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EVOLUTION TIMELINE
DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS

TIME LINE 1
BIG BANG to 65,000,000 Years Ago

TIME LINE 2
CENOZOIC ERA BEGINS as Age of Mammals and Birds
PALEOCENE – 65 – 57 mya
EOCENE -- 57 – 34 mya
OLIGOCENE – 34 –23 mya
MIOCENE -- 23 – 5 mya
PLIOCENE -- 5 – 2 mya
PLEISTOCENE – 2 mya to 13,000 yrs ago
HOLOCENE -- 12,000 yrs. Ago to the present

TIME LINE 3
12,000 yrs ago to the Present

THE CENOZOIC ERA HAS ONLY 2 GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS

A – The Tertiary
B – The Quaternary

A. The Tertiary entails the first 5 periods

Paleocene
Eocene
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Oligocene
Miocene
Pliocene

B. The Quaternary includes just the

Pleistocene
Holocene

Even though HUMANS originated in the Pleistocene, they did not become a
dominant force on the Earth until the Holocene

Pleistocene oscillates between -- Glaciation and Interglaciation – It is

contemporary with human activity
Holocene – Currently a warmer interglacial period – The Age of Man
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5 DIFFERENT ICE AGES

1. HURONIAN – 2.4 to 2.1 billion yrs ago
2. CRYOGENIAN – 850 to 630 million yrs ago
3. ANDEAN SAHARAN – 460 to 430 million yrs ago
4. KAROO – 360 t0 260 million yrs ago
5. THE GREAT ICE AGE – the current ice – age – 2.6 million yrs
ago to present

Geological epoch/era of Pleistocene is co -terminus with archaeological

periods known as Paleolithic in common understanding of the terms –
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Surviving animals –
Through much of Lower Paleolithic
wild horses, woolley rhinocerous, woolley mammoth
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Cave bears, wolves and herds of reindeer

Lower Paleolithic covers maximum period of Paleolithy

HOMO species –
Homo Habilis
Homo Erectus – human migration out of Africa
Cultures – (primary and representative)
Oldowan
Acheulean (variants – Clactonian and Levallois)

Middle Paleolithic – Intermediate stage between Homo erectus and Homo

Sapiens

HOMO species -- Archaic Homo Sapiens, Neanderthals

Cultures – Mousterian (primary and representative)
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Upper Paleolithic – covers approximately 1/10th time span of entire
Paleolithy period
Characterised by 5 Environmental Stages –

UPPER PLEISTOCENE / PALEOLITHY-- futher divided into 5 Environmental

Cycles
1) Inter – Glacial – 128,000 to 118,000 yrs.ago
2) Early Last Glacial – 118,000 to 32,000 yrs ago
3) Full Glacial – 32,000 to 14,000 yrs. ago
4) Late Glacial – 14,000 to 10,000 yrs. ago
5) Post Glacial – 10,000 yrs ago – till the present

UPPER PALEOLITHY
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Human kind managed to survive and flourish

HOMO species –
Homo Sapiens / Homo Sapiens Sapiens
Cultures – (primary and representative)
Aterians
Chattleperonians
Gravettians
Auragnacians
Solutreans
Magdelaneans
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HUMAN EVOLUTION

PRIMATE – ZOOLOGICAL ORDER OF MAMMALS

Separated from PLANTS
Primate Group includes –
Lemurs, Lorises, Tarsiers
AND
Monkeys, Apes and Humans
Many Primates have high level of intelligence
Characterised by tails, hands, feet, short snout and a large brain
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PRIMATES ARE DIVIDED INTO 2 SUBORDERS
1) PROSIMI and 2) ANTHROPOIDEA
1) PROSIMI --- the More Primitive Primate -- Prosimian
Lemurs, lorises, tarsiers
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2) ANTHROPOIDEA –-- the bigger brained mammals -- Simians

Monkeys, Apes, including Humans

ANTHROPOIDEA –
Means resembling humans or Man like, but also includes Anthropoid Apes –
so called because they resemble humans more closely
For common understanding it is further divided into
Old World Monkeys
New World Monkeys
Hominoidea – both apes and humans and their ancestors
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HOMINOIDEA ----
the biological family of which humans are a member -- Informally known as
the Great Apes
Include 4 genera – human, chimpanzee, gorillas, orangutan
There is difference in usage for example sometimes we say –
“humans and the great apes”
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HOMINOIDEA (have lot of species) -- is further divided into –
Pongidea – (Great Apes) --Chimpanzees / Gorillas /
Orangutan
Hominidea -- (All Humans) – Commonly called Hominids
The superfamily originated in Africa
Pongids split from Hominids around 7 mya i.e. Pongidea gave rise to Hominin
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PRIMATES
HOMINID –
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The current 21st century meaning of HOMINIDS includes all the GREAT APES
including HUMANS
Only ONE Human Species exists today -- HOMO SAPIENS or Human Beings
Some of these are quite well known from their fossils – Australopithecus,
Homo Habilis, Homo Erectus, Archaic Homo Sapiens, Homo Heidelbergensis,
Neanderthals, Homo sapiens Sapiens

PRE – HOMO Species --

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EARLIEST SPECIES --
AEGYPTOPITHECUS (EGYPTIAN APE)
Informally termed as the DAWN APE
Said to PREDICT the DIFFERENTIATION between HOMINIDS and OLD WORLD
MONKEYS
Considered part of the evolutionary process – their bones resemble later
Primates like the Lemurs
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TRANSITIONAL PRIMATE –
MONKEY TO APE – PROCONSUL AFRICANUS

ANOTHER LINK BETWEEN APES AND EARLY MAN --

KENYAPITHECUS

SPECIES REPRESENTATIVE OF THE LINEAGE THAT INCLUDES HUMANS AND

OTHER APES –
DRYOPITHECUS – Forerunner of gorillas / chimpanzees and Humans
A developing type of Ape
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CONTEMPORARIES OF DRYOPITHECUS –
OURANOPITHECUS ---- Greece and Turkey
SHIVAPITHECUS--------- radiated throughout Eurasia and Africa
RAMAPITHECUS--------- do
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BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
GENUS AUSTRALOPITHECUS
Begin –
ARDIPITHECUS RAMIDUS ---- 4.4 mya – 4.2 mya
Remains found in AFAR RIFT, MIDDLE AWASH VALLEY, ETHIOPIA, AFRICA
Site – Aramis
Said to be last common ancestor shared by humans and chimpanzees
Lineage between Apes and Humans may have diverged from Ardipithecus
Ramidus in Africa
Its traits are closer to humans
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FURTHER DIVISION–
Genus AUSTRALOPITHECUS AND Genus HOMO
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AUSTRALOPITHECUS FIRST EVOLVED –
Eastern, North – Central & South Africa --
Australopithecus Amanensis -- 4.2 – 3.8 mya (Lake Turkana, Kenya/
Ethiopia) --
Australopithecus Afrensis -- 3.7 – 3 mya ( Laetoli, Tanzania and Hadar,
Ethiopia)
Australopithecus Africanus -- 3.6 – 2 mya (Taung, South Africa)
Australopithecus Robustus -- 2.3 – 1.2 mya ( Swartkrans, South Africa)
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Australopithecus Boisei -- 2.4 – 1.4 mya (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania)

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Genus HOMO
Beginning –
Once Homo Branch Formed – it Radiated Rapidly and Separately

GENUS HOMO -- BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION

First Fossils dug up in EAST AFRICA –

HOMO HABILIS – 2.4 to 1.5 mya. /
LOWER PALEOLITHIC
Not Complete Human…BUT—
Structure quite different from Australopithecus which now becomes extinct

Earliest Fossils discovered in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) / Hadar Region

(Ethiopia) in the Awash Valley, East Africa
Primary Features –
Anatomy – Bipedal but Not fully upright / Large Brain / Opposable Thumb
– habile hand – advanced grasping capable hand
Both Hadar and Awash finds confirm that BIPEDALISM developed FIRST and
then EXPANSION OF BRAIN (Cranial Case range 650 to 800 cc)
Confirmation of BIPEDALISM comes from Laetoli site, (Tanzania) (Foot prints
found in volcanic ash) / Sites -- Lake Turkana, (Kenya), Olduvai Gorge
(Tanzania), East Africa
Chief Characteristics – Terrestrial / Scavenger / Gatherer / Hunter
Paleolithic Phenomenon described as --- Simple surviving “savages”– the age
of “savagery” (Gordon Childe) wherein man was not fundamentally
differentiated in subsistence techniques from other herd animals, displaying
superiority in degrees rather than kind of dependency on environment.
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Lived in CAVES / CAVE SHELTERS near to water bodies and predictable food
supply
Lived – in small group formations – reflective from fossil findings
TOOL MAKING – First Handyman of Pre - history – the tool maker
Primitive stone tools found alongside fossils in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) and
Lake Turkana (Kenya)
Caves / Cave Shelters -- used as “Living Floors” concentrated with Oldowan
tools and butchered bones -- found at Lake Turkana, (Kenya) Olduvai Gorge
(Tanzania)
TOOLS -- Made from Pebbles – used as raw material available as Quartz /
Quartzite / Basalt – all tough stones – heavy tools – sites Lake Turkana
(Kenya) and Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)
These had a centre i.e. CORE of the tool – chipped in two directions
Tool Types – simple and utilitarian -- Multipurpose Tools – Choppers / Crude
Scrapers / Sharp Edged Flakes / Cutting Tools

