COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF UNCOMPRESSED LATERITIC SOIL

SOLID BLOCKS WITH CEMENT AND RICE HUSK ASH

BY

USMAN BELLO
FPT/KND/SET/HND/0311

BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC KAURA NAMODA
ZAMFARA STATE
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND) IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

JULY, 2022

i
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project was conducted by me USMAN BELLO under the
supervision of Dr.Engr. Sholadoye I.O all information used or cited in this work
were acknowledged.
.

__________________________________ ________________
USMAN BELLO DATE/SIGN
FPT/KND/SET/CET/HND/0311

ii
 APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that this project is an original work undertaken by USMAN

BELLO FPT/KND/SET/CET/HND/0311 and has been prepared in accordance

with the regulation governing the preparation of project in Federal Polytechnic

KauraNamoda, Zamfara State and approved by the following people.

____________________ ____________________
Engr. SholadoyeI.O Date
Project Supervisor

____________________ ____________________
Engr. SirajoIbrahimMagaji Date
Project Committee Chairman

____________________ ____________________
Engr. Johnson C. Abbah Date
Head of Department

iii
 DEDICATION

I dedicated this project research work to Allah SubhanahuWataala and my beloved

and caring parent Alh. Muhammad A. Bello and Hajiya, Halima Bello Bungudu.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of ALLAH the most compassionate and the most merciful. All praises
are due to ALLAH (SWA), master of the Day of Judgment, the forgiver and
provider, and non but to him. Who gave me the opportunity and zeal to live in this
moment and to carry out this research. It is two years of great experience of
massive training, shaping modeling and sizing which come with a lot of stress and
encouragement, which I could never have scale through without the help of the
high GOD who has been my source of everything. I seek for his guidance and
protection. May peace and blessing of ALLAH be upon our noble prophet
Muhammad (S.A.W), his companion’s, members of his household and those who
follow him with good deeds Ameen.
My profound gratitude goes to my parent Alhaji. Muhammad A. Bello and Hajiya
Halima Bello Bungudu who cared me with education from scratch with their love,
caring, and understanding. May Almighty Allah reward them for their moral and
financial support toward my Academic pursuit.
My sincere appreciation goes to my able supervisorEngr. SholadoyeI.O who made
her role efficient as a supervisor. I am gratitude for that. And also my unmitigated
gratitude goes to the entire lecturers of the Department of civil engineering
technology for their support, assistance and guidance in both moral and
academically.
I also wish to express my sincere gratitude to my brothers and sisters at home
Mahmud HayatuAttajiri, Rabi’atu Bello Bungudu, Hadiza Bello Muhammad,
Aisha Bello Muhammad, Zainab Bello Muhammad, Fatima Bello Muhammad,
Muhammad Bello whose morally or the other, support and contribution towards
success of my studies.
v
My acknowledgement would be incomplete without inclusion of my friends and
my grandparents. Perhaps they deserved appreciation, they also serves as a
motivating factors in the cause of my studies.

vi
 ABSTRACT

The comparison between compressive strength of uncompressed lateritic soil solid

block stabilized with rice husk ash and cement and compressive strength of
uncompressed lateritic soil solid block stabilized with rice husk ash only was
evaluated. Preliminary laboratory tests such as moisture content specific gravity,
Atterberg limit, compaction test and XRF test of the rice husk ash was carried out.
AASHTO classification were carried out to assess the fundamental properties of
the lateritic soil. The result showed that the soil was classified according to
AASHTO as an A-I-b (o) soil and classification system as SC (Silty Clay) using the
USCS. Tests such as compaction, atterberg were carried out on the soil samples
mixed with rice husk ash in percentages of 2,4,6,8 and 10 by weight of the cement
and by weight of soil. Result of compaction showed optimum moisture content of
2% ash, 2% cement and 2% ash are 14.08%, and 16.70% respectively. While the
maximum dry density include 1.68 and 1.85mg/m3. The variation of maximum dry
density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) with rice hush ask stabilizer
at 2,4,6,8,and 10% by weight of soil indicates that the values of MDD decreased as
value of OMC increased accordingly the result of X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) of
rice husk ash was carried out and found that combined percentage of composition
of silica, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 is more than 60% this shows that the rice husk as is
class F. Indicating the rice husk ash is a good pozzolana (ASTM D5370-96). A
total of forty eight (48) blocks were molded after which water was regularly
sprinkled on them every morning using a water can, for a period of 7 and 28 days
for proper curing of the blocks. The compressive strength of the blocks was found
to be 0.

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 Table of Contents
DECLARATION......................................................................................................ii
APPROVAL PAGE.................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION.........................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................v
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................1
1.1 Background of Study........................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of Problem and Justification............................................................3
1.3 Aim and Objectives..........................................................................................5
1.4 Objectives.........................................................................................................5
1.4 Scope and Limitation.......................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................6
2.1 Lateritic Soil.....................................................................................................6
2.2 Plasticity Characteristic of Laterite Soil...........................................................7
2.3 Cement.............................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Cement Properties.........................................................................................9
2.4 Modification of Soil.......................................................................................12
2.4.1 Stabilization of the Soil...............................................................................12
2.5 Pozzolans........................................................................................................13
2.6.1 Pozzolanic Material.....................................................................................14
2.6.2 Use of Pozzolans.........................................................................................16
2.7 Natural Agriculture Waste as a Stabilizer in Natural Soil..............................17
2.8 Ricehusk Ash (R H A)...................................................................................18
2.9 Atterberg Limits.............................................................................................19
viii
 2.9.1 Liquid Limit (LL)........................................................................................19
2.9.3 Plasticity Index (PI)................................................................................19
2.10 Compaction of Laterites Soil........................................................................20
2.11 Compressive Strength..................................................................................20
2.12 Previous Work on Partial Replacement of Lateritic Soil with Agricultural
Waste....................................................................................................................22
2.14 X-Ray Fluorescence of the Rice Husk Ash..................................................25
CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................27
3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY......................................................27
3.1. Materials........................................................................................................27
3.2.1 Rice HUSK Ash.......................................................................................27
3.2.2 Lateritic Soil and Brick Preparation............................................................28
3.3 Methodology..................................................................................................29
3.3.1 Sieve Analysis of the Natural Soil (Dry sieve)...........................................29
3.3.2 Atterberg limits...........................................................................................29
3.4 Compaction....................................................................................................31
3.4.1 Natural moisture content.............................................................................31
3.4.2 Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)........................................................32
3.4.3 West African Standard................................................................................32
3.5 Compressive Strength Test.............................................................................33
CHAPTER FOUR...................................................................................................35
4.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS..........................................................................35
4.1 Soil Properties................................................................................................35
4.2.1 Particle Size Distribution............................................................................36
4.2.2 Atterberg Limits..........................................................................................37
4.2.3 Compaction Test of the Lateritic Soil, Rice Husks Ash and Cement
Moisture Content..................................................................................................38
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 4.3 Compressive strength.....................................................................................43
CHAPTER FIVE.....................................................................................................44
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECONMENDATIONS.........................................44
5.1 Conclusions....................................................................................................44
5.2 Recommendations..........................................................................................44
5.3 Contribution to knowledge.............................................................................45
REFERENCES........................................................................................................46

