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Interlocking Stablised Soil Blocks (ISSB) for Sustainable Construction in The

Gambia

Research · July 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20489.19049

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 2019
Interlocking Stablised Soil Blocks
(ISSB) for Sustainable Construction
in The Gambia

MODOU.L.JARJU
7/13/2019
 ABSTRACT
In this study we have looked into Interlocking stabilised soil blocks (ISSB) as an alternative
sustainable construction material in the flood prone regions in the Gambia. We analysed how
ISSB has been used in other African countries and especially in regions, most susceptible natural
disaster like in Malawi an Earthquake prone regions.
The Gambia is characterised with unregulated urban and rural planning and as such the impact of
floods especially flash floods on local populations is aggravated by improper land-use planning
and unmaintained drainage and sewage systems. It is clear knowledge that water in failing
drainage systems causes the damage, and not necessarily the quantity of precipitation.
Several of the affected houses in the flood prone regions is also because of using poor building
materials and construction techniques. The traditional earth construction techniques such as wattle,
daub, and adobe need continuous maintenance in order to keep them in good condition which made
them more susceptible to been destroyed by flood and storms as well as any hazardous climatic
and environmental conditions.
ISSB which is a low cost sustainable construction alternative can immensely improve the quality
of houses been build and drastically reduce the amount of affected and destroyed houses by flood
or any other natural disaster. This would greatly influence the living conditions of people in the
raining seasons and lead to more growth in the economy and reduction in loss of life’s and
properties.
ISSB has so many socio economic advantages. It is a biodegrable material, environmentally
friendly since no firewood would be required in the production process. The structural integrity is
ok a very high quality, It has a pleasing aesthetic and hence societally acceptable; it can be use in
building schools and other public facilities at low cost. It has great impact in the sanitary health
and has been use in many countries for making water tanks. Most importantly, it can serve as an
employment for numerous of the youths in the country and cut down the amount of construction
materials imported into the country.
ISSB is an exceptional high quality construction alternative with very low production and
construction cost. It is as well environmentally friendly and can greatly influence the sanitary
health of the people by the constructing water tanks.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................................1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..........................................................................................................................2
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................................4
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 1 .........................................................................................................................................6
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2 .........................................................................................................................................8
NATURAL DISASTER PROFILE OF THE GAMBIA ....................................................................................8
CHAPTER 3 .........................................................................................................................................9
COMPRESSED STABISED EARTH BLOCK (CSEB).....................................................................................9
Categories of compressed Earth Blocks ......................................................................................... 11
 Solid blocks: ...................................................................................................................... 11
 Hollow blocks:................................................................................................................... 11
 Perforated blocks: ............................................................................................................. 11
 Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks (ISSB) ............................................................................. 12
Types of Interlocking stablised Soil Blocks (ISSB) ........................................................................... 13
Scale of Manufacture ................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 15
MATERIAL FOR MAKING THE BLOCKS ............................................................................................... 15
The Soil of The Gambia ................................................................................................................. 15
1. Alluvial Soil. .......................................................................................................................... 15
2. Continental Terminal Soils..................................................................................................... 15
Raw Materials for Compressed Stabilized Blocks ........................................................................... 16
Sampling Soil for Compressed Stabilized Earth Block Production ................................................ 16
Soil Testing Methods .................................................................................................................... 17
Soil Stabilizers .............................................................................................................................. 18
Preparation of raw material ......................................................................................................... 18
Quantity of materials needed ....................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 20