Homo Habilis Culture – Oldowan Industry (Defined as such by Gordon Childe)

and Oldowan Tradition (Defined as such by Graham Clarke)
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HOMO ERECTUS – 1.8 mya – 0.5 mya
LOWER And Much of MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC
Sites – Earliest Fossils from East Turkana (Kenya), East Africa – Skull ER – 3733
with massive brow ridges / high forehead / enlarged brain
Fossils dug up from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) in East Africa
Fossils also dug up in Morroco, Algeria, Hungary, West Germany
Mobile Species – Lived over wide areas -- Adapted to Diverse Climates --
Forest / Temperate / Arctic – about 700,000 years ago moved from Africa to
Asia – Thailand / Indonesia / Java / China and Europe
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Chief Anatomy – Bipedalism / Upright Back / with developed Girdle –

modification in limbs and hips resembling Modern Man / locomotion or
movement of joints easier / Larger Brain (1000cc) / Male or Female species
distinguishable
Discovery of Fossil of 12 year old boy / Tall fossil / virtual complete skull /
bones below the neck are MODERN LOOKING but the skull and jaw are more
primitive looking / region said to be rich in game –– fossil seemed
surrounded by footprints of Hippopotami

Cave Sites – found closer to lakes and water streams

Cave Sites termed as CAMPS -- lakeside sites where simple choppers and
crude stone hand axes have been found

Chief Characteristics– Hunter – Gatherer / projected as making seasonal

rounds to exploit diversity of resources -- meaning that Homo Erectus
returned to the same sites seasonally – may be in favourable seasons – it is
said that by 400,000 years ago the species must have become skilled hunters
and gatherers – exploiting environments from Tropical Africa and Java to
temperate Europe

Tamed and Controlled FIRE – FOREST TECHNOLOGY (Gordon Childe) remains

of blackened bones and burned chipped stones artefacts and ash deposits
are found / discovery of hearths found in caves where fossils of Homo
Erectus found / Cave Sites – Olorgesaille (Kenya), Awash Valley (Ethiopia) /
Zhao – Gao – Dien (China) / Torralba and Ambrona (Spain) / La Pineta (Italy)

Tool Technology – Acheulean / termed more advanced to Oldowan tools --

also dug up as Clactonian and Levallois tools /-- the tools still utilitarian,
simple but more efficient
Tool Raw Material – Old Stones supplemented by bone / antler / wood
Tool Type – Homo Erectus Fossil discovery sites – indicative of more complex
and elaborate tool technology -- Primary Innovation – Stone Hand Axe –
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multipurpose tool used for digging up plant roots, scraping animal skin,
carcasses, butchering bones, cutting wood – could be used as core tool,
chopper or as a primitive disc -- commonly found form ----- – other tools
choppers / flake tools / retouched flakes / crude points / scrapers

STONE TECHNOLOGY – Species knew about the properties of stone – how to

select the right kind of stone – could even visualise a tool in 2 dimensions –
some stones chipped at angles – or worked symmetrically on both sides – for
this reason Stone hand Axe is termed as BIFACE TOOL –
Acheulean Hand Axe -- made from a lump of stone through carefully directed
Hammer Blows – nearly foot long -- the stone hand axe had different
designed edges that met at a point -- it is said that the maker had to imagine
the shape beforehand – statistical co -relation between the length, breadth
and thickness – reflect a combination of ideas – a standardised made
according to repeatable pattern – comes in many shapes and sizes – Fagan
says that Homo Erectus had a “sense of geometric proportion” – good work
which reflects process of mind evolution
Acheulean Stone Hand Axe – Could be recycled into Flake Tools – could be
treated as a form of primitive “Long Disc” – with well - defined axis -- with
sharp edges and symmetry in shapes – precision tools
Thousands of Acheulean tools dug up in North African stone quarries –
ancient Saharan lake beds -- sub - Saharan Africa – from the Nile Valley right
to the Cape of Good Hope – Acheulean Axes travelled along with Homo
Erectus in different parts of the world – spread to Asia across Anatolia, to
Iran, Pakistan, to India and beyond – In Europe their use spread to Western
Mediterranean, in France, Germany, Britain – Acheulean tools found along
with bones of wild oxen, stag or hunted elephants
Diverse tool technology influenced by local environments – some finding
sites are Clacton in Britain and Levallois in France – based on these
Acheulean tools are contemporaneously also known Clactonian and Levallois
tool types – flint Knapping technique --
Prominent Culture Defined as ACHEULEAN CULTURE – as distinguished from
Oldowan Culture
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Basic Unit now understood to be “GROUP” – relatively stable Groups of 20 –

30 – systematically hunted the sites – and perhaps remained at the same
place for months together – typical examples are Olorgesaille (Kenya),
Vallonet Caves (France), Ambrona caves (Spain) – animal remains mixed with
stone tools and clusters of carbon and ash dug out – majority animal bones
were of deer but also of wild oxen, elephants, rhinoceros, beavers, bison,
bears, boars and horses – almost all skeletons found were disarticulated with
smashed bones and splitted perhaps to get bone marrow
No known Homo Erectus burials –
Homo Erectus depended on co – operative activity
Said to have lived on the earth during much of the LOWER and MIDDLE
PALEOLITHIC – In Africa gave rise to Archaic Homo Sapiens and in other parts
of Europe Neanderthals provided the intervening species during the
evolution process

TRANSITION
SUCCESSORS TO HOMO ERECTUS – BETWEEN 300,000 to 250,000 yrs ago
SWANSCOMBE IN ENGLAND
AND
STEINHEIM IN GERMANY
ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS IN AFRICA
PRE – DATES – NEANDERTHALS

DIVERSE SUB – SPECIES OF HOMO SAPIENS – BUT GAVE RISE TO

HOMOGENOUS SINGLE SPECIES – HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS – A SINGLE
SPECIES COMPRISING OF MANY SUB SPECIES
SWANSCOMBE –
Documents initial stages of the evolution of Home Erectus into Homo Sapiens
Evidence comes from the site -- Swanscombe, along Thames river not far
from London
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Discovery of cranial bones in 1935 probably of a woman, of 20 / 25 years of

age – with a cranial capacity of about 1275 to 1,325 cc – within the range of
modern man’s brain – from the same site another cranial bone of the same
skull was discovered in 1944 just 25 meters from the original site
At the same site near to the skull bones are also dug out hand - axes roughly
similar to Acheulean collection of France and Africa have been found --
Interestingly in the lower levels of excavations are also found distinct flake
tools and choppers
Along with these tools are also dug out wooden spear fragments which date
to roughly about 400,000 to 200,000 yrs ago – these are wooden spears and
probably do not have stone tips – its possible that wooden spear must have
become widespread in use – The discovery is treated as a clue Middle
Paleolithic people hunted
Spear use meant that animals could have been trapped and then killed with
wooden spear – In the same Swanscombe site excavators have recovered
distinct fossils forms of elephants, rhinoceros and deer – availability of these
fossils meant that Swanscombe England was an ideal site for hunting and
gathering groups

STEINHEIM
Another finding of a skull in 1933 at Steinheim, Germany, has helped to
clarify the position of Swanscombe findings – Steinheim finding is of a
complete skull probably of a woman whose brain size place her between
Homo Erectus and Homo Sapiens
The cranial capacity is between 1150 and 1175 cc but its teeth and other
parts are similar to modern man – for example all of the molar teeth are
small -- because of these two features Steinheim woman is termed as a sub –
species of Home Sapiens – Homo Sapiens Steinheimensis – transition from
Homo Erectus to Homo Erectus had begun somewhere between 300,000 to
250,000 yrs ago

ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS / HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS