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Lateritic soil are formed from the leaching of parent sedimentary rock (sand

stone, clays, limestone), volcanic rocks (schists, gneiss, migmatites), and

meneralizedprotores which leaves the more insoluble irons, predominantly

iron and aluminium (smith and smith, 1998 review by Elijah, 2019). The

reaction zone where rocks are in contact with water from the lowest to the

highest ions of sodium (Na++), potassium (k+),calcium (Ca++) and

magnesium (Mg++). lateritic soil cover about one third of the earth

continental land area with the majority of that in the land areas between the

tropics of cancer and capricorn (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998. review by

Elijah, 2019). Laterite or lateritic soil is a produce with red, reddish brown

and dark brown color, with or with out nodules, ability to self-harden,

concretions, and generally (but not exclusively) found below hardened

ferruginous crusts or hard plan assert that the degree of laterization is

estimated by the silica sesquioxides20. ratio (Sio2\(Fe2o3 + al2O3)) (Lawal,

2017) silica -sesquioxide (s-s)ratio less than 1.33 are indicative of laterites,

those between 1.33 and 2.00 are lateritic soil and those greater than 2.00 are

non-lateritic type (Joshua et al, 2014).

1
 The need for locally manufactured building materials has been

emphasized in many countries of the world. There is imbalance between the

expensive conventional building materials coupled with depletion of

traditional building materials. To address this situation attention has been

focuses on low-cost alternative building material (Agbedei and Manasseh

2008).

Traditionally lateritic soils, which are reddish brown in colour, have

been used as Bricks for building without any cement content. Recently,

modern builders started introducing some percentage of cement to laterite for

molding stronger bricks, because of high cost of sandcrete bricks. A major

lateritic instead of sand in moulding building bricks is the low cost due to

small quantity of cement required to produce bricks with adequate

compressive strength as well low cost of transporting lateritic. This is in good

agreement with earlier findings by (Metcalfe J.B) which reported that small

amounts of cement inhibit the weakening effect of water and increase

strength the compressive strength of lateritic-cement bricks increased steadily

within percentage of cement content up to 20% but decreased at cement

content above 20% (Aguwa, 2009).

RICE husk ash is one example of agriculture waste. Rice husk ash can

be used as pozzolanic material in civil structures with advantages such as

lower costs and the equivalent reduction of environmental impacts resulting

from the accumulations of this type of residue in the field (Kanninget

2
al,2014).In this project, rice husk ash is used as replacement for cement. It

is use as cementious material to produce lateritic bricks the composition of

the rice husk ash have shown good characteristic to be use as binder in the

lateritic brick.

However, though the procurement of lateritic soil is less expensive the

addition of cementious material (pozzolans) as partial replacement of laterite

is to see the increased in its strength possibly. The use of pozzolanic material

as an alternative in the construction is increasing day by day. The ash

produced from various type of agricultural waste can be used effectively as a

partial replacement of cement. Some researchers evaluated the presence of

pozzolanic activity in the deriving rice husk. Therefore this project deals with

the comparative study of properties of laterite by using rice husk ash as a

cementious material in the laterite mix.

1.2 Statement of Problem and Justification

The imperatives of soil stabilization in brick-making for low-cost building

cannot be overemphasized. Good quality compressed and stabilized earth

blocks improve hygiene (that is, there will be less surface cracks for insects

to lodge in), reduce maintenance and repair costs and, in general, prolong the

life span of a building (Adam and Agib, 2001). A study of mud house failures

in Bauchi showed that wall collapses in buildings constructed with plain

earth bricks without plastering was 100% (Ndububa, 2016). This mean all the

mud houses had at least a portion of the mud wall collapsed (Mukkadas,

3
2016). The local people in rural areas that cannot afford using cement and

concrete in building. The laterite is what they make use of because it is very

available but it is noticed that after construction the building still get cracks

on it, even with the addition of grasses which saves as binders to help

increase the strength of the bricks.

Consequently stabilization of the lateritic soils used for the houses was

one of the recommendations made to stop the massive failures. If this is done,

it will serve to upgrade mud houses to become brick houses. This stabilizer

includes certain admixtures like cement, added to soil to improve its

properties depending on the performances desired. The frequent rise in the

price of cement and other binders have result into search of agricultural waste

such as locust bean ash, rice husk, banana leave ash and bagasse ash as

binders which can equally improve the properties of construction materials at

very low cost (Mukaddas, 2016)

Although locust bean has been tested and seen as a good pozzolanic

material, it is expensive and can be gotten just once in a year. But the Rice

Husk ash can be gotten when construction is at its peak. If tested and seen has

a good replacement material it would be very cheap and affordable for the

locals.

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1.3Aim and Objectives
1.3.1Aim: the aim of these study is to evaluate the feasibility of rice husk ash

as an alternative material for partial replacement of cement in lateritic brick.

1.4 Objectives
1. To classified the soil using AASHTO classification system.

2. To determine the moisture and plasticity of the soil and by the addition

of cement and rice husk ash in percentage of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% by the

weight of cement and soil.

3. To determine the compressive strength of uncompressed laterite soil

solid blocks with rice ash as partial replacement of laterite at 2, 4, 6, 8

and 10%.

1.4 Scope and Limitation

This project is limited to the used of lateritic soil, cement and rice husk ash,

to make a lateritic brick.

The project involves the properties strength of the laterite soil partially

replace with cement at 2% and rice husk ash at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10% by the

weight of cement and soil, and the classification of rice husk ash as a

pozzolanic material.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1Lateritic Soil
Laterite is soil layer that is rich in iron oxide and derived from a wide variety

of rocks weathering under strongly oxidizing and leaching condition

(Muhammad and Yumusa, 2013). In Nigeria, laterite is used as a road

making material and it forms the sub-grade of most tropical roads, it is used

as sub base and base for low cost roads that carry low to medium traffic.