MOULDING THE BLOCKS................................................................................................................... 20
Compressed Stabilised Earth Block (CSEB)-Making Machines ......................................................... 20
CHAPTER 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 23
ISSB PROJECTS IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES ............................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 24
PROMOTION AND ACCEPTIBILITY ..................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER7........................................................................................................................................ 25
COST ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................ 25
CHAPTER 8 ....................................................................................................................................... 27
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION ................................................................................................. 27
CHAPTER 9 ....................................................................................................................................... 29
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 29
REFRENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 30
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The Houses Destroyed + Damaged because of natural disasters like flood and storm.
(DesInventar profile of the Gambia, 2018). .................................................................................................. 8
Figure 2: Adobe blocks (https://www.grit.com/farm-and-garden/adobe-house-building-the-bear-cav). .. 9
Figure 3: different type of Interlocking stablised Earth Blocks................................................................... 13
Figure 5: Typical Soil Profile (https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/soil-info-and-soil-
orders/deck/10405210). ............................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 6: Different types of Manual presses............................................................................................... 21
Figure 7: Different types of Motorized Presses .......................................................................................... 22
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Compressed Stablised Earth Building Blocks versus other Building Materials ............................. 10
Table 2: Scale of production ....................................................................................................................... 14
Table 3: Soil classification according to particle size .................................................................................. 16
Table 4: Approximate quantity of materials required for producing 300 blocks per day .......................... 19
Table 5: Approximate quantity of materials required for a single story house ......................................... 19
Table 6: Factors to consider in financial costing......................................................................................... 26
Table 7: Advantages of ISSB........................................................................................................................ 28
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of The Gambia is smallest country in mainland Africa, bordered in the north, east
and south by Senegal and in the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The Gambia’s main drainage is the
River Gambia, which gets its source from the Fouta Jallon highlands and runs through the entire
length of the country. The country covers a land area of 11,300 km2 with a population of about
two million inhabitants and a relatively annual population growth rate of 2.6%.
The Gambia has a subtropical climate with two variations of distinct dry and rainy seasons. The
dry season generally starts in October and ends around mid-June each year. From November to
mid-May there is uninterrupted dry weather, with temperatures as low as 16°C. Hot, humid
weather predominates the rest of the year, with a rainy season from June to October; during this
period, temperatures may rise as high as 43°C.Average annual rainfall is in the region of 1000mm
though it ranges from 850mm to 1500mm. Agricultural production is highly dependent on rainfall,
whose distribution has been erratic and inadequate over the past thirty years.
The Rainy Season is also characterized by the flood which is a relevant natural hazard in the
country affecting about 12, 7000 people every year almost 0.62% of the total population (CIMA,
UNISDR (2018). The Gambia Disaster Risk Profile.) are affected by floods, geographically
concentrated in the West Coast region and mainly in Rural Gambia. According to the DesInventar
profile of the Gambia, 4,123 houses destroyed +houses damaged was recorded in a period of 1999
to 2018.
Several of houses are destroyed or damaged due to poor building materials and construction
techniques. The traditional earth construction techniques such as wattle, daub, and adobe need
continuous maintenance in order to keep them in good condition which made them more
susceptible to been destroyed by flood and storms as well as any hazardous climatic and
environmental hazards.
Soil is used for the construction of traditional low-cost dwellings in Urban and Rural Gambia.
Therefore, the use of Interlocking Stabilised Earth Block (ISSB) a type of Compressed Stablised
Earth Block (CSEB) can immensely improve the quality of houses been constructed in those
regions and as a result reduce the amount of affected and destroyed houses by flood or any other
natural disaster.
Soil is a cheap means of construction since it is readily available. The use of ISSB as an alternative
sustainable building material could immensely reduce the risk of flood and storm damaged and
destroyed houses in the country. This would greatly influence the living conditions of people in
the raining seasons and lead to more growth in the economy and reduction in loss of life’s and
properties.
 CHAPTER 2