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Refers to recent African origins of modern humans --- the dominant view
today is that Archaic Humans usually thought to have been contemporary to
Homo Heidelbergensis – the lineage leads to Homo Sapiens in Africa and to
Neanderthals in Europe – Sometimes Heidelbergensis is seen as exclusively
European lineage giving rise to Neanderthals -- but developed from Homo
Erectus
In Africa Archaic Homo Sapiens / Heidelbergensis are seen as part of a
gradual evolutionary mosaic – like transition into earliest Homo Sapiens
around 200,000 yrs ago
In Africa fossil discovered at the OMO Kibish (Ethiopia) / Irhoud in Morocco /
Herto at Middle Awash region depict the transition / Fossil find show that
Archaic Homo Sapiens skull had a high round skull similar to Homo Sapiens –
and is dated to about 195,000 yrs ago
TOOL FINDINGS – Flint Bifaces – Wooden Spears
The fossil remains indicate that Archaic Homo Sapiens is biologically similar
to Homo Heidelbergensis whose lineage in Europe leads to Neanderthals

NEANDERTHALS – 100,000 to 40,000 yrs ago

HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHALENSIS
Stronghold remains Europe
Also found in West Asia
Perhaps in parts of Africa
Fossil first identified from NEANDER VALLEY, South -West Germany – also
found at DORDOGNE VALLEY, South – West France

Scholars Interpretation --- the species an aberration of History

First impressions -- Words such as dumb and ugly Ape / inferior / primitive
used to describe this side branch in the evolution process
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Further research – showed striking anatomical differences between

Neanderthals and Modern Man – statistical analysis of archaeological data
solidly places the position of Neanderthals in the evolution of Homo Sapiens
– A connecting Link between Homo Erectus and Homo Sapiens

Chief Biological Characteristics –

A receding chin / large cheekbones / prominent brow ridges / protruding
lower face / larger front teeth / short but powerful stature / cranial capacity
some 50 to 100 cc greater than the modern population roughly around
1530cc / strong masculine body

Adaptation Process – identified with MOUSTERIAN CULTURE – distinct tool

technology and other variants – tools were generalised and within that
structure were found 5 tool types identified as TOOL KITS to which possible
functions have been assigned
1) Borers / Scrapers / Knives – associated with maintenance activities
2) 3 kinds of Points / Scrapers / Burins – used for hunting and butchering
3) Flakes / Knives –fine butchering
4) Flakes / Scrapers – preparing wood and possibly scraping of bones /
plant foods
5) Points / Discs / Scrapers / Blades –hunting and butchering

Defined mainly as Hunter – Gatherers BUT also caught Birds and Fish
BURIALS – In the absence of written records pre – history provides other
means of documentation – Burials are a material record, but, it’s a record of
a behaviour that is deeply meaningful – Burials allow experts / scholars to
trace the emergence of beliefs / values and other complex ideas – that
appear to be uniquely human
Neanderthal Burials are characterised by much greater diversity of mortuary
behaviour – they buried both humans and animals – Some Excavated Sites
include LA CHAPELLE / LA FERRASSIE (France) – Patterns -- Depicting
ritualistic behaviour – Deposited material in graves ---
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UPPER PALEOLITHIC
HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS – 45,000 onwards
THE ONLY LIVING MEMBERS OF GENUS HOMO

WHERE and WHEN DID THEY ORIGINATE – Great Debate and the question
remains one of the great controversies of world pre – history.
VITAL TRANSITION – Most people believe that Homo Erectus evolved into
Homo Sapiens – Few fossil remains to document this
Traditionally Debate on the origins of Homo Sapiens Sapien – two primary
models exist over which other modern theories emerged
1) Candelabra Model – that Homo Erectus populations evolved
independently – first to archaic Homo Sapiens and then to fully
modern humans in Africa --- but have also absorbed, geographically
variable Homo Sapiens from other regions -- Sometimes also called the
Neanderthal Phase – Argues for multiregional origins of Homo Sapiens
Sapien and logically no migration out of Africa – that H.S. evolved
separately in Africa / Europe / Asia without gene flow among regions
2) Noah’s Ark Model – that Homo Sapiens Sapien evolved evolved in
Africa – then spread out of Africa to other parts of the world
Modern Models of the 2 extremes --
1) Assimilation Model – Multiregional model – put parallel lines of
evolution in each inhabited region of Africa / Europe / Asia – by
interbreeding across the globe – resulting in the assimilation of genes
that persist in modern humans
2) Replacement Model – asserts that there was a single origin of Homo
Sapiens in Africa and that these anatomically modern humans
migrated out of Africa and replaced all other lesser evolved humans
throughout Europe / Asia – a slow and continuous process
Recent Fossil Remains testify to Africa as the cradle of human evolution –
that Modern Humans evolved from Archaic Humans primarily in Africa --
Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia / Omo I site fossil from Ethiopia, 195,000 yrs
ago show beginnings of skull changes including rounded skull and possibly a
projecting chin / Herto site in Middle Awash region, Ethiopia, 160,000 yrs ago
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show early stages of transition from Archaic Homo Sapiens to Modern

Human – finding of a near complete adult skull and a partial child’s skull have
been dated to about 160,000 yrs old
Somewhat more advanced transitional forms have been found at Laetoli site,
Tanzania dated 120,000 yrs ago / By 115,000 yrs ago the range had expanded
Homo Sapiens Sapiens found in Africa / Europe / Asia -- Famous Broken Hill
skull, Zambia – a key fossil, a possible relative of Modern Humans, dated
100,000 yrs ago by which time Neanderthal Species in Europe had run its
course
Compared to Neanderthals, Modern Humans generally have more delicate
skeletons – with rounded skulls / less protruding brow ridges /high
foreheads/ smaller faces / pointed chins
HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS – Adaptation Process – Hunters and Gatherers –
exploiting resources on seasonal basis – Significant changes – Occupied large
Territories but also made settlements that seemed to be “constantly”
occupied -- Greater Use of Caves and Rock Shelters as well as repeated use
of open sites
UPPER PALEOLITHIC TRADITION -- CULTURAL EVOLUTION
Distinctive Hunter Gatherer Culture – Known from 100s of sites in Africa/
Europe/ West Asia
Settlement Patterns -- Larger groups occupied territories – near to water --
exploiting on seasonal basis – returning to the same site when animals
migrated or when vegetable seasons came around --- Greater use of Rock
Shelters and Caves also of Open sites, now labelled as Transit Camps – Open
Spaces more routinely exploited -- South western areas of Europe with their
deep river valleys and rock shelters – constantly occupied – smaller sites
more intensively exploited – Examples Nelson Bay, South Africa, Negev
Desert, Israel – concentration on a limited number of natural resources
Scientific understanding reflected in Settlement Patterns – H.S.S. occupied
such caves and rock shelters which invariably faced South – to benefit from
the sun’s rays in colder season
Relative to other species – H.S.S. were skilled hunters -- Developed Hunting
Strategies – like trapping animals – based on main four animals – bison /
horse /reindeer / red deer
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Other survival strategies – Storage of food – Gordon Childe cites the example
of dried Fish – information on this is scanty
TOOL TECHNOLOGIES -- H.S.S. – Adapted and Modified tool making
techniques – adapted to both Acheulean and Clactonian / Levallois
techniques of stone working -- H.S.S. – pre - shaped Core of the stone in
Acheulean form --- In Levallois / Clactonian technique – H.S.S. produced
Broad Flat Flakes / Large Blades / Triangular Points – Also discovered
Mousterian Flakes / Points / Scrapers / Spears in the H.S.S. sites – But they
also experimented with more economical flaking methods
Many Evolutionary Paths to Upper Paleolithic technology – Far more
advanced than anything made by their predecessors -- H.S.S. Developed
Distinct Tool Making Techniques – Sharpness of tools achieved through
developing TRIMMING TECHNIQUE – Trimmed Flakes were also POLISHED i.e.
sharpened with wood – Use of PUNCHES AND HAMMER to produce finer
blades – Also PERCUSSION TECHNIQUE used to produce Blades – Sites in Et –
Tabun and Megharat – El – Wad (Israel) / Shanidar Caves (Iraq) are termed as
sites that document tool making from Percussion technique – In Later years
of Upper Paleolithic, Such tools were mounted on Wooden Handles –
Some of the tools were COMPOSITE TOOLS – tools made of more than one
component – Best example is H.S.S. Spear – It was made of a Point, Shaft and
a Binding that tightened the head of the Spear – then DISC appears as a
distinct tool – Earlier man used Core Tools as Disc – H.S.S. produced Disc by
removing flakes of many sizes and the Core was given a Round shape – Tools
also became Specialised i.e. used for special tasks such as wood working or in
hunting or in the skinning of the Hides –
Alongside Coarser tools continue to exist --- i.e. Crude Tools with untrimmed
edges – these have survived – used for cutting or scraping
Emphasis on the working of Bones and Antlers – More significantly in the
creation of ornamentation – show skilful working of antler / bone / stones /
even seeds
OTHER SOCIO - CULTURAL NORMS – As Complexities begin to take shape
BURIALS – excavated from caves and rock shelters even camp sites – Patterns
-– Ceremonial Burials – Burial Rituals can be traced continuously
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CAVE PAINTINGS – Nearly 200 caves bearing wall paintings and engravings
have been found in South – West Europe – ALTAMIRA CAVES, Spain and
LASCAUX CAVES, France – ENGRAVED ART OBJECTS have also been found –
TYPES OF PAINTINGS – Naturalistic images of animals – Famous Great Hall of
the Bulls / sometimes human like forms / Tent like Symbols / Spaghetti like
Patterns / Images as Dots and Signs -- Not merely ART FOR ARTS SAKE –
meanings attached
COMPLEX CULTURES – Chatelperronians , France / Aurignacians, Central
Europe, Crimea, the Balkans / Gravettians, France, England and Spain /
Solutrians, Megdalanians in Western Europe /
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MESOLITHIC
A Period of TRANSITION between Paleolithic and Neolithic
Mesolithic people continued with Paleolithic tools and also created their own
which were then found to be in use by the Neolithic people
Survival ensured through a MIX of Hunting and Gathering Economy but the
Mesolithic people had learnt to separate edible plants by pulling out weeds
and through the performance of a process which is termed as ‘Artificial
Selection’…This is considered an anti – thesis of the ‘Natural Selection’ that we
studied throughout much of Paleolithic.
Artificial Selection is a technical term / expression which describes breeding of
plants and animals in the words of Mareck Zvelibil.
Mesolithic – the term first introduced by John Lubbock in Pre – Historic Times
(1865) – the term was used by Gordon Childe in his Dawn of Europe and more
recently the term/expression/phenomenon has been popularised by Graham
Clark in World Prehistory in New Perspective
The Beginning of Mesolithic and its end vary by geographical regions – the
term is generally applied to the developments in Northern Europe – however,
it is also used for the Levant region where the term is referred to as
Epipaleolithic – i.e. Final Paleolithic Period – Levant includes – Lebanon, Israel,
Palestine, Syria, Jordon, Parts of Iraq/Iran – the regions of Northern Nile Delta
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in Egypt -- where first agricultural economies would grow in the Neolithic

