received when the time
intervals between the direct and reflected sounds are greater
than 60 ms. (about 1/17 second)
 In auditoriums, sound reflecting flat or concave rear walls and
high or vaulted ceiling are potential echo producers

ECHO CONTROL PRINCIPLES
 Potential echo-producing surfaces should be treated with efficient
sound-absorbing materials or shaped.
 The front portion of the ceiling is lowered to reduce the delayed
reflections from overhead and reoriented to provide useful
reflections toward the rear of the auditorium
SOUND-ABSORBING WALL TREATMENTS
 “Deep” treatment can be provided by either thick sound-
absorbing materials or thin sound-absorbing materials installed
with an airspace behind.
REAR WALL ECHO CONTROL TREATMENT
 A flat, sound reflecting rear wall can produce echoes or unwanted,
long delayed reflections in medium to large auditoriums
 3 solutions to control “slap” echoes (i.e. sharp return of sound)
from a rear wall.
SIDE WALLS
Ray diagrams analysis are useful in the horizontal plane to study sound
energy reflected from the side walls.
These lateral reflections help create a favorable auditory spatial impression
(or intimacy) which is essential for the satisfactory perception of music
performances
 Early sound reflections from side walls can add strength to the
direct sound
 The ITDG can be found by subtracting the direct sound path “D”
from the reflected sound path “R”. Both paths are measured to a
listener seated near the centerline of the hall, halfway between
the conductor and the first balcony face (or rear wall)
 ITDG in milliseconds equals the path difference (R-D) in feet times
0.9 for concert halls, ITDG should be less than 20 ms.
 Wide fan shapes and semi-circular floor plans usually do not
provide strong, early lateral reflections because the sidewalls will
be located too far apart
 Unless overhead sound reflections can be used to help overcome
the absence of lateral sound reflected from the walls, music will
sound distant and lack fullness of tone
 Rectangular Shape (Dashed lines indicate preferred orientation for
a lecture room)
 Stepped Shape (Alternate elements of side walls are parallel to
provide lateral reflections toward audience for music hall)
 The Reverse Fan shape can provide strongest lateral reflections
and spatial impression for music
ARTICULATION INDEX (AI)
 AI is a subjective measure of speech intelligibility
 It is calculated from the scores of a group of experienced listeners
with normal hearing who write sentences, words or syllables read
to them from selected lists.
 The graph relates AI to the percentage intelligibility of clearly
spoken sentences or words that skilled listeners hear correctly
 The plan view of the lecture room shown has superimposed on it
a plot of seat locations having equal AI’s in decimal percentage
(called AI contours)
 The contours shown indicate “very good” speech listening
conditions (AI > 0.70) near the source located at the left of the
stage platform
 Note also that the AI drops off with distance from the source
 Reshaping of the ceiling and control of echoes off the rear wall
could raise the AI at these remote location
 An objective evaluation test method called the Rapid Speech
Transmission Index (RASTI) has been developed to electronically
measure intelligibility in rooms.
FLUTTER ECHO
 Flutter Echo is usually caused by the repetitive inter-reflection of
sound energy between opposing parallel or concave sound
reflecting surfaces
 Flutter is normally heard as a high-frequency ringing or buzzing. It
can be prevented by reshaping to avoid parallel surfaces,
providing deep sound absorbing treatment, or breaking up
smooth surfaces with splayed or “scalloped” elements.
 At 1:10 splay (or > 5 degrees tilt) of one of the parallel walls will
normally prevent flutter echo in small rooms.
 In small rooms, flutter can be most noticeable at specific locations
of noise source and listener
 The echo phenomenon shown (called Pitched-Roof Flutter) can
occur in rooms with non-parallel walls
SMALL ROOMS
 Audible resonance is the emphasis of sound energy at particular
frequencies
 It can occur in small rooms entirely finished with sound-reflecting
materials when the dimensional ratios are whole numbers (e.g.
Cube)
 This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the “Bathroom
Tenor” effect
 However because most rooms contain absorptive materials such
as carpets, curtains and furnishings, the provision of preferred
dimensional ratios usually is unimportant
SOUND ABSORBING SURFACES OPPOSITE SOUND REFLECTING SURFACES
 In the small music practice rooms shown in floor plan view, the
amount of sound which will reflect between hard, sound-
reflecting surfaces will be minimized by installing sound absorbing
materials on adjacent walls or two at opposite corners
 To enhance low frequency absorption, be sure there is a deep
airspace -between sound-absorbing treatment and the backup
surface.
 Nonparallel-Wall Surfaces (sound-absorbing ceiling or fully
carpeted floor normally will be required of walls are hard surface)
 Sound-Diffusing Wall Modulations (Large-scale cylindrical,
triangular, or other surface irregularities can be used to provide
diffusion)
CONCAVE SURFACES
 Concave wall and ceiling surfaces usually require treatment to
prevent annoying sound reflections which reduce intelligibility of
direct sound
 Concave shapes (circle, ellipse & parabola) cause reflected sound
to converge at a focal point (Focusing-sound energy concentrated
in a certain area)
 Shown in the illustration are problem situations and
corresponding corrective measures
 Focusing can be more noticeable for low frequency sound energy
because most finish materials are less absorptive at low frequency
Problem Solution
Focused sound Surface Undulations: Large-scale,
random-sized surface undulations
can provide diffusion to minimize
focusing of reflected sound energy
Creep Sound absorbing treatment:
 Acoustically transparent materials  The sound-absorbing panels rotate. It has 3 sides which could be
(e.g. spaced wood slats or open able to reflect, absorb and diffuse sound
metal grille) conceals actual
enclosure, which can be treated VARIABLE VOLUME EXAMPLES
with deep sound absorbing  Examples of auditoriums where the cubic volume can be varied to
material to reduce reflected sound match reverberance and patterns of reflected sound energy to the
energy and creep echoes
intended function.
 Reverberation time needed for intimate drama (< 1 second) and
Ex) MIT Chapel, Cambridge, Massachusetts design by Eero Saarinen
symphonic music (> 1.8 seconds) require radical changes in
volume with corresponding changes in seating capacities.
CREEP ECHO FROM DOME
 Whispering Gallery Effect (Creep Echo) occurs when sound energy
CHECKLIST FOR MULTIPURPOSE AUDITORIUMS
is reflected along the domed ceiling surface allowing persons at
opposite ends of the rotunda to easily converse at whisper voice
levels
 Domed planetarium can be designed to avoid focusing by using a
sound-transparent liner on which the sky images are projected