NATURAL DISASTER PROFILE OF THE GAMBIA

The Gambia has experienced a considerable increase in temperature over recent years. An analysis
of climate data from 1970 to 2015 and with an average temperature rise of more than 1°C as
indicate by (Harris et al, 2014). The average annual precipitation for the Republic of The Gambia
is approximately 807 mm, while the mean number of wet days is around 74 per year.
Flood is a relevant natural hazard in the Republic of The Gambia, it was reported United Nation
Disaster Reduction (UNDR) that on an average about 12,700 people are affected every year, almost
0.62% of the total population of the country and, the potentially affected GDP in flooded areas is
cumulating on average almost 1.21% of the total GDP of the country.
The Gambia’s Disaster Risk Reduction Capacity Assessment Report in 2012 showed that the
vulnerability to disasters in The Gambia is accentuated by unregulated urban and rural planning.
The impact of floods especially flash floods on local populations is aggravated by improper land-
use planning and unmaintained drainage and sewage systems. It is clear knowledge that water in
failing drainage systems causes the damage, and not necessarily the quantity of precipitation.
The UNDR reported that the value of direct economic losses in terms of AAL amounts to about
$US 3.7 million in the present climate or roughly 0.20% of the total exposure value. The larger
portion of losses is due to the productive sector, housing, and transportation (roads), that together
account for more than 80% of the overall loss.
Flood has resulted in several economic losses in the housing sector and the type of housing material
and construction techniques especially in the rural Gambia is a key factor we believe well looked
at. According to the DesInventar profile of the Gambia, 4,123 houses destroyed +houses damaged
was recorded in a period of 1999 to 2018.

Figure 1: The Houses Destroyed + Damaged because of natural disasters like flood and storm.
(DesInventar profile of the Gambia, 2018).
 CHAPTER 3

COMPRESSED STABISED EARTH BLOCK (CSEB)

As of late, conventional earth development innovation has experienced extensive advancements
that upgrade earth’s durability and quality as a construction material for low-cost buildings. Such
methods include rammed earth and machine pressed compressed stabilized earth blocks.
Like most Sub-Saharan African nations, traditional earth (soil) construction methods and
techniques are a big percentage of The Gambia housing sector and utilized in the construction of
shelters in the Rural and Urban districts for a long time.
Adobe or sun-dried mud blocks are a common method of construction in the provincial regions
and low-income areas in the Urban Regions of the nation. The tasteful nature of utilizing sun-dried
mud blocks is anyway viewed as horrendous. Moreover, there is a need to plaster to expand the
buildings life. Plaster techniques are, amongst others sand with mud and direct plastering with
cement is expensive and debases rapidly because of the feeble bond between mud and cement thus
most houses are washed away during flood or overwhelming downpours.
The use of a type of compressed stabilized earth blocks(Interlocking stablised Soil Blocks) all
types of housing especially for low-cost housing in rural and urban areas very economical
approach in relief and decrease of impacts of flood and other catastrophic events on the shelters of
the inhabitants of the majorly affected areas. It is a very appealing and a decent quality and
economical construction alternative.
In the production of the blocks, proportions between soil and stabiliser need to be optimized,
taking into consideration the compaction pressure applied to the moist soil mix. Block surfaces
need to be smooth so that they have the potential to be used without an additional surface coating
or render. Good quality compressed stablised earth blocks improve the life expectancy a
structure.

Figure 2: Adobe blocks (https://www.grit.com/farm-and-garden/adobe-house-building-the-bear-

cav).
 Table 1: Compressed Stablised Earth Building Blocks versus other Building Materials

Compressed Fired Calcium Dense Aerated Lightweight

Property stablised clay silicate concrete concrete concrete
earth blocks bricks bricks blocks blocks blocks

Wet
compressive
1 - 40 5 – 60 10 – 55 7 – 50 2-6 2 – 20
strength
(MN/m2)

Moisture
0.00 - 0.01 -
movement 0.02 - 0.2 0.02 - 0.05 0.05 - 0.10 0.04 - 0.08
0.02 0.035
(%)

Density 1400 – 1600 – 1700 –

1700 - 2200 400 - 950 600 – 1600
(kg/m3) 2400 2100 2200
Thermal
0.70 -
conductivity 0.81 - 1.04 1.10 - 1.60 1.00 - 1.70 0.10 - 0.20 0.15 - 0.70
1.30
W/m°C

excellent
good good good good good
Durability to
to to to to to
against rain very
very poor moderate poor moderate poor
poor

Quarry stone has a compressive strength of between 2 to 5 N/mm2 depending on the type of stone,
which varies from region to region. Interlocking Stabilized soil blocks have a compressive strength
of 2.5N/mm2.
Looking at the compressed stablised earth blocks it can be drived that the blocks have the same
capacity and capability to withstand harsh weather conditions like rain, storms and flash floods
which has been the main agents resulting in the damage and destruction of houses in both the rural
and urban Gambia.
Categories of compressed Earth Blocks
There are four main categories of Compressed Earth blocks:
 Solid blocks: These are mainly prismatic in shape. They fulfill very widely differing
functions.