period.
Remains of this period are few – found in Middens or collections of debri
First signs of deforestation as glades of forests were settled by the Mesolithic
people – this would start on a large scale during the Neolithic when extra space
for farming would be needed.
Mesolithic period is characterised by smaller size tools as compared to
Paleolithic – Characterised as MICROLITHS made and sharpened by the
technique of GRINDING and BLOW TECHNIQUE, a special procedure for cutting
up the stone blades.
Fishing Tackle, Stone Adzes and wooden objects such as Bows, and including
Canoes have been found preserved at some sites
SETTLEMENTS – Tendency towards more partial sedentary settlements – with
emphasis on fishing, reliance on bows and arrows and spear hunting –
Mesolithic Cultures are far more advanced in their ritual and social forms – but
are distinct from Neolithic Cultures as there is absence of farming as well as
Pastoralism on a large Scale.
There are two designated cultural periods known as Mesolithic I and
Mesolithic II –
Mesolithic I followed the Auragnacians , an Upper Paleolithic Culture – some
20,000 to 18,000 B.C.– The Climate and Environment had changed starting a
period of transition – the Levant became more arid and the forest vegetation
there retreated to be replaced by steppe region – The cool dry period ended
with the beginning of Mesolithic I
When gradual changes took place in Stone Industries. Small stone tools called
Microliths and smaller size Retouched Blades were found for the first time –
Retouched Blades show continuity from Paleolithic -- The Hunter – Gatherers
of the Auragnacian types modified their way of living and their patterns of
settlement became relatively sedentary – Their tool types included small
blades also found from the sites are microlithic burins and end – scrapers. A
few bone tools and some ground stones have also been found.
We then look at the Kebarran Culture – named after the Kebarran caves, Israel
/ in the eastern Mediterranean region --- dated by some scholars as between
 21

18000 to 10,000 B.C. --- The Kebarran people are said to have been a highly
mobile nomadic people who were Hunters and Gatherers but they are said to
have made use of MICROLITHIC TOOLs – like the Geometric Trapeze /
Rectangular Points / and Projectile Weapons like Bows are found in the
excavated sites of these caves but NO specialised Grinders or Pounders of the
later Neolithic are found – Kebarran People are thought to have been ancestral
to the later Natufian Culture of the Levant Region.
The Mesolithic II period is also called Natufian Culture first studied at Wady –
en – Natuf ( the Natufian developed in the same region as the earlier Kebarran
culture / earliest evidence of Natufian culture emerged from Shuqba Caves
West Jordon/ Palestine) – the earliest date for Natufian Culture is stipulated to
be 11, 140 to 8ooo B.C.—This period is characterised by early rise of
agriculture that would later merge into Neolithic period – This culture is
represented by scores of sites in a wide strip of land running from Turkey to
the Nile Delta – the flora of the Levant during this period was parkland and
woodland, it was not the dry – barren landscape of today.
The Natufian Culture is said to have been Unusual in that it was semi
sedentary or can also be classified as sedentary in some parts – before the
introduction of agriculture in the Neolithic period i.e. a sign of transition – For
at least part of the year the Natufian people lived in communities – Their
largest communities are called ‘Camps’ housing Mesolithic people found at the
early Ain – Mallaha and Wadi Hammeh 27 site.
The Natufian people lived in communities made up of what has been defined
as houses, built of material identified as stone, wood and perhaps of brush –
no traces of the use of mud bricks have been found as in the early pre –
pottery Neolithic period --made in shapes that are understood to be circular
semi – subterranean houses – with a diameter between 3 and 6 meters
excavated – built partially or completely below the ground surface – some of
these are said to be quite large in size. They are also said to have built an
earliest shrine identified from the site of Gobekli Tepe.
The Natufians buried their dead in special places that have been termed as
cemeteries -- An important point to note is that Burials are located in the
settlements, commonly in pits found in abandoned houses. We are told that
sometimes the graves are found covered with limestone slabs – There are
found both single and multiple burials –
 22

Burials are also found with grave goods including in the shape of stone bowls
and dentalium shell – the important point to note is that Natufian burials show
clear signs of social ranking in the manner in which corpses have been dug out
– from the cemeteries – for example one common and constantly recurring
burial good is the symbolic dentilium shell but it is confined to a few burials –
sometimes the skulls are decorated with shell beads -- At the same time
elaborate grave goods such as stone bowls are found in some burials – other
goods exist like beads / teeth of deer / bones / stones. There are also found
ornaments like pendants / necklaces / even bracelets -- These findings suggest
that some form of social differences must have been practiced by the Natufian
people – In some cases excavators have found that few burials in which long
bones and skulls were missing – This aspect of Natufian burials have parallels
with Neolithic culture --
Scholars attribute the development of a more complex hunter – gatherer way
of life in this area that must have helped the Natufian to pre – adapt to plant
crops. The people were hunting gazelle, deer, horse, cattle and wild boar. But
Natufian artifacts also include Grinding Stones used to process seeds, dried
meats and fish for food and red ochre for ritual practices.
Flint and Bone tools and Dentalium Shell ornaments are also part of Natufian
assemblage or middens.
Specific tools created for harvesting of various crops are termed as Stone
Sickles.
Large Middens are known as Natufian sites --
Natufian groups occupied a range of sites including caves, some larger
settlements with permanent structures, food storage facilities and cemeteries
which as argued show some degree of social differentiation.
SPECIFICITIES – It is said that Natufian people retained a mobile form of life
and along with establishing semi - sedentary and sedentary communities –
while some smaller Natufian settlements have been interpreted as camps –
Material Culture includes – geometric microliths, bone points, spear tips, fish
hooks along with -- sickle blades, grind - stones, mortars suggesting harvesting
of cereals particularly in the Levant region.
There is, however, no direct evidence of “deliberate” planting / cultivation of
crops nor of cereals – nor for domestication of livestock like cattle. Though
 23

some scholars say that there is some evidence for cultivation of Rye in the
Levant, and it is argued that some scarce evidence indicates that the Natufian
people may have cultivated wild cereal like barley and wheat, but this is not
directly evidenced.
According to many scholars the line between tending of wild crops and
agricultural crops is a very fuzzy one. However, most scholars do believe that
cultivation may have been a series of experiments rather than one time
decision.
Natufian people lived by hunting -- gazelle being the main prey as evidenced by
animal bones excavated, and, remains of wild cereals, almonds, pistachios
show signs of continuation of gathering form of subsistence as well.
Representative sites --