Furthermore in rural areas of Nigeria the soil is used as a building material

for moulding of blocks and plastering (Muhammad andYamusa, 2013).

In its natural state generally have low bearing capacity and low strength due

to high clay content the strength and stability of lateritic soil containing larger

amounts of clay cannot be guaranteed under load in the presence of moisture

(Alhassan, 2008). the use of lateritic soil consisting of high plastic clay

content resulting in cracks and damage to pavement, roadways, foundations

or any civil engineering construction.

Laterite are reddish brown well graded and sometime extend to depth of

several tens of meters (Olutaiwo, 2017). In some instance clay minerals

contained in it may be too much that its strength and stability cannot be

guaranteed under load, especially in the present of moisture while in others

cases, they contain swelling clay mineral types such as vermiculite, hydrated

6
halloysite and montmorillomite (Ola, 1974). When laterite contain swelling

clay mineral types, they are cause problems in construction.

Laterite soil is reddish to yellow in colour with a lower content of nitrogen,

phosphorus, lime, and magnesia with 90-100% of iron aluminium titanium

and manganese oxides. The word laterite has been derived from the Latin

word that means brick the laterite soil is formed under condition of high

temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods, which

leads to leaching of soil, leaving only oxides of irons and aluminium. It lacks

fertility due to a lower base exchanging. Capacity and a lower content of

nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium(AlkadwevediandArvind, 2017).

2.2 Plasticity Characteristic of Laterite Soil

The behaviour of soil mass in relation to the amount of water available in the

system has been of considerable interest to the agriculturalists, ceramicists

and soil engineers. Each clay-particle water system may be visualized.

Electromagnetic charges (usually negative) are believed to be concentrated

on the surface of the clay particles. Water molecules, being bi-polar, are

attracted to the particle surface and orient themselves on the surface like tiny

magnets. Adjacent to the mineral surface the water molecules are held so

firmly that a layer of solid water, several molecules thick, is attached to the

soil grain. As the distance from the soil-particle surface increases, the water

molecules are less tightly held and form are relatively thick layer of water

attached to the soil particle. The viscosity of the water layer decreases with

7
distance, leading to ordinary water. Some refer to the solid water as adsorbed

water and to the viscous layer as the double layer. This viscous water layer

between the soil particles is responsible for the plasticity of the clay. The

grains can quickly slip past each other to new positions in the viscous water

matrix without elastic rebound, without rupture, and without volume change.

The chemical and mineral composition, the size and shape of the soil

particles considerably control the amount of absorbed water films on the soil

particles. Among the factors affecting the plasticity of soil are the following.

a) The clay content: An increase in the clay content increases the

plasticity(Piaskowski, 1963).

b) Nature of the soil materials:Studieshave shown that only minerals

which have platy or sheet-like structure exhibit plasticity (Hough, 1957).

2.3 Cement
Cement is a binder, or a substance used for construction that sets, hardens,

and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used

on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement

mixed with fine aggregate produce mortar for masonry, or with sand and

gravel, produce concrete (Rodgers andLucy, 2018).The bonding of natural or

artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is durable in the

face of normal environmental effects.

8
2.3.1 Cement Properties
The Physical properties of cement are, fineness of cement, soundness,

consistency, strength, stetting time, heat of hydration, loss of ignition, bulk

density, specific gravity (relative density)

1) Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of

good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of

cement production process. As hydration rate of cement is directly related to

the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very important.

2) Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good

quality cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion,

which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.

3) Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency. It is measured by Vicat

Test.In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat

Apparatus. The plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top

surface of the cement. The plunger will penetrate the cement up to a certain

depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said to have a normal

consistency when the plunger penetrates 10¡À1 mm.

9
4) Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured compressive, tensile and

flexural. Various factors affect the strength such as water-cement ratio,

cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen,

the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions and age.

Compressive Strength: It is the most common strength test. A test specimen

(50mm) is taken and subjected to a compressive load until failure. The

loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.

5) Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary

depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water

ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in construction should

have an initial setting time that is not too low and a final setting time not too

high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs

within 30-45 minutes)

Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs

below 10 hours)

10
6) Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called

hydration. Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the

cement and also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold

Weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high, especially in large

structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is affected

most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio,

fineness and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is

calculated by determining the difference between the dry and the partially

hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).

7) Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there

would normally be air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very

important. Cement has a varying range of density depending on the cement

composition percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere from 62 to

78 pounds per cubic foot.

8) Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations.

Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for

11
example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cement) may

have specific gravities of about 2.90.

2.4 Modification of Soil

Soil modification is the process of altering the physical and chemical

structure and texture of the natural soil to make sure it offer sufficient support

to the foundation of your road or structure. Generally, if laterite does not

meet the specification that they are meant for, modifying them or stabilizing

them or the combination of the two to improves their engineering properties,

stabilization of laterite is the improvement of the strength and durability of

the soil, thus providing satisfactory material (Ma’aruf, 2012). Cement and

lime are the conventional materials that are generally used. The precise

cement and lime requirements for modification and stabilization of different

soils have to be determined by laboratory test of such soil properties using

atterberg limit test. Modification is aimed at improving the workability of the

soil.

2.4.1Stabilization of the Soil

O’Flaherty (2002), Villain-Cocinaet al., (2003) and Amu et al., (2011)

described soil stabilization as any treatment applied to a soil to improve its

strength. Different methods have been used in laterite stabilization in recent

years, mechanical and chemical stabilization being the two most popular

methods in operation all over the world. Laterite stabilization using

mechanical approach involves blending of different grades of soils to obtain a

12
desired standard. Chemical stabilization on the other hand, is the use of

silicon friendly material in blending of natural clay with chemical agents

such as pozzolana, soda ash, fly ash cement among others.

2.5Pozzolans
Pozzolans are a broad class of siliceous and aluminous materials which, in

themselves, possess little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely

divided form and in the presence of water, react chemically with calcium

hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing

cementitious properties.(Mehta,1987 ).The quantification of the capacity of a

pozzolan to react with calcium hydroxide and water is given by measuring its

pozzolanic activity, (Snellings, 2012).

According to (Johannes Fink, 2021) Pozzolan is a very finely ground pumice

or fly ash. The specific gravity of pozzolan is only slightly less than cement.

Therefore only a slight reduction of the specific weight can be achieved. On

the other hand, pozzolan is inexpensive. Pozzolan has been proposed in

several formulations. Silica fume has been proposed as a substitute for

natural pozzolan. Silica fume is a pozzolanic material composed of extremely

fine, amorphous spheres produced as a byproduct in the manufacture of

silicon metals. It has a high water demand and it is more reactive than natural

pozzolan or fly ash. It increases the compressive strength significantly(Fink,

2021).