 Hollow blocks: for the most part the voids of empty squares represent an aggregate of 5 to
10%, and up to 30% utilizing refined systems. Voids can improve the adherence of the
mortar and decrease the heaviness of the blocks. Certain hollow blocks can be utilized to
constructing-beams (lost formwork).

 Perforated blocks: These are light however require refined molds and more prominent
compressive force. They are suitable for reinforced masonry (in earthquake areas).
  Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks (ISSB)
Interlocking Stabilized soil blocks are walling blocks made from compressed soil. They are
similarly as hard and as waterproof as stone. Of all the CSEB, the interlocking blocks are much
more economical for the fact that they be assembled without mortar. The interlocks increase the
structural stability of the wall and reduce the amount of cement needed as mortar he various kinds
of interlocks have distinctive basic purposes and compositional employments.
Types of Interlocking stablised Soil Blocks (ISSB)
Depending on the machine, distinctive sort of ISSB, blocks can be produced.
 Straight Double Interlocking Block: The most commonly utilized block for wall creation.
 Curved Double Interlocking Block: Used for making water tanks and sanitation facilities.
 Wide Format interlocking Block: Allows for stronger, thicker walls, particularly helpful
when making high walls.
 Straight Single Interlocking Block: Contains a larger face, hence less blocks are needed
to cover wall area. His was the ancestor to the straight double interlocking block.
 Grooved Double Interlocking Block: The grooves of this block facilitate plastering,
however, this machine is no longer produced.

THE BLOCKS

Straight Double Interlocking Block

Curved Double Interlocking Block

Wide Format Interlocking Block

Straight Single Interlocking Block

Grooved Double Interlocking Block

Figure 3: different type of Interlocking stablised Earth Blocks

Scale of Manufacture
Small-scale production is suitable for isolated communities and has the advantage that it can
generate employment, reduce transportation costs, and only requires the use of simple tools and
equipment. On the other, large-scale production would require sophisticated equipment’s that can
produce in mass and in this manner, maintaining must be a priority.
Table 2: Scale of production

Time required to
No. of blocks
Scale of production Type of production produce blocks for a
produced/day
small house

Small up to 400 manual 1 week

Large 400 to 4000 machine 1 day to 1 week
 CHAPTER 4

MATERIAL FOR MAKING THE BLOCKS

The Soil of The Gambia

The majority of the land surface of The Gambia is framed from sandstone set down during the late
Tertiary geographical time scale. The deposit “Continental Terminal” is a highly weathered
detritical sediment made up of clayey sandstone with intercalated broken quartz rock, sand and
clay. The soils of The Gambia can be subdivided into two principle categories.
1. Alluvial Soil.
These are soils created on alluvial material deposit by River Gambia and its tributaries and
regularly influenced by transient or lasting wet conditions. Alluvial soils spread around 30% of
the Gambia, yet the related augmentation drops steadily from west to east. A large portion of the
alluvial soils is hydromorphic and fine textured more often than not containing over 80% silt
plus clay throughout. Less hydromorphic and fairly coarser textured soils occur on the high
lying levees in the east of the Gambia, and sandy layers have been found in latest fluvial
sediments. The alluvial soils can be comprehensively subdivided into those, which are-or have
been exposed to immersion by saline water, and that east of around 150 degree west, which
demonstrate no proof of saline condition. The saline influenced soils are secured by mangrove
vegetation or, where gradual addition has raised the soil level over the point of confinement of
tidal flooding barren flats.
2. Continental Terminal Soils.
These are situated on the uplands shaped in the enduring results of the underlying Continental
Terminal acid complex. Soils created on the Continental Terminal are well depleted.
Base saturation is typically genuinely high, often between 40% and 100% in which calcium
generally predominates, though the level of magnesium may exceed that of calcium on exchange
complex in some subsoil horizons.
The soils on the the mainland Terminal are ineffectively organized and hard to extremely hard
consistency when dry. Bulk density of most soil horizons is high, in in the scope of 1.65-1.85g/cm
a level ordinarily connected with seriously blocked root development. With the exception of the
shallowest soils, all profiles show a textural gradient from coarser textured surface horizons to
finer textured surface horizons inside 2m of depth. Surface horizons are normally sand and loamy
sands, less ordinarily sandy loams, and subsoil horizons are most frequently sandy clays, though a
range from loamy sands to clays may occur.
Raw Materials for Compressed Stabilized Blocks
Not all soils are reasonable for each structure need. The basic material, however, required to
manufacture compressed stabilized earth building blocks is a soil containing a minimum quantity
of silt and clay to facilitate cohesion which in the case of The Gambia, it is available in abundance.
Sampling Soil for Compressed Stabilized Earth Block Production
Taking the typical soil profile and the different grades of soil and its availability in abundance in
the country it can be estimated that for small –scale, on-site production of compressed stabilized
earth building blocks, a minimum of about 500m3 of reasonable soil per year is needed for each
block-making machine. The proximity of the acquired pit for the generation site is important to
slice or diminish transportation cost to an absolute minimum.