Wadi Hammeh 27 –
The human skeletal remains from this site represent a hunter – gatherer
community – in the Jordon Valley estimated to have existed approximately
some 12000 years ago – the site is said to have been distributed over 2000
square meters where Natufian people lived – It’s a settlement, according to
some scholars, with a layout of a village – i.e. it stood at the threshold of a
major transformation of human society –
Thousands of artifacts have been recovered that show Natufian activities --the
site contains debris of food remains i.e. middens – along with Bits of collapsed
structures -- found to show that the site consisted of curvilinear stone huts –
Also are found -- circular shaped hearths located within the structures and
showing charcoal fragments --
The site has yielded tools made of flint / basalt and limestone –
The house structures are underlain with burials – now termed as primary and
secondary burials – including multiple burials excavated in some cases --
containing at least 5 individuals –
Ain – Mallaha –
This is a Natufian Settlement built and settled approximately around 9000
years ago – the site is located in northern Israel and is an area surrounded by
hills and located by an ancient lake – lake Huleh – it is said that at the time of
 24

its earliest habitation the area was heavily forested in oak, almond and
pistachio trees – the inhabitants are known to have eaten gazelle, deer, wild
boar, tortoise and fish — A semi – sedentary way of life may have been
possible by abundant resource availability – i.e. nomadic way of life was
accompanied by some kind of settlement –
The Ain – Mallaha settlement is said to have been inhabited in 3 phases – the
first 2 phases had large stone - built structures with smaller ones in the 3rd
phase – Traces of Postholes have been identified covering an area over 1000
square mtrs –
The Ain Mallaha site is said to have housed an estimated 100 – 150 people –
settled in approximately 50 huts – most of them semi – circular in shape and
approximately 2.5 to 9 meters in diameter – these are generally termed as
Gobular huts -- Pits identified as storage facility were found in individual huts –
as well as in areas identified as common compounds – findings show an
increase need of containers -- it is conjectured that these may have been
shared --
The Ain – Mallaha Natufian people had a microlithic industry based on short
blades and bladelets – tools such as flint bladed sickles for harvesting and
mortars for grinding stones have been excavated – It is said that people made
tools with micro – burin technique – There also existed geometric microliths
like triangles, also backed blades – A typical arrowhead made from regular
blade was also common to the culture – Also found were heavy ground stone -
- bowl mortars –
Other findings show that there was a rich bone industry – including fish hooks
– Ostrich shell containers have also been found –
Stone and bone were worked into ornaments as well
This archaeological site contains one of the earliest evidences of dog
domestication – remains in a burial of an elderly human being with a 4 – 5
months old puppy have been excavated – perhaps one of the first animal to be
domesticated.
Burials -- humans were found buried in other caves – with complex burial
customs – and practices which some scholars term as vague and others as
inhuman – Burials show corpses with their heads sandwiched between two
stones – and the joints of their legs was covered with large stones – as if to
 25

ensure that the deceased won’t rise from the grave – but more logically, as
scholars assert, to make the corpse swallow into the ground with the weight of
stones – The process could have taken days or weeks -- also multiple burials
are excavated in some cases -- containing at least 5 individuals – these may be
termed as family burials as excavations have yielded burials with several
corpses very tightly packed together -- Also found are red and yellow ochre
pigments in the graves— sprinkled on top of the corpses.
Natufian was a culture living from hunting – gathering – fishing, including the
use of wild cereals –
----------------------------------
Northern Europe --
There were regional variants of the Mesolithic – in the post – glacial period as
Mesolithic people adapted to the warmer post – glacial times – there were
marked changes as Mesolithic people appeared on the European continent –
The Mesolithic people appeared to have adapted to the scheduling of seasonal
activities and accommodated surviving strategies – Food quest was intensified
and there was greater sedentism that made people to pre – adapt to later
Neolithic characteristics.
For our purposes European Mesolithic is divided into 3 broad representative
divisions – approximately between 9500 to 6600 yrs ago--
Maglemose Culture
Ertebolle Culture
Kongemose Culture
Maglemose Culture – A transitional Period having characteristics of both
Paleolithic and Neolithic.
In Europe this was the time of seasonal exploitation of Forests, lakes and water
streams – Their subsistence activity combined hunting with foraging (searching
for food provisions gathering nuts etc) and Fishing – During this period people
are said to have lived in large huts with bark and wooden floors --
Maglemose made extensive use of Microlithic Industry -- with raw materials
like Bones and Antlers for Tools – Making and using Fishing Hooks –Traps for
Birds – Their tools are also classified as asymmetrical and irregular Micro
 26

Burins – also continued the use of heavy stone tools and carpenter’s
assemblage –
Made use of Canoes – indicative of increased Navigation
Maglemose people trapped Birds and did Fishing –
In the Winters – they hunted more as in the cold season Fishing became less
important – Hunted such animals as red deer / wild Ox / Pigs
After the winters the subsistence cycle included – bands of people gathering
hazelnuts and other edible plant foods –
Ertebolle Culture –
Is said to have been a continuation of Maglemosian Culture BUT with an
emphasis on Coastal Settlements – all the year round – with people living off
very wide range of food resources – waterfowl, shellfish and sea mammals –
and both shallow and deep - water fish --
Inhabited areas where Deep water fishing was found –
Made use of Mesolithic Flints in Trapezoidal forms – Adzes were more popular
than Axes – used Crude Barbed Bone Points – But geometric tools generally
died out according to scholars –
The period is characterised by the use of new Hunting and Fishing Technique –
as both shallow and deep - water Sea Fish remains are found in their
assemblage – shell fish / sea mammals like seals -- and Hunting of Migratory
Birds is said to have been a common characteristic – along with Forest animals-
Also include dug – out canoes up - to 10 meters long
Ertebolle Burial cemeteries have been found – with bodies placed in various
positions, with dog remains along with human – Men and Women have been
found deposited with different grave goods – While red deer antlers are found
in the graves of older people we are also told that in few Ertebolle cemeteries
corpses have evidence of projectile points found in their ribs.
Kongemose Culture –
People lived near to Lakes and Bays – occupied whole the year round --
exploiting Marine and Terrestrial animals –
 27

Characterised mainly as Hunter – Gatherers – Their economy activity

diversified with a focus on Fishing – both fresh - water and sea - water fish
Sites show remains of hunted animals like red deer / roe deer / wild boar/
Sea Fish and sea mammals are said to have constituted main food items – like
the Salt – Water Fish / Seals
Use of Stone Microliths was a feature – along with animal Horns (antlers) and
Bones – Tools charaterised by Long Flintstone Flakes / Scrappers / new tool like
a Drill -- has been identified along with Micro blades -- and Bone Daggers
decorated with geometric patterns --
--------------
MESOLITHIC PROGRESS
Mesolithic is a comparatively short time span, a few thousand years, compared
to some hundreds of millenia of the Paleolithic Age. But it is important to
remember that these years contained within themselves the seeds of the
future Neolithic when man transformed from a wanderer - hunter to a stable
community of farmers and Pastoralists. Pre – historians have given the
“Mesolithic” to emphasise the characteristics of this period.
The two best known Mesolithic Cultures, one in western Asia and one in
Northern Europe, both brought into being by climatic changes which followed
the final retreat of the glaciers some 10,000 years ago. A gentler climate
allowed mankind to adapt more gradually to change. In Europe, as the ice
retreated and temperatures gradually rose, warmth demanding trees like oak
among others became the landscape along with great pine forests in Europe.
This was the time which ensured a plentiful supply of fish in lakes and sea
meres which made possible the survival of Maglemose, Kongemose and
Ertebolle people. In West Asia, the Kebarans and Natufians had similar
responses to cold and dry conditions and to forest and grassland vegetation.
They increased their responses to high yielding plant resources but they also
maintained broad range of hunted animals. As time passed farmers began to
introduce cereals, sheep and goats as well as cattle and pigs in both the zones
i.e. West Asia and Europe.
For Mesolithic Europe – at least 2 general models have been proposed – a)
Settlement in lower latitudes where highly mobile bands of people exploited
animal and plant resources. They shifted their camps regularly as local
 28

resources became exhausted, and b) settlements in higher latitudes where

productivity and availability of resources was more even / uniform. Here
human groups moved less often and adopted almost sedentary way of life.
Though hunting and gathering remained main subsistence activity but it
became more intensive. The new factor in Mesolithic was that greater
exploitation of resources was done – of animals – fish – plant resources.
We have looked at some common features and also at variations while
Mesolithic people survived through a mix of hunting – gathering – fishing
The period was marked by long – term technological trends – 1) gradual
downsizing of stone tools and use of antler / bone to create Microlith and
Micro - burin and 2) creation of specialised sets of hunting weapons – spear
barbs / bows and pointed arrows / hunting traps / fish nets / fish tackle / knife
- blades – As these became smaller and lighter in weight, it is possible that
hunters were relying more heavily on spear throwers according to experts.
The stone working technologies became more standardised and were oriented
towards the production of parts of composite tool types especially small arrow
barbs / knife barbs and scrapers / small bladelets made from striking off
conical cores / snapping thicker part to form a small Microlith. In Europe as
well as in West Asia, this technology involved production of 1000s of
Microliths.
The Mesolithic Tool – Kit was therefore more versatile and modified according
to local needs.
Strategies of survival included Storage Technique – and scholars hypothise that
these must have compensated for periodic food – shortages caused by climatic
change and seasonal fluctuations.
At the level of social organisation – we are told by scholars that Mesolithic
people were organised into groups which can be defined as small size “clans” –
within the clans a system of kinship must have prevailed –
Burials are indicative of social complexity and even of differentiation from
which more social complexities would evolve as mankind transited to the
Neolithic.
Recent research focuses on the signs of complexities in the Mesolithic pre –
historic period as well -- it is used to explain semi – sedentary or sedentary
living ways – with people living in sizeable settlements which scholars like
 29