13
Cadix and James (2022) Define Pozzolans as siliceous or siliceous and

aluminous materials that have little or no cementitious properties in

themselves but, when finely ground, will chemically react with calcium

hydroxide in the presence of water to form compounds that have

cementitious properties. The compounds formed are similar to those formed

From the hydration of Portland cement. Pozzolans act as extenders, but

because they form cementitious compounds by reaction with Portland, they

also contribute to the compressive strength of the set cement. The most

common pozzolans used in well cement systems are artificial pozzolans;

mainly fly ashes and high surface area amorphous silica products.

2.6.1Pozzolanic Material
The general definition of a pozzolan embraces large number of materials

which vary widely in term of origin composition and properties both natural

and artificial (man-made) material show pozzolanic activity and are used as

supplementary materials.

Artificial pozzolans can be produced deliberately, for instance by thermal

activation of kaolin-clays to obtain met kaolin, or can be obtained as waste or

by-products from high-temperature process such as fly ashes from coal-fired

electricity production. The most commonly used pozzolans today are

industrial by-products such as fly ash, silica fume from silicon smelting,

highly reactive met kaolin, and burned organic matter residues rich in silica

such as rice husk ash. Their use has been firmly established and regulated in
14
many countries. However, the supply of high-quality pozzolanic by-products

is limited and many local sources are already fully exploited. Alternatives to

the established pozzolanic by-products are to be found on the one hand in an

expansion of the range of industrial by-products or societal waste considered

and on the other hand in an increased usage of naturally occurring pozzolans.

Natural pozzolanas are abundant in certain locations and are extensively used

as an addition to Portland cement in countries such as Italy, Germany, Greece

and China. Volcanic ashes and pumices largely composed of volcanic glass

are commonly used, as are deposits in which the volcanic glass has been

altered to zeolites by interaction with alkaline waters. Deposits of

sedimentary origin are less common. Diatomaceous earths, formed by the

accumulation of siliceous diatom micro-skeletons, are a prominent source

material here.

Pozzolana cement is a material which is silica and alumina which in is self

has little or no Cementous value but will in finely divide form and in the

present of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary

temperature to form compounds possessing cementations properties. For the

assessment of pozzolanic activity with cement the pozzolanic activity index

should be measured, according to ATMC 6/893, this is the ration of

compressive strength of the mixture with a specified replacement of strength

of a mixture with our varizedful ash. There is also pozzolanic activity index

with lime (total activity) BS 4550 part 2: 1970 compared the quantity of Ca

15
(OH)z present in a liquid if Ca (OH)z capable of saturating a medium of the

same alkalinity in the concrete ration of Ca (OH) z in the solution is lower

than that test for pozzolanicity. American standard Astmc 6/894, (1994) for

testing materials, standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined

natural pozzolan for use in concrete (Abdullahi, 2003).

According to Deborah (2017) The advantages of using pozzolans in concrete

include the following:

1. Material cost reduction when a part of the cement is replaced by

pozzolans, which are low cost (with some of them being natural or

industrial by-products/wastes) and pollution free;

2. Environmental cost reduction in relation to reducing the greenhouse gases

emitted during cement production; and end-product durability

enhancement.

3. Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material that mainly consists of

oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates. Strictly speaking, lime is calcium

oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is commonly used to provide the calcium

hydroxide for reacting with pozzalans (Deborah, 2017)

2.6.2Use of Pozzolans
Chappex and Scriverer(2012) explain the benefits of pozzolans use in cement

and concrete in three folds. First is the economics gain obtained by replacing

a substantial part of the Portland cement by using cheaper natural pozzolans

or industrial by-product second Is the lowering of the blended cement

16
environmental cost associated with the greenhouse gasses emitted during

Portland cement production. A third advantage is the increased durability of

the end product.

Blending of Pozzolans with Portland cement according to Chappexand

Seriverer(2012) is of limited interference in the conventional production

process and offers the opportunity to convert waste for example, fly ash into

durable construction materials.

A reduction of 40% of Portland cement in the concrete mix is usually feasible

when replaced with a combination of Pozzolanic materials (Schneder, et al,

2011) pozzolans can be used to control setting, increase durability, reduce

cost and reduce pollution without significantly reducing the final

compressive strength or other performance characteristics.

2.7Natural Agriculture Waste as a Stabilizer in Natural Soil

Nigeria like any other country of the world is a producer of waste from

various sources such as human, biological, agricultural, industrial, e.t.c. but

poor management practice of these waste lead to severe soil and groundwater

contamination as well as adverse health effect, Agricultural waste are waste

gotten from agricultural product. Usually these material are disposed into

landfill or by open burning the processes are harmful to the environment

because it can lead to social and environmental problems such as air pollution

and global warming (Girisha et al, 2012). Therefore the use of waste

materials in building construction can reduce these hazard and cost.

17
2.8Ricehusk Ash (R H A)
Rice Husk Ash (R.H.A) is an abundantly available and renewable agriculture

by-product from rice milling in the rice producing countries. It has the

highest proportion of silica content among all plant residues (Siddique Et al,

2001). Rice husk ash is grayish-black in color due to unburned carbon. At

burning temperatures of 550–800 °C, amorphous silica is formed, while

crystalline silica is produced at higher temperatures. The specific gravity of

RHA varies from 2.11 to 2.27; it is highly porous and light weight, with a

very high specific surface area(Siddique and Andmehta, 2020).

Rice husks are the hard protective coverings of rice grains which are

separated from the grains during milling process. Rice husk is an abundantly

available waste material in all rice producing countries, and it contains about

30%–50% of organic carbon. In the course of a typical milling process, the

husks are removed from the raw grain to reveal whole brown rice which upon

further milling to remove the bran layer will yield white rice. Current rice

production in the world is estimated to be 700 million tons. Rice husk

constitutes about 20% of the weight of rice and its composition is as follows:

cellulose (50%), lignin (25%–30%), silica (15%–20%), and moisture (10%–

15%). Bulk density of rice husk is low and lies in the range 90–150

kg/m3(Bhupindersingh, 2018).

18
2.9 Atterberg Limits
The Atterberg limits are based on the moisture content of the soil. A wide

variety of soil engineering properties have been correlated to the liquid and

plastic limits, and these Atterberg limits are also used to classify a fine-

grained soil according to the Unified Soil Classification system or AASHTO

system.