Table 3: Soil classification according to particle size

Name of Soil Particle Diameter Range of soil particle in millimeters

Coarse Particles or Gravels >2.00

Coarse Sands 2.00-0.2
Fine Sands 0.20-0.02
Silts 0.02-0.002
Clays <0.002
 Figure 4: Typical Soil Profile (https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/soil-info-and-soil-
orders/deck/10405210).

Soil Testing Methods

Laboratory analysis of the raw material is constantly vital for large-scale production of compressed
stabilized earth blocks. For small-scale production however, it is not fundamental to utilize
sophisticated tests to set up the suitability of a soil. Straightforward field tests can be performed to
get a sign of the composition and these methods include:
Smell test, Nibble test, Touch Test, Sedimentation test, Adhesion Test, Washing Test, Linear
Shrinkage mould test, Dry Strength test, Water Retention test, Consistency test and cohesion test.
One or more of test would be employed in most cases to help determine the suitability of the soil
for the Moulding of compressed stabilized earth blocks.
Soil Stabilizers
Adjusting soil properties by adding another material to improve its durability is called soil
stabilization. For many centuries’ natural oil and plant extracts, animal dung, and crushed ant-hill
materials have been used. Soil stabilization enhances the natural durability and strength of a soil.
Clay is the main binding agent in the soil, which anyway has its constraints and drawbacks.
Subsequently, in order to enable soil to serve as a better and more durable construction material
Numerous stabilizers have been taken a stab at, including manufactured for example, Portland
cement, lime, bitumen, gypsum, alkalis, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, aluminium
compounds, silicates, resins, ammonium compounds, polymers, and agricultural and industrial
wastes.
The most are inexpensive promptly accessible stabilizers in The Gambia is Portland cement and
lime. The determination of a suitable stabilizer will depend upon the soil quality and the project
requirements: Cement will be best for sandy soils and to to accomplish rapidly a higher strength.
Lime will somewhat utilized for exceptionally clayey soil, but will take a longer time to harden
and to give strong blocks.
Preparation of raw material
The essential materials required for the creation of any sort of compressed stablised earth
building blocks (ISSB) are soil, stabiliser, and water.
Breaking the soil, Grinding followed by screening, Pulverization of the soil, Sieving,
Proportioning, and the mixing of the soil are some of the preparatory steps in preparing the soil
for the making of a suitable compressed Stabilized Earth Block.
Quantity of materials needed
The regular size of a compressed Stabilized Earth Block is 290 x 140 x 90mm. Its creation will
require about 7.5 to 8.5kg of materials depending on the compaction pressure. The optimum
water content (OMC) for any particular soil must be resolved.. The moisture level varies broadly
with the nature of the soil.

Table 4: Approximate quantity of materials required for producing 300 blocks per day

MATERIAL Quantity Required/Day

8% hydrated lime 5% cement
Soil 1.9 tonnes 1.95tonnes

Stabiliser 0.150 tonnes 0.095 tonnes

Water 300 liters 300 liters

Total(after mixing) 2350 tonnes 2345 tonnes

A single storey building with a floor area of 50m2 will require about 3000 blocks. The assessed
measure of soil, stabilizer, and water required for building such a house is given in the table 4 the
blocks for the house could be produced in ten days.