Fagan prefer to label as village – with durable dwellings constructed over a

long period of time.
Fagan / Wenke also say that Mesolithic people evolved “Management
Strategies for survival” – and that these related to scheduling of seasonal
activities which may have connected the Mesolithic people to growing and
harvesting seasons -- and it were such strategies that became crucial when
people began to grow crops and tame animals in the Neolithic – as people
began “deliberate” cultivation of soil and careful “taming” – domestication of
animals.
The intensified exploitation of resources in a given territory must have been
the preliminary stage for the emergence of more complex societies in the
Neolithic – Mesolithic ended with the rapid spread of agricultural economies –
Mesolithic testifies to “continuity” in human culture from the ice – age to the
warmer environment – Graham Clark terms Mesolithic sites as “social
territories” from where evolved a shift from hunting – gathering methods to
subsistence practices like exploitation of cereals and use of plant foods that
evidence transition to agriculture.
Mesolithic way was marginalised and eventually disappeared as Neolithic
spread into West Asia and later into Europe with features like – domestication
of animals and plants as farming / herding/ making of polished stone axes /
using stone and timber to make long houses / and innovation of pottery.
While early agricultural cultures were existing and developing in the Levant
region there appeared evidence that Groups of people in the and around the
Zagros and Taurus Mountains of West Asia were transiting to sedentary
communities which were based on cultivation.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NEOLITHIC –
Starting in the geological era of Holocene, Neolithic marks a new stage in
human development in pre – history with the beginning of Food Production
as Mixed Economy based on domestication of animals and plants – within
these general features , however, each site shows uniqueness --
WEST ASIA – Show Considerable variance --

SHANIDAR CAVES -- ZAVI CHEMI SHANIDAR – Earliest examples of sheep domestication comes from
these sites in North West Iraq.
 30

BELT CAVES -- Similar importance of animal domestication accorded. Here very primitive herdsmen
wandered with flocks of goat. No grain production was associated with them. They raised no crops,
but used Microlith tools.

ANATOLIA PLATEAU – Domesticated cattle and pigs was herded here.

It appears that once domestication of animals was well advanced, the raising of sheep and goat
spread rapidly.

JERICHO – I and II – is an earliest example of domesticated grain cultivation in the Levant / West asia
region. Founded near to a perennial spring, the settlement was surprisingly large and an attractive
place for settlement. It is said to have housed approximately 3000 people – Jericho properly term as
the oldest town of antiquity. People hunted gazelle, wild cattle and boar but there was emphasis on
their domestication, people were already growing emmer wheat and barley. However, their tool
technology differed from later villages. No hoes have been found but it is said that people used
digging sticks and perforated stones for harvesting purposes. Sickle blades and primitive querns have
been found which testify to the importance of agriculture.

Jericho I has oldest known houses, as wattle and daub round huts built from sun – dried bricks flat at
the bottom and curving at the higher edges and plastered together with mortar as gluing agent. At
Jericho II there is change in cultural tradition with rectangular houses with elaborate courtyard plans
with plastered floors, with impressions of mats made of reeds. Hearths were located within and
outside houses.

Jericho had a surrounding masonry wall built of stone boulders packed together, its ruins still
standing in the west direction. A unique feature is a round tower in the centre just inside the wall
having internal staircase with 20 steps. The tower was possibly a community centre or a flood
preventive. These structure is unique to Jericho, their construction must have required collective
community efforts.

JARMO – A cluster of 25 houses, built of tauf walls and sun – dried mud roofs built in rectangular
shape, with multi – rooms sometimes set on stone foundations. Jarmo houses had complex division
of rooms with hearths in one corner and chimneys and ovens in another corner. In one particular
house there were 7 chambers, may have served as community storage. Jarmo is one of the earliest
food production sites, with village people relying on the production of emmer and einkorn wheat,
barley, lentils reflecting that people practiced crop rotation. Remains of domesticated animals have
been dug out – ox, sheep, goat, pig and perhaps dog. Discovery of querns, flint sickle blades, cutters
and ground stone axes made from obsidian indicate advances in agricultural tool technology.

ABU HUREYRA - at the foothills of western Mesopotamia show signs of the beginning of agriculture
with the discovery of sickles, heavy grinding stones, remains of cereals along with wild rye and lentils
suggests that people practised crop rotation. Also discovered are remains of sheep and goats.
Domestic buildings excavated are rectilinear in shape made of mud bricks and plastered floors
showing entrance from doorway. Houses had narrow trains between them.

TELL HASSUNA – Numerous bones of domesticated animals and greater reliance on cereal
cultivation. Material remains include ovens, pits for grain storage, grinding stones to process wheat
and barley. Houses were made from coarse kneaded clay generally rectangular in shape, made of
tauf walls but lacking any layout plan, having several rooms adjoining courtyard reflective of its use
for harvesting or winnowing purposes. Storage was provided with sunken pit jars.
 31

SIALK – Like Jericho found near to a water stream attracting animals and providing water for
irrigating small plots of fields. Wheat, barley, lentil and flax were grown. People also spun some
undetermined fibre and hunted animals with slings and darts.

CATAL HAYUK – People were skilled in agriculture and domesticated cattle and sheep although
hunting animals like wild cattle, wolves and leopards. Comprised numerous small rectangular flat
roofed houses built of sun – dried bricks. Peculiar features – entrance to the houses was through
roof tops from holes made in the roofs. Houses were plastered from inside with murals showing
animal and human figures. Hearths and plastered ovens have been found inside the houses.

AIN GHAZAL – Cultivated wheat, barley and legumes and kept domesticated goat.

Cult – Ritualistic Objects – Material remains document cult objects like the Mother Godddess,
usually thought of a fertility cult – for agriculture and for women regenerative powers. Female
statuettes, sometimes shown as pregnant women and sometimes seated, made of unbaked clay
have been found at Jericho, Jarmo, Hassuna, Sialk, Catal Hayuk. Sometimes worship of male deity
also emerged, symbolised by Bull worship at Catal Hayuk where bull heads mounted on particular
house walls are identified. Such buildings are termed as shrines. Most remarkable cult objects found
are the embellished skulls found at Jericho site hinting that a human head cult must have been
established.

Burials have been excavated at most sites below the house floors, under the house foundations, and
in between walls. At Jericho the dead were carefully buried under the house floors. At Jarmo single
burials are quite uniform and simplistic. At Abu Hureyra, the dead are buried in shallow pits beneath
the floors of the houses, some of them in crouched position and sometimes with the skull removed
and, in some cases, red colour plastered on the corpses. At Catal Hayuk the dead were buried inside
the houses, under the rooms, in a foetal position.

Pottery was another achievement of the Neolithic people in West Asia, but it was not same
everywhere. The pottery was of simple design and was treated with vegetable solvent. Both Jericho
and Jarmo were pre – pottery settlements, though people at these sites had carved out stone bowls
and dishes. But the craft was progressed beyond the experimental stage in the distinctive pottery
cultures of Hassuna, Sialk, Catal Hayuk in West Asia. Hassunian pottery was characterised by the use
of reed on cream coloured clay, which had seals stamped on them, indicating perhaps ownership. At
Sialk, pottery was painted with linear design in dark colour on a background that turned pale pink
after firing. Catal hayuk pottery is known for unpainted, unglazed and very simple bag – shaped
form, possibly made in Kilns.

Yet another thrust of Neolithic in West Asia was rooted in the exchange of goods, what might be
called as a trading activity. Villages were generally self - sufficient, growing their own food and
making essential tools and implements, from locally available materials. But people did acquire
resources that did not exist or were not found in immediate vicinity – obsidian stone for example. It
had to be obtained from far. Obsidian trade was carried on in many Neolithic sites, situated between
Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Jericho people occasionally used obsidian, Abu Hureyra farmers were
using it on a regular basis. Catal Hayuk was situated in the thick of obsidian resources. Obsidian was
also carried westward. Exchange was in other goods as well. At Catal Hayuk marine shells were
brought in from the Mediterranean shores. Precious stones like jade, turquoise and other exotic
items moved from village to village. At Sialk, small ornaments and amulets made from semi -
precious stones were transported for almost 100 miles. At Jericho sea – shells obtained from the
 32

Mediterranean have been found. Jarmo records ornamental shells brought in from the Persian Gulf.
Neolithic people must have frequented with each other.