2.9.1Liquid Limit (LL)

Liquid limit (LL) of a soil is the moisture content in percent at which the

cohesive soil will pass from a liquid state to a plastic state, this occurs when a

cohesive soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water making it to be in a

liquid state and flow like a viscous liquid. The LL of a soil will change

depending on the amount and type of clay minerals present in it.

2.9.2Plastic Limit (PL)

Plastic limit (PL) of a soil is defined as the moisture content in percent at

which a cohesive soil will change from a plastic state to a semisolid state.

Although, in the laboratory, the PL is defined as the moisture content (%) at

which a thread of soil will just crumble when rolled to a diameter of 3.18

mm.

2.9.3 Plasticity Index(PI)

Once the LL and PL is known, the Plasticity Index PI can be obtained, which

is the difference between the LL and PL. The liquid limit and plasticity index

of a cohesive soil helps in soil classification purposes.

19
2.10 Compaction of Laterites Soil
The essence of conducting compaction test was to determine the relationship

between dry unit weight and molud water content. Factors that influence the

degree of compaction are the moisture content, soil type and compactive

effort/energy per unit volume. Field compaction tests often vary from

laboratory tests and in a bid to reduce these differences, several compactive

efforts are selected in the laboratory that span the range of compactive efforts

anticipated in the field, consequently the water content/dry unit weight

criteria applies to any reasonable compactive effort.

When soils are stabilized, they are usually compacted before any construction

can be carried out on them. This is to achieve the desired densification and

strength improvement as a loosely packed soil cannot attain the desired

objective without densification (Joel and Joseph, 2015). The compaction of

soil plays an important role in construction of structures, highways and

airports. Proctor in 1933 developed a laboratory compaction test to determine

the maximum dry density of compacted soils, which can be used for

specifications of field compaction (Ogunsanwo, 1990).

2.11Compressive Strength
Compressive is defined as the ability of material to resist the direct pressure

of applied compressive force. Voids and micro channels inside the hydraulic

cement provide the adequate hydration of the material and subsequently

increase its compressive strength.

20
The ultimate compressive strength of a material is that value of uniaxial

compressive stress reached when the materials fail completely (2019)

compressive strengthens a limit state of compressive stress that lead to failure

in a material in a manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle

failure (rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weal

plane).

Bricks are type of block used to build walls, pavement and other elements in

masonry construction.

According to Emmit andGrors (2005). The compressive strength of the brick

is found by crushing concrete cube of them individually until it fail or

crumble. The pressure required to crush them is noted and the average

compressive strength of brick is stated as Newton per mm of surface area

required to ultimately crushed the brick the crushing resistance varies from

about 3.5 KN/mm for soft facing bricks up to 1.4KN/mm for engineering

bricks. Rate of water absorption. The rate varies between 1% and 35%. brick

with high suction rate absolve water rapidly therefore when such is to crush

and use as an aggregate there is need for proper wetting. The water

absorption is determine by measuring the decrease in mass of saturated and

surface dry sample after oven drying for 24hours.

Kerkhoftet al (2003) of brick aggregate then conventional aggregate

result from the high absorption of porous motor and Harding cement paste

with in the fire brick aggregate.

21
 Technically, soil improvement could either by modification or

stabilization or both. Soil modification is the addition of a modifier (cement,

lime e.t.c) to an soil to change it index property while stabilization is the

treatment of soil to enable their strength and durability to be improved such

that they become totally suitable for construction beyond that original

classification. By Alhassan (2008) lateritic soil are generally for road

construction in Nigeria. Lateritic soil in its natural state generally have low

bearing capacity and low strength due to high content of clay. When lateritic

soil contains a large amount of clay material it’s strength and stability cannot

be guarantee under load especially in the presence of moisture. Alhassan,

2008). it has been stated that literate is a residual of rock decay that is red,

reddish brown and yellowish in colour and has a high content of oxides f iron

and hydroxides of aluminum and low proportion of silica. Bello and

Adegove, 2013).

2.12 Previous Work on Partial Replacement of Lateritic Soil with

Agricultural Waste
Sakthivel et al (2019) investigation on concrete with banana fiber and partial

replacement of cement by banana leave ash. Base on the experimental

research for the concrete made with partial replacement of cement by banana

leaf ash (2%, 4% and 6%) and with addition of banana fiber with 0.2% are

conducted the test result show that the strength of the concrete is increased.

The concrete mix is varies in workability when compared with conventional

22
mix the addition of banana leaf ash slightly increases the compressive

strength of the concrete in 2% and 6% this give clear idea about the

replacement can be done by the ash is successfully fulfill the cementitious

properties, addition of banana fiber to the conventional mix by 0.2%

increases the tensile strength of the concrete.

Musthafa, (2019) carried out experimental study on partial replacement of

cement by banana leave ash and glass fiber. the research show that the partial

replacement of cement with banana leave ash and glass fiber changes the

compressive, flexural & split tensile strength of the concrete by using 15% of

banana leave ash 1.5% of glass fibre we can increase the compressive,

flexural & split tensile strength of the concrete by using these two

compaction of partial replacement we can be reduce of the concrete and

increase the concrete strength.

Researchers like Mohammed, (1997) and Akolo, (2000) modified lateritic

soilcrete building blocks with extract obtained from the husks of the ripe fruit

of locust bean tree which is in the organic form. Rice Husk Ash is one

excellent type of natural stabilizers that has seen extensive research and

development; Khan et al, (2012) proved that, 25% RHA as replacement of

cement in concrete mix results in the same or better concrete than

conventional concrete mix.

Locust Bean Pod Extract (LoPex) is another excellent additive which has

been proven by Aguwa and Okafor, (2012), to increase the compressive

23
strength of laterite (soil) blocks considerably. These researches have indeed

validated the pozzolanic nature of these ‘wastes.’ Hence, other types of ashes

like those of fuel, coal and rice husks, are categorized as pozzolans due to the

possession of binding enhancing properties. Locust bean waste ash is one of

such waste being generated. Several researchers (Mohammedbhai and

Baguant, 1990; Osinubi, 1995; 1998, 1999; Cokca, 2001; Medjo and

Riskowiski, 2004) have worked to obtain cheaper additives that can be used

to substitute the expensive industrially manufactured soil improving additives

(cement, lime, bitumen etc). This led to the consideration of agricultural

waste resources such as rice husk ash (RHA), bagasse ash (BA) locust bean

waste ash (LBWA), etc.