Table 5: Approximate quantity of materials required for a single story house

MATERIAL Quantity Required/Day

8% hydrated lime 5% cement
Soil 19 tonnes 19.5tonnes

Stabiliser 1.5tonnes 0.95 tonnes

Water 3000 liters 3000liters

 CHAPTER 4

MOULDING THE BLOCKS

Following all the procedures in determine a suitable material for the moulding of the blocks then
next step is the moulding of the blocks. There is a wide variety of acceptable standards that vary
according to local weather conditions. Blocks with wet compressive strengths in the range
2.8MN/m2 or more ought to be sufficient for one and two-story buildings.
An ideal moisture content of the soil mixture must be kept up. The compressed stabilized earth
blocks require a period to cure which is necessary to achieve maximum strength. This is a typical
prerequisite for all cementitious materials. In practice, various methods are used to ensure proper
curing. Such methods include the use of plastic bags, grass, leaves, etc. and so forth to keep
dampness.
Compressed Stabilised Earth Block (CSEB)-Making Machines
There is a wide range of block making machines for compressed Stabilised Earth Block(CSEB)
and in the case of The Gambia the same machines could be used with specification but with the
interlocks since the type of the CSEB that are deemed suitable for the operations on the targeted
regions is Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks (ISSB).

Manual presses
These are manually operated and carry out only the compression and ejection of the block. The
Light mechanical presses, Light Hydraulic Presses and Heavy Mechanical Presses fall into this
classification. Production yields for these presses are in the order of 300 blocks per day.
Mechanized manual presses also exist, and are generally heavier and more robust, their yields
remain barely any higher than that of light presses but (up to 500 blocks per day).

Motorized presses

These are motor-driven and carry out only the compression and ejection of the block. Mechanical
and hydraulic presses fall into this category. Motorized mechanical presses form a new generation
of presses, sometimes derived from heavy mechanized manual presses. They enable better rates of
production and outputs can exceed 800 blocks per day. Hydraulic motorized presses, which are
descended from pumping and oil-circuit mechanisms, should only be used in a favorable
technological environment. Their viability ought to be checked.
Mobile production (light units).
These are easily transportable, motorized and sometimes automated. Notwithstanding to the
compression and ejection of the block, they also carry out raw material preparation operations
and/or the removal of the products.

Fixed production units.

These are difficult to transport, motorized and sometimes automated. In addition to the
compression and ejection of the block, they also carry out raw material preparation operations.

Figure 5: Different types of Manual presses

Figure 6: Different types of Motorized Presses
 CHAPTER 5

ISSB PROJECTS IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES

UN-Habitat and the Department for International Development (DFID) have been promoting the
Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs) constructive system in a few African nations like Kenya,
Uganda and Malawi.
In Uganda for instance CKL which is a regional branch of faith-based organization “aiming at
adding to the social, political, and economic improvement of the majority through different
projects and undertakings that lead to self-sustained development of the individual family in our
communities. Since the receptions of ISSB technology innovation by this association, they have
proactively build over 600 water tanks in their region, residential quarters within their as of and
various homes through a self-created home financing experimental run program.
Malawi is situated in southeast Africa and shares borders with Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia.
The rainy season lasts from November to May. The primary catastrophic events that have
happened in Malawi are floods, droughts and earthquakes. The masonry with burnt brick and
cement mortar joints has been the most common construction technique in Malawi. The recent
promotion of the ISSB as an alternative construction material has been studied and found to be a
suitable sustainable. Habitat for Humanity, an ngo, helped presented in the market machines for
the ISSB manufacture, as HydraForm M5 Block making Machines. These machines use diesel or
electricity to produce dense blocks with interlocking, permitting construction without mortar
(Habitat for Humanity, 2009).There are also, small-scale ISSB manufacturers in Malawi, which
use manual presses. These ISSB are more accessible to lower class or rural population, as it has
not energy expenditure.
In Sudan the compressed stablised earth blocks was utilized in the construction of The El Haj
Yousif prototype model school, which had directly affected the housing in Khartoum region. The
research findings of the project were used and a program for the construction of 800 houses
propelled utilizing nearby structure materials and building systems created while building the
model.
 CHAPTER 6