Neolithic art existed. Mother Goddess statues existed so also animal statues which have been found
scattered over different sites. In Catal Hayuk, one of the houses a mural is themed as a ‘deer hunt’.

________________________________________________________________________________

Please do the following from Fagan --- Rakesh Kumar ---

EUROPE –

GREECE – SESKLO CULTURE

ITALY – STENTINELLO CULTURE

SPAIN – ALMERA CULTURE

BRITAIN – WINDMILLHILL CULTURE

DANUBIAN VALLEY – VILLAGE KOLN LINDELTHAL

________________________________________________________________

BRONZE AGE EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

River NILE the symbol of stability -- divided into network of numerous channels
– the NOMES
Greatest Egyptian CITIES –
HELIOPOLIS
SAIS
BUTO
BUBASTIS
MENDES
TANIS etc.
CAPITAL CITIES – Tanis/ Bubastis/ Sais
DUALITY OF Egyptian Civilisation -- Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt
PHARAOH – Lord of Two Lands
Goddess Symbols – Udjo of the North lady of the Buto city – the delta/
Nekhbet lady of Al Kab in the south of the Nile Valley
 33

Sense of UNITY
Egypt – Essentially ONE nation
Centralised Rule/ Pharaoh and the Tiara – the Throne --Uniting the Two
lands— Sense of Stability through River NILE –
6 Periods – The Archaic Period (early dynastic period)/ The Old Kingdom/ The
1st intermediate Period/ the Middle kingdom/ the 2nd intermediate period/ the
New Empire
Course covers only 1st TWO PERIODS till the OLD KINGDOM – beginnings to be
made from Pre – dynastic period when WRITING first emerged
PRE-DYNASTIC PERIOD – 4 Separate Phases—Known through ART and
ARCHITECTURE
1. TASIANS --
2. The BADARIAN phase apprx. 5500-4000 BCE—site – El Badri and
Hammamia site/ also Fayum
3. The AMRATIAN or NAQADA I Phase – 4500 – 3500 BCE – Naqada site –
Hierakonpolis cemetery/ Merimde/ El Omari
4. The GERZEAN phase – 3500 – 3100 BCE -- Known from Darb El Gerza –
NAQADA II – temple at Hierakonpolis – Initiation of artificial irrigation –
made copper objects – Kilns – Evidence of increasing craft specialisation
as vessels began to be made of clay processed in calcium carbonate
which was found in abundance in the limestone hills bordering river Nile
– Also ledge handled Jars and several Pots decorated in red paint and
various patterns such as Sacred Boats/ Trees/ Birds/ Animals were made
of the same clay type.
5. In the Gerzean Period --these forms became standardised and are
symbols not only of cultural uniformity but also mass production done at
Abydos/ Heirakonpolis – indicators of wider market for these products---
Alongside fancy pottery, Copper Artifacts became much more common -
-- From this metal many items were now cast –
Daggers/knives/adzes/axes/spearheads/ harpoons/ fish hooks/
needles/finger rings/small tools/ ornaments
Gold was also worked during this period—decorations were now more
fine and designs more formally arranged –
Certain highly skilled craftsmen now produced very sharp knives/ slate
palettes in the shape of birds/fish/animals
 34

Exotic stones were used – Lapiz Lazuli/ Gold/ Silver

All this suggests rapid artistic and technological advancement and also
that there was a section of society that was interested in possessing
such goods – Evolution of Elites is dated from Gerzean period—
Luxury goods may have been manufactured especially for Funerary
Purposes – highly developed cults emphasisng Funerary offereings may
have emphasised and stimulated Specialised Craft Production –
Excavations of cemeteries show Naqada II as an important centre of
Population -- Hierakonpolis had Sattelite Villages – Naqada and
Hierakonpolis were centres of Gods – SET and HORUS --
Farming became the mainstay of the peasant masses – Increased food
production – adoption of more sedentary way of life – expansion of
Trade – Trade Goods – metal tools and weapons especially knives and
daggers mounted on wooden handles – creation of artificial substance
like the Gesso and Fayence moulded into beads and pendants –
Regular use of copper meant contact with regions outside the Nile Valley
proper – Emergence of Cross- Desert Trade Routes – Also between
Palestine and Egypt – with South-Western Asia -- Commodities in
demand – Gold/ Chianti Flasks/ Ginger Jars/ Wavy Handled Jars/
Wealth creation – distributed unevenly –
Efforts to control trade may have led to CENTRALISED control and led to
the creation of small STATES – by about 5000 yrs ago the whole Egypt
had been unified --

Graves – suggest a division of Egyptian Society into richer and poorer

clansmen – Larger rectangular shaped, enlarged to accommodate richer
offerings of food and drinks – and in some humble graves pits were
divided into compartments – they reflect upon a division of Gerzean
villagers into Chiefs and the like and Commoners --
LATE PRE-DYNASTIC PERIOD – 3150 BCE – rise in population between 4000-
3000 BCE
Proto Dynastic Period --NAQADA III – DYNASTY O – 3200 - 3150 BCE -- Proto
Dynastic culture during which Egypt was unified – Real formative years just
prior to the Unification of Egypt -- Language HIEROGYLPHUS – first appearance
of Royal Cemetries – first steps towards political Unification
 35

3 Egyptian States – ABYDOS/ NAQADA and HIERAKONPOLIS and may be a 4th

Territory ruled by Gebelien – Egyptian Culture beginning to resemble
PHARAONIC AGES – Process of wider political agglomeration – alliance making
begins – State Formation –
3 Main states – THINIS/ NAQADA/ NEKHEN
ABYDOS emerges as burial site for royalty – famous UMM-EL-QA’AB cemetery
NARMER PALETTE – Legendary MENES – Unified Upper and Lower Egypt –
Under Single Rule – Symbolic Crown – Lotus Flower of Upper Egypt and the
Papyrus Reed representing Lower Egypt –
Spiritual Momentum for unification -- Falcon God – HORUS – subduing God SET
– Unifying Upper and Lower Egypt—
Establishment of DIVINE KINGSHIP – feature of Egypt for the next 3 millenia-
firmly established
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt may have been achieved through a
series of Political Alliances – through Trade – emergence of Centralised State –
explanations for its origins remain hypothetical
What seems certain is that Egypt became unified as a cultural and economic
domain long before the 1st king ascended the throne in the capital city of
MEMPHIS – and the Egyptian State lasted for many centuries as a
CENTRALISED STATE – necessitating Record Keeping
Evidenced from written HIEROGLYPHUS sources -- more than 200 symbols –
both phonograms and ideograms – also mortuary ceremonial constructions of
MASTABAS –- STEP PYRAMID –
Archaic Period – 3100 to 2686 BCE
Represents FIRST TWO Dynasties –
Memphis – the Capital city
Mastabas at Saqqarah / Abydos
Cult of SET/SETH – King Peribsen --
Manetho’s Account –
King was a Pharaoh –
 36

Nomes –
Fortified Urban Centres—
Stratified Society— notion of hierarchy developed through a study of tombs/
Graves/ Burials— Mortuary Architecture—Hierakonpolis/ Naqada/ Abydos
Bureaucracy – officialdom – Adj Mer
Agricultural season – Floods/ Germination/ Harvest
New economic Organisation—emergence
Urban Cult Centres – Goddess Udjo with Bubastis and Goddess Nekhbet with
Sais
Increase in Trade – carried in the name of the King
Horus –
Pharaoh – the Sole Force –
Kings -- Scorpion – Ka and Aha
Central Government – Tribute and Taxation – Hereditary officials –
Dispersed villages – peasant farmers producing surplus
OLD KINGDOM -- 3rd to 6th dynasty 2649 – 2150 BCE
Politically stable period – centralised Govt.
3rd Dynasty -- Begins with King (Pharaoh) Djoser -- although some scholars
name Sanakht but for this evidence if lacking
Had large size Mastabas at Memphis but Djoser had a second mightier
monument built at Saqqaraha – the Step Pyramid, the first pyramid,
surrounded by a complex of temples – meant for funerary services
Nature of State – Royal Absolutism with King at the centre of rule – the Power
of the king was unlimited
No separation of Religious and Political life – with the Pharaoh being the chief
Priest – gave donations to the temples – Royal State played a role in
maintenance of temples
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Society – Stratified – with Members of the Royal Household --