Laterite bricks were made by the Nigerian Building and Road Research

Institute (NBRRI) and used for the construction of a bungalow (Madedor,

1992). From the study, NBRRI proposed the following specifications as

requirements for laterite bricks: bulk density of 1810kg/m3, water absorption

of 12.5%, compressive strength of 1.65N/mm2 and durability of 6.9% with

maximum cement content fixed at 5%.

Good laterite bricks were produced from different sites

in Kano, Nigeria when laterite was stabilized with 3 to 7% cement and the

study showed that particle size distribution, cement content, compactive

effort and method of curing are factors, which affect the strength of bricks.

24
2.14X-Ray Fluorescence of the Rice Husk Ash
According to Lamidi and Mujedu 2017 the chemical composition of the

ashes of the Rice husk, is presented in Table 2.1. For the rice husk ash, on the

average, the highest chemical constituent is silica dia Oxide while the lowest

is calcium Oxides (CaO). Rice husk ash is an agricultural waste that as

potential to replace one of the construction material which is cement. This

because it contains a pozzolanic reaction that usually occurs in Portland

cement such as SiO, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. The combined percent composition

of silica, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 is more than 60 % for F class. This shows that it

is a good pozzolana (ASTM D5370-96). Whereas it is this high amount of

SiO2 which is amorphous silica that results in the silica-rich residue after the

combustion process of the rice husks.

Table 2.1: Physical properties and chemical composition for Rice Husk

Ash

Chemical Rice Husk Ash Values (%) Laterite Soil Cement

Composition (Lamidi &Mujidu 2017) Values (%)

Oxides

SiO2 68.12 54.26 20.05

AL2O3 4.82 31.39 6.47

Fe2O3 6.87 11.13 2.79

K2 O 0.36

25
P2O3

SO3 2.64 0.35

CaO 1.67 0.25 60.83

ZnO 0.005 0.51

Ag2O 0.014

CL 0.65

MgO 1.92 3.02

Na2O 0.0 0.48

TiO2 0.38

26
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. Materials
The lateritic soil sample used for this study was collected from a borrow pit

near Eid prayers ground Kaura-Namoda, along Kaura-Namodato

BirninMagajiroad (15.581099oN 653802oE). This was taken to the laboratory

of the Civil Engineering Technology Department of Federal Polytechnic

Kaura-Namoda and marked, indicating the soil description and date of

sampling. While the Rice husk ash was obtained locally from burning of Rice

Husk sourced from local farmers in Yar-NasarawaBukkuyum local

government area Zamfara state. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) Sokoto

Cement brand 42.5 N grade was used for the experiment.

3.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION

3.2.1 Rice HUSK Ash

The Rice husk were dried for 7 days (the work was carried out during the

raining period of April) burnt to ash in the open air temperature for about

nine (9) to Ten (10) hours and taken to the civil engineering technology

department Fedponam. The Rice Husk ash was sieved through B.S. sieve No.

200 (75μm) before usage as cement replacement. The cement was partially

replaced with the Rice Husk ash at the percentages of 0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%

and 10%.

27
3.2.2 Lateritic Soil and Brick Preparation
The lateritic soil was air-dried for three days (since sample were dried on

bringing to the laboratory Raining period) to allow for partial elimination of

natural water which may affect the analysis. After the drying period, The

ordinary Portland cement was also used as basis for comparison of results of

strength with the ashes of Rice Husk.

Preliminary classification tests such as particle size analysis and Atterberg

limits were carried out to determine the index properties/ geotechnical

properties for the natural and modified soils in 0 - 10% of RHA and 0-8% of

RHA and 2 % cement by the dry weight of soil in accordance with BS 1377

(1990). While engineering tests such as compaction (Maximum Dry Density

and Optimum Moisture was carried out using the West African Standard

(WAS) in accordance with BS 1377 (1990) and the Nigerian General

Specifications (1997).

The constituent materials were weighed according to the batching

calculations (0 %, 2 %, 4 %, 6 % 8% and 10% RHA only and 2 % cement

and 0 %, 2 %, 4 %, 6 % 8% and 10% RHA). This was derived by

determining the quantity of the lateritic soil that would make a brick size 100

x 100 x 100mm. Materials were mixed thoroughly to achieve a homogeneous

mixture using shovel and masonry trowel. 400ml of Water was added

carefully with the intermittent use bottle in order to prevent water from

flowing away from the mixture.

28
3.3Methodology
3.3.1 Sieve Analysis of the Natural Soil (Dry sieve)
The particle size analysis of a soil sample involves determining the

percentage by weight of particles within the different size ranges. The test

was carried out accordance with BS 1377:1990 part 2. About 1000g of the

soil sample was weighed and. The samples were transferred into BS sieves

arranged in descending order and then shaken for at least 10 minutes

manually. After sieving, the retained sample on every sieve was weighed and

the % passing was calculated. The clay fraction was determined according to

BS 1377 (1990).

3.3.2 Atterberg limits

The Atterberg limits tests carried out are liquid limits, plastic limits in

accordance with BS 1377 (1990) for the natural and the soil partially replaced

with Rice Husk ash.

Liquid limit

Laterites soil of 500 g passing through the BS 425 µm aperture sieve size was

tested. The soil was thoroughly mixed with water on a flat glass plate to form

a homogenous paste. The soil paste was then placed into the Casagrande

apparatus, leveled off and a groove made by drawing the grooving tool

through the center along the diameter of the hinge. By turning the crank at

the rate of two revolutions per second, the empty shell being lifted and

dropped until the two parts of the soil came into contact at the bottom of the

groove.
29
The number of blows at which this occurred was recorded and some quantity

of the sample was taken and its moisture content was determined. The liquid

limit tests were determined at various moisture contents from drier states to

the wetter states. The moisture content was plotted against the respective

number of blows on the semi logarithm paper. The soil fraction passing the

BS 425µm sieve was mixed with Rice Husk ash (RHA) prior to the test. The

procedure was repeated for each soil.

Plastic limit

The proportion of the material passing sieve with aperture 425µm which was

used for the determination of the liquid limit was also used for the

determination of the plastic limit. A sample of the wet soil was taken and

molded between the palms of the two hands. The sample was rolled and sub-

divided into four equal parts. Each of the portions formed were then rolled

between the tips of the fingers and the surface of the glass. Sufficient

pressure was then exerted to reduce the diameter of the thread to about 3mm,

as specified by the BS 1377 (1990). The rolled soil which formed a thread

was rolled until it shared in both ways. The plastic limit was recorded as the

average of the moisture contents obtained. The procedure was repeated for

every successful increment in the concentration of the Rice Husk ash.