PROMOTION AND ACCEPTIBILITY

Drawing wisdom from the EL Haj Yousif School in Sudan, the promotion of compressed stablised
earth building blocks can can provide a great number of advantages, especially to The Gambian
building industry. The development and promotion of good quality building blocks can also
improve the standard of living for low-income groups in the country. Soil blocks are the only
building material that can be produced in-situ if the proper equipment and optimum amount of
stabiliser is available. The adoption of the above measures could greatly contribute to making
compressed stablised earth blocks preferable to other building materials in terms desirability, cost,
availability, use and durability.
The Promotion of the ISSB can be achieved through the following.
 Provision of machinery required for making the blocks(Both Mechanical and motorised)
 Starting pilot programs in flood affected regions in The Gambia
 advertisements, exhibits of pilot-projects,
 recommending the use of compressed stablised earth blocks(ISSB to be specific) for public
or government buildings such as schools, etc.,
 promotion, of research and development in this area so as to maximize the use of local
stabilisers and improve the quality of compressed stablised earth buildings
blocks,
 Setting up training programs for the production and use of Interlocking Stabilised soil
Blocks(ISSB)
 Encouragement of future homeowners to use ISSB as the primary building material by, for
example, reducing the cost of building permits to serve as an incentive.

The adoption of the above measures could greatly contribute to making Interlocking Stabilised
Soil Blocks (ISSB) preferable to other building materials in terms desirability, cost, availability,
use and durability.
 CHAPTER7

COST ANALYSIS

For an entrepreneurial venture into the sustainable construction, using Interlocking stablised soil
block (ISSB), the estimation of the production cost of the ISSB with a view of identifying the
lowest costing technology and size of production is a key factor that would determine the
profitability of the venture. In the case of governments or ngo’s it would help cut down the overall
cost for the projects.
In the cost evaluation, it is of paramount importance to note the varying factors. These factors
could greatly influence the outcome of the project or venture.
 availability of soil, regardless of whether it is accessible on location or must be moved to
the site,
 Suitability of the soil for stabilization, and thus the type, quality and quantity of
stabiliser needed. It might likewise be important to purchase sand if the soil has an
exorbitantly high linear shrinkage,
 current prices of materials, especially stabilisers,
 whether the blocks are to be made in rural or urban areas, size and type of
equipment used, and quality required,
 Current wage rates and productivity of the labour force.
It is important to note that block making can be carried out on a ‘self-help’ basis, where work
expenses are wiped out. Besides, soil is frequently accessible at no expense.
Costing Techniques
the costing procedure is separated into two basic and direct parts.
(a) Determining quantities of the various inputs
(b) Estimation of the cost of each input and computation of unit production costs
 Table 6: Factors to consider in financial costing

Input Quantity
Block/Time Determine the producible block within a unit
time with contemplations on market costs and
budgetary accessibility.

Material Quantify the suitable soil, water stabiliser and

oil if necessary for the given project.

Equipment’s Cost incurred in all the used equipment’s

from digging to the lab test as well as other
infrastructure used should be determined.

Labour Skills level and work duration should be

determined and cost calculated.

Land Land(s) For quarrying, production, curing,

workspace might not be needed but if it does
then should factored in the calculations.

Working Capital
Deciding the capital required to get into the
business considering all the above-examined
factors, This capital ought to be sufficient to
run the project for at least a month.
Depreciation Cost An estimate must be made of the annual
depreciation costs for separate equipment
items. The depreciation cost of buildings must
also be estimated.

Considering all the factors that go into the production from the start to end it can be concluded that the
annual production cost can be determined by the simple formula below:

+ Material costs
+ depreciation
+ labour cost
+ land rental
+ Interest on loan
= Total annual production cost
 CHAPTER 8

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION

Like Most Developing Countries, The Gambia can create the devices and gear required for the
generation of compressed stablised earth blocks using some of the soil preparation equipment and
block presses described in previous chapters. Been produced locally it is easily effectively adjusted
to the different needs: technical, social, cultural habits. Thus, the manufacture of compressed
stablised earth blocks could create a great deal of both direct and indirect employment, more so
than for other building materials.