Bureaucracy/Warriors/Priests/Artisans/Skilled
Craftsmen/Retainers/Peasants/Slaves
Several local urban centres existing
Script being used for record keeping and sacred carving --
Tombs and Burials and Cemetries -- reflect on Stratified nature of society –
For example – lower sections of society buried with food, drink and some of
the tools of their craft along with mass produced goods
While many different varieties of goods were buried in the graves of upper
classes like fine crafted reddish – brown pottery jars for storing wine and
foodstuffs/ bowls/cups/dishes/ copper tools/ flint knives/scrapers/arrow
heads/ sickle blades/ along with beds/chirs/chests/boxes with ivory or copper
fittings/ Jwellery/ Sheets of gold covering weapon handles/ one tomb at
Saqqarah inlaid with Gold Sheets / vessels made from Steatite/
schist/alabaster/quartz/basalt
Stone Sculptures also developed – with human figures carved out of limestone
– and granite – Also Life Size Statues of seated or kneeling officials receiving
land grants from the Pharaohs shown on carvings – showing elite Culture—
Certain Craftsmen – received Royal patronage under the control of the Royal
Court – Scribes acquired upper class clientele – Court sponsored culture –
4th Dynasty –
Henceforth Monuments and written Records are more numerous – describing
the principal events of the kings’s rules – Regarded as Egypt’s Classical period
of Greatness – Art and Crafts flourished under Pharaoh’s patronage --
In 2 forms – Script hyroglyphus and Pictograms – recording events – religious
–
Age of Great Pyramid Builders – with royal tombs being built as the pointed
pile of huge stone blocks – Gigantic monuments and chief monument of each
successive king – highlight the unique position of the Pharaoh in the Egyptian
ruling class --
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Sneferu – strongest ruler – with writings and carvings describing successful

raids in the neigbouring regions of Libya – so along with events of religious
nature --- also depicted in written records and carvings –
Heavy trading in ebony timber with Lebanon – with vessels laden with timber
arriving in Egypt – Copper begins to be mined in the Sinai Peninsula
3 Pyramids are attributed to him – 2 of these experimental in shape –
transition between Step Pyramid and the true Pyramids – conical in shape – of
all later Egyptian rulers –
Sneferu – accredited with Red Pyramid – considered a Flawless Structure –
Sneferu’s successors – Khufu/ Khafre/ Menkure – 3 Great Pyramids of Giza –
Each of these surrounded by Smaller Pyramids – also constructed royal
mastabas for members of the royal family –
Khafre’s Pyramid – connected with a massive valley temple –
Sphinx – carved in a rock – stands as a sentinel over Khafre’s causeway linking
the tomb with the temple – with 23 statues of the king standing in between –
Sphinx symbol of King’s might and majesty –
Menkure said to be a devout Pharaoh – built temples Pyramidical in shape –
The construction of tombs and temples on such a scale were a drain on the
resources of Egypt --
Subsequent kings seemed to have left few Monuments -- Mastabas built in
limestone or granite – signs of dissensions in Khufu’s successors
Built his Pyramid not at Giza but at Abu Rawash –
Also 2nd king of the dynasty – Shepseskhaf – reverted to old Mastaba form for
his tomb at Saqqarah –
5th DYNASTY
Describes a different dimension –
Kings of the dynasty were worshippers of the Sun God Re/Ra and in turn were
themselves worshipped as “Son of the Sun”—this title was given to USERKEF,
the 1st king of the 5th dynasty. He built pyramids also and also pyramidical
shaped Re temples. These pyramid temples reveal complete artistic
development. In fact USERKEF built 1st of a series of RE temples at Abu – Sir,
 39

north of the present day Cairo, on the west bank of river Nile. He also built his
pyramid at Saqqarah which is smaller than the pyramids of the 4 th dynasty
perhaps indicating that the worship of RE God had eclipsed some of the pre –
eminence of the Pharaoh. Also the royal control of administration slackened
under USERKEF as provincial officials grew in importance, particularly in upper
Egypt. The pyramids of 5th dynasty are smaller and less solidly constructed.
At least 3 kings of the dynasty built magnificent temples dedicated to the Sun
God RE. These have been found at Sahure site.
Besides, the scenes on the temples reveal warlike enterprises and expeditions
of the kings both by sea and land i.e. depiction of the rule through conquests
which are chronicled. This was a changed focus from earlier dynasties which
mainly chronicled matters of religious importance i.e. funerary details on
stones.
In fact the latest pyramid belonging to the 5th dynasty and built at Saqqarah of
the king Unas is inscribed with long Pyramid Texts. The chief events recorded
on the stones are gifts and endowments to the temples. Evidently priestly
influence was strong at the Egyptian court and the Pyramid Texts document
the redistribution of goods between the royal palace, the temples and the
officials.
The tales of this dynasty have also been written on “papyrus”.
RE worship was the official religion of the Egyptian state but at the common
people’s level religious beliefs and practices exhibited great diversity. This was
the popular religion of Egyptians.
Primitive beliefs persisted as people worshiped Wepwamet, the wolf god,
Khentiamentio, the jackal god, Sobek, the crocodile god as survivals of ancient
totems. Over the centuries Egyptian popular religion kept evolving and in the
5th dynasty there was a general decline in the importance of female deities. For
example the lion headed goddess Sekhmet became consort of god Ptah, the
main god of the capital city Memphis.
While RE bestowed immortality to the Pharaoh. The solar cult had begun to be
patronised from 3rd dynasty onwards became official religion in the 5th dynasty.
The kingship became centred around the RE god meaning that the Pharaoh
was above the mankind and begins to be referred as the “good god” and as
such the Pharaoh lived in communion with his fellow gods. He became the
 40

chief priest between RE and the Egyptian people i.e. the link between God and
mankind. The RE temples were thus maintained by the Egyptian State in order
to promote the cult of Pharaoh. Gigantic size statues of the Pharaoh were
created and huge temples cum burial complexes emerged.
6th DYNASTY
The tombs of this dynasty are inscribed and spread throughout Egypt but main
focus remained ABYDOS. The inscribed tombs tell us about kings organising
expeditions to the Sinai Peninsula and Palestine. By now stones for pytramid
construction was transported to Abydos from Elpinstone stone quarries by the
use of slave labour.
There also existed trading caravans carrying goods from and to to different
parts of Egypt but the dynasty is known for the decline of the OLD KINGDOM.
Last named king of the 6th dynasty was Pepi II. After him there is an ominous
gap in the monuments and this gap marks the end of the Old Kingdom.
This end has to be qualified as it was intensely political in form. By now the
royal authority seemed to have considerably weakened. The King – God, it was
beginning to be understood, suffered mortal limitations at age 94. Pepi II
seemed to have become senile due to his age and long rule. The rule itself
seemed to have become impoverished as the kings of the 6th dynasty seemed
to have squandered money and land grants by giving out “mortuary grants” or
as “temple endowments”.
The Pharaohs of the 6th dynasty found it increasingly difficult / hard to control
a powerful nobility. The nobles as high - ranking officials were no more
dependent on the royal favour but claimed office/rank/ position by hereditary
right. They had evolved as a new power block in the later part of the 6 th
dynasty. The nobles did not reside at the court but had built miniature states in
their nomes. After Pepi II died, for a time, petty landlords ruled the provinces.
Then from the city of Hierakonpolis there emerged a ruling family led by one
Khetty who for a time being held sway over the whole of Egypt. However, this
was shortlived and Egypt split into North ruled from Hierakonpolis and South
ruled by Thebes.
By now nobles became extremely powerful and developed a distinct identity.
As chiefs they had already carved out small kingdoms for themselves and were
by now were inclined to strengthen themselves and their position at the
 41

expense of their neighbours. They had earned lot of honours through faithful
service. In fact the tombs of the favoured wealthy nobles of this time are
magnificent, particularly of certain families in the region of Bani hasan, Al
Bersha, Asyut, Dayr Rifah – regions which became the centres of powerful
chiefs.
It is possible that each of these regions had a court, an administrative
organisation, within a nome/district in the name of the noble. It was similar to
a miniature royal palace. The Pharaohs required a firm hand to hold the noble
chiefs in check and to distribute honours to them but the royal authority was
no more as strong, neither was it centralised.
Several causes were responsible for the downfall of the Old Kingdom.
Government revenues became exhausted because Pharaohs had invested
heavily in such grandiose projects as pyramid building and temple cum
mortuary complexes. To make matters worse, Egyptian prosperity was heavily
affected by climatic disasters which created crop failures. In the meantime
provincial nobles usurped more and more power until central authority
virtually disappeared. The nobles created their own principalities and political
chaos was aggravated by internal dissensions as well as invasions by desert
tribes.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------