Plasticity index

The plasticity index (PI) was computed as the numerical difference between

the liquid limit (LL) and the plastic Limit (PL) as follows:

30
PI = LL - PL (3.1)

Where, PI - the Plasticity Index (%), LL - the Liquid Limit (%) and PL - the

Plastic Limit (%)

3.4Compaction
3.4.1Natural moisture content
The natural moisture content of the soil was ascertained in accordance with

BS 1377 (1990) Part 2. Weighing containers were cleaned and weighed on

weighing balance of 0.001kg accuracy. The empty container was weighed as

A1. The collected fresh sample was crumble and put inside weighed

container and the container plus sample was weighed as A2. The containers

with the fresh sample were put under sun for 24 hours to dry . The sun dried

sample were brought back into the laboratory and weighed as A3 to the

nearest 0.001kg. The average of the three containers of the oven dried

samples gives the natural moisture content of the soil computed by equation.

(3.2)

W% = A2 – A3X100 (3.2)

A3 – A1

Where, w is the moisture content (%), A1- the weight of empty container

(g), A2- the weight of container + fresh soil (g) and A3 - the weight of

container+ dried soil (g)

31
3.4.2 Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
The corresponding values of moisture contents at maximum dry densities

(MDD) deduced from the graph of dry density against moisture contents,

gives the optimum moisture content (OMC).

3.4.3West African Standard

For the West African Standard (WAS) or ‘Intermediate’ compaction the

same size of mould used for the BSL compaction was employed with a

hammer weighing 4.5 kg falling through 45 cm compacted in 5 layers, each

receiving 25-blows. From each of the compacted samples, protruding soils

are leveled off with a straight edge carefully. The soil samples were then

removed from the mould and a little portion taken from the top and the

bottom of the mould for moisture content determination. Various percentages

by weight of the Rice Husk ash (RHA) were added to the lateritic soil again.

For each of the compactive effort considered, the procedure was repeated

with increment in RHA added. The bulk density, ρ1 in Mg/m3 was calculated

for each compacted sample as:

ρ A 1− A 2
1= (3.3)
100

Where

A1 = Mass of mould and base (g)

A2 = Mass of mould, base and soil (g)

and the dry density, ρd in Mg/m3 was calculated as :

32
ρ 100
d= (3.4 )
100+w( pl)

W = Moisture content (%)

The plotted graph gave the maximum dry density and the corresponding

optimum moisture content. The bulk density is given by equation (3.5)

Ms
l b= (3.5)
Vs

Where:

ℓb-Bulk density (kg/cm³), Ms- Weight of compacted soil (kg) and Vs is the

Volume of Mould (cm³). The dry unit weight was determined using the

expression in equation (3.6)

lb
ld = (3.6)
1−w

Where: l d - the Dry density (Mg/cm³), l b - the Bulk density (kg/cm³) and the

moisture content (w) was determined using equation (3.2)

3.5Compressive Strength Test

After thorough mixing of the constituent materials, the mould box made of

up wood was greased with oil to allow easy removal of bricks. Mixed

samples were fed into the mouldbox . It was then compressed by a hand

operated tools and level using sharp edge, After the compression, the mould

box was jacked upward to remove the brick. A total of forty four (44) bricks

were moulded. The moulded wet bricks were dried for two days after which

water was regularly sprinkled on them using a watering can, for a period of 7

33
and 28 days for the proper curing of the bricks. This was necessary for the

brick to attain its maximum strength. During the curing period, the brick

samples were placed in an open space for the period of the curing. The

Compressive strength tests were carried out on the cubes by crushing. British

Standards (BSI, 1983) was adopted.

Also weighing and dimensioning of samples were conducted before crushing

to determine the densities. The specimen dimension was 100 x 100 x 100 mm

was placed on the crushing machine. The crushing machine consist of two

steel, one, in a fixed position which the sample is placed while the other steel

is moveable which transmit the load to the sample. After the sample is placed

on the fixed steel the moveable steel is used to apply the maximum load at a

constant rate on the sample, the load at which the sample fails is noted. The

test was carried out at the strength of material laboratory of civil engineering

Technology department federal polytechnic Kaura-Namoda.

Compressive Strength N/mm2= Crushing Load (3.7)

Effective Area

Density = Mass (3.8)

Volume

34
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1Soil Properties
The results from the preliminary test such as natural moisture content,

specific gravity, particle size analysis, atterberg limits and plasticity index

before the addition of ashes of Rice Husk are presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. Soil Properties

Properties (laterite) Values

Percentage passing BS No 200 sieve

19.6 %

(75μm) (%)

Liquid Limit LL (%) 47.62

Plastic Limit, PL 36.36

Plasticity index, PI 11.26

Maximum dry density(Mg/m3) 1.79

Optimum moisture content (%) 15.71

Soil type (Unified Classification) Silt Clay

USCC classification SC

AASHTO classification A-1-b

Condition of sample Sun dried

35
4.2.1Particle Size Distribution
The particle size distribution analysis shows the range of particle sizes

presents in the soil. This is presented in Figure 4.3, from the grain size curve,

percentage of soil passing sieve 0.075 mm and 4.75mm are 19.6 % and 98 %

respectively. The portion retained above 4.75 mm sieve is 2 % (Table A1 of

the Appendix A). This implies that the soil sample is denominated with sand,

from this therefore it is deduce that the sample is good for making lateritic

brick. Seen it has less clay which will cause Excessive cracking during

curing.

According to the Federal Ministry of Work and Housing specification

requirement, for a sample to be used for bricks in the building construction,

the percentage by weight passing the No. 200 sieves shall be less than but not

greater than 35%. The sample that passed the sieve No 200 was greater than

35% (19.6%) which proved to be good for usage.

120

100

80
% Passing

60

40 Y-Values

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Sieve Size

36
Figure 4.1: Particle Size Distribution of the Lateritic Soil

4.2.2Atterberg Limits
The liquid limit value is 47.62% while the plastic limit is 36.36%. The

plasticity index is approximately 11.26 % (Table 4.1). The liquid limit

increased with increase in the percentage of the Rice husk Ash(RHA). The

initial decrease in the liquid limit may be as a result of the cement and the

cementing properties of the RHA due to high content of calcium oxide which

aids in flocculation and aggregation of the soil particles. Also, possible

reason for the decrease could be attributed to the cation exchange reactions

between RHA and the soil accompanied with flocculation reactions. The

liquid limit ranged from 42% - 48% for ash and cement and also 42% -48%

for RHA only. According to Whitlow (1995) Liquid limit less than 35%

indicates low plasticity, between 35% and 50% intermediate plasticity,

between 50% and 70% high plasticity and between 70% and 90% very high

plasticity. Therefore it can be inferred that its plasticity is intermediate.