SOUND REFLECTORS
 An effective sound reflector has a hard surface, such as thick
plaster, double-layered gypsum board, sealed wood, or acrylic
plastic and is significantly larger than the wavelength of sound, it
is designed to reflect
 Sound reflecting pulpit canopy can provide useful reinforcement
of the direct sound as well as prevent long delayed reflections and
potential echo conditions from high ceiling

AIR ABSORPTION
 Sound waves pass through air, energy is absorbed. This
phenomenon is called “Molecular Relaxation” because the air
molecules absorbs energy when they bump each other
 The amount of absorption is significant at frequencies below
2,000 Hz and above 10,000 Hz. However the effect of air
absorption should be included when calculating the total room
absorption of large spaces and when sound propagates over great
distances outdoors.

HOW TO COMPUTE CUBIC VOLUME

 Reverberation Time is directly proportional to the size of a room,
it is extremely important that cubic volume be correctly computed
 In many designs, it is to be subdivide room volume into smaller
volumes, such as in an auditorium: main hall, orchestra pit, under
balcony, above balcony, and so on.

VARIABLE SOUND ABSORBERS

 When the reverberation time must be varied to satisfy the
requirements of different activities in a room. The sound
absorbing treatment can be designed to be adjustable

Retraceable Sound Absorbing Curtains

 Curtains can be adjusted to vary the amount of absorption and
when stored in a recess, to expose a sound-reflecting back up face
 Visually opaque, sound-transparent screen (Transondent) can be
placed in front of curtains to allow changes in curtain extension
without affecting appearance.

Sliding Facings
 Two panels of perforated material can be used to vary absorption
by sliding one panel in front of the other
 Holes are lined up for maximum absorption and are staggered
(offset) for maximum reflection

Hinged Panel
 Sound absorbing materials installed on back of sound-reflecting
panel can be swung into position to vary conditions from hard to
soft

Rotatable Elements