Ideally, the production of the blocks is made on the site itself or in the nearby area. Thus, there
would not be any need of importation from far away expensive materials or transport over long
distances heavy and costly building materials. It is a simple technology requiring semi skills, easy
to get. Simple villagers will be able to learn how to do it in few weeks. Efficient training will
transfer the technology in a week time. These enable untalented and jobless individuals to gain
proficiency with an ability, find a new line of work and ascend in the social qualities.

Well-structured ISSB houses can withstand, overwhelming downpours, without being

harmed.CSEB (ISSB) also save the forest since firewood is not required in the production process.
The quality and solidness has been demonstrated since half a century. In case of any demolition,
the block material is biodegradable for it is earth in the first place.
Created locally, with a natural resource and semi-skilled labour, almost without transport, it will
be definitely cost effective! The final price will vary, but in most of the cases, it will be cheaper
than fired bricks.
ISSB contribute greatly in each of the following areas in our society as well as economic wise.
The following is a few of the areas the ISSB could immensely contribute in.
 Table 7: Advantages of ISSB

AREA IMPACT
Social acceptance ISSB can be adjusted into different needs: from poor pay to wealthy
individuals or governments.

Health The curved ISSB can make water tanks, lining for pit latrines, and septic
tanks. Water and sanitation needs could be met by this.

Environment Alternative to fired bricks thereby reducing environmental degradation due

to deforestation, and destruction of wetland.

Economical The interlocking component of the ISSB implies significantly less mortar is
required between courses, construction is easier and costs further reduced.

Easy To use The ISSB machine is anything but difficult to utilize and to keep up and the
interlocking instrument of the blocks made the wall construction much
easier and quicker.

Structural ISSB technology has proven to be strong and sturdy when compared with
traditional method of construction.

Educational This construction method can increase local skills and become an income-
generating opportunity for different populaces.
It is anything but difficult to learn and can invigorate instructive discourse
with respect to ecological issues because of Its inclination.
 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The previous chapters have demonstrated that in general, the utilization of compressed stablised
earth buildings (Specifically the Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks (ISSB)) in building
construction can provide a great number of advantages, especially to The Gambian building
industry. The development and promotion of good quality building blocks can also improve the
standard of living for low-income groups in both the Rural and Urban areas.
The production can be made in-situ with all conditions met; this made it much economical and
easily utilized by the locals for construction. Alternatively the blocks can be made at a
production site and later transported to the construction site but for this case the cost of
transportation must be greatly looked into and try ways in getting the cheapest possible
alternative to taking them to the site.
The adoption of ISSB could help drastically reduce the amount of houses damaged in the country
during the raining season as results of flash floods or storms. The blocks are water and fire
resistance and hence would not be washed away by rain unlike the adobe blocks, which are
usually used, in the rural and low income earning houses in the urban regions.
ISSB is cost effective and environmentally friendly. Most importantly, it is sustainable since
suitable soil is available in abundance within all the regions of The Gambia.
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CIMA, UNISDR (2018). The Gambia Disaster Risk Profile.

Compressed Earth Blocks: Manual Of Design And Construction by Hubert Guillaud, Thierry
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Disaster Risk Reduction Capacity Assessment Report, The Gambia February 2012.

Doctor .E.A.Adam and A.R.A.Agib, Compressed Stabilised Earth Block Manufacture in Sudan
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Eires, Rute & Sturm, Thomas & Camões, Aires & Ramos, Luís. (2012). Study of a new
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http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/GSP/docs/West_africa_partner/Gambia_Jatta.pdf

http://www.earth-auroville.com/maintenance/uploaded_pics/cseb.pdf

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https://www.preventionweb.net/countries/gmb/data/

https://www.habitat.org/where-we-build/malawi

UN habitat 2009, Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks Appropriate earth technologies in Uganda.

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