49
48
47
46
45
Liquid Limit

44
43
42
41
40
39
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Cement and Rice Husk Ash Rice Husk Ash

37
Figure 4.2: Liquid Limit of the cement and RHA and RHA only

45
40
35
30
Plastic Limits

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Contents %

Cement and Rice Husk Ash Rice Husk Ash

Figure 4.3: Plastic Limit of the cement and RHA and RHA only

4.2.3 Compaction Test of the Lateritic Soil, Rice Husks Ash and
Cement Moisture Content
The natural moisture content 15.71 % of the natural soil while the maximum

dry density is 1.79Mg/m3. The summary of the results are shown in Table 4.1

and Figure 4.9 shows the behavior of the natural soil for compaction.

The optimum moisture content of 2% ash, 2% cement and 2% cement and

ash are 14.08 %, 16.90 % and 18.18 % respectively. While the maximum dry

density include 1.68, 1.85 and 1.85- Mg/m3. The variation of Maximum Dry

Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) with rice husk ashes

stabilizer at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 -% by weight of soil indicates that values of

MDD decreased as values of OMC increased accordingly. The optimum

moisture content (OMC) of the samples shown in Figure 4.5 to Figure 4.8

38
Shows 15.71, 14.08, 16.90,and 18.18 -% for natural soil, 2 % ash , 2 %

cement and 2 % ash and cement respectively.

1.9
Dry Density KN/M3

1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Moisture Contents %

Figure 4.5 Optimum Moisture Content of the natural Soil

1.9
1.8
Dry Density KN/M3

1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Moisture Contents %

Figure 4.6: Optimum Moisture Content of the natural Soil with 2 % ash

1.8

1.7
Dry Density KN/M3

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Moisture Contents %

Figure 4.7: Optimum Moisture Content of the natural Soil with 2 % Cement

only

39
 1.9

1.8

1.7
Dry Density KN/M3

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2
5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture Contents %

Figure 4.8: Optimum Moisture Content of the natural Soil with 2 % Cement

and 2 % ash

The range of the OMC for ash only and ash and cement was 15.71 % -16.92

% and 15.71% – 17.89% respectively showing that of cement mix higher

than ash only as present in Figure 4.10. While the maximum dry density

(MDD) for the samples mix were 1.85 Mg/m3, 1.85 Mg/m3, 1.74 Mg/m3

1.71Mg/m3 and 1.67 Mg/m3. There was initial increase in the MDD before

the decrease as shown in Figure 4.10. The range of the MDD for ash only and

ash and cement was 1.62 Mg/m3 -1.68 Mg/m3 and 1.67 Mg/m3 to 1.85

Mg/m3 respectively showing that of cement mix higher than ash only as

present in Figure 4.10.

This indicate from the reviewed of Layade and Ogunkoya (2018) that

according to Flaherty (1988) the ranges of values that may be anticipated

when using the standard proctor test methods are: for clay, optimum moisture

content (OMC) may fall between 20-30% and MDD fall between 1.44-
40
1.685mg/m3. For silty clay OMC ranged between 15-25% and maximum dry

density (MDD) fall between 1.6-1.845mg/m3. For sandy clay, OMC between

is 8 and 15% and MDD between 1.76- 2.165mg/m3. Thus, looking at the

results of the soil samples, it could be noticed that they are clay and sandy-

clay.

This was also affirm by Layade and Ogunkoya (2018) in the study of

Geotechnical properties of lateritic soil as subgrade and base material for

road construction in Abeokuta, Southwest Nigeria where he obtained the

moisture content of the samples ranges from 18.2% to 28.30% with an

average value of 22.99 % and he concluded it to be a clayed and silty-clay

(material passing sieve No. 200) and this finding is in agreement with other

determined geotechnical parameters.

The change in OMC and maximum dry unit weight with RHA content can be

seen in Figures 4.10 and 4.11 respectively. The general increase in the OMC

values could be due to the ability of RHA to absorb water. This property

makes it a good absorber of water and which Ogunribido (2011) attribute

increase in OMC values implies that more water is needed to compact the

soil(Joel and Joseph, 2015).

The increase in OMC according to Olutaiwo and Lawal (2017) could also be

due to the addition RHA + Cement, which decreased the quantity of free silt

and clay fraction and coarser material with larger surface areas were formed

(these processes need water to take place). This implies that, apart from the

41
water needed by the soil, more water was needed in order to compact the soil

– RHA mixtures. The increase in OMC with cement content was as a result

of water needed for the hydration of cement (Osinubi, 1999).

On the other hand, the decrease in MDD values suggests a possible effect of

the RHA on the particle size and specific gravity of the soil. This could also

attributed it to mixture of the soil and Rice husk ash which has lower specific

gravity compared to the soil. The observed decrease in MDD may also be

explained by considering the rice husk ash as filler in the soil voids (Fatah et

al., 2013). For the Ordinary Portland Cement; the increase in MDD may be

due to a decrease in the surface area of the clay fraction of the lateritic soil

arising from the substitution of lateritic soil with cement (Joel and Joseph,

2015). According to Amu et al (2011), increase in MDD values with increase

in percentage of cement being added to lateritic soil indicates improvement in

Soil properties.

1.9
1.85
1.8
1.75
MDD (KN/M3)

1.7
1.65
1.6
1.55
1.5
1.45
1.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
% Contents

Rice Husk Ash Cement and Rice Husk Ash

Figure 4.10: Results of MMD for Soil + RHA and Soil + RHA + 2%Cement
42
 19
18
17
16
15
OMC (%)

14
13
12
11
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
% Contents

Rice Husk Ash Cement and Rice Husk Ash

Figure 4. 11: Results of OMC for Soil + RHA and Soil + RHA + 2%Cement

4.3 Compressive strength

The compressive strength did not give any value due to the material quality

or the area that is use in the production of the brick.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECONMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
Based on the study carried out on the strength behaviour of rice husk ash, the

following conclusions are drawn:

1. The oxide composition of the rice husk ash as reference in chapter two

table 2.1 shows that the rice husk ash has SiO 2 at 68.12%, Al2O3 of

4.82% and Fe2O3 6.87% which is more than 60% for the class F. this

prove that the rice husk ash is a good pozzalanic material.

2. The lateritic soil used for the study is classified as A-1-b (0) according

to the AASTO classification system as SC using the USCS. This

renders it as suitable material for most geotechnical purpose. The

atterberg limit test proved the plasticity of the soil is intermediate.

5.2Recommendations
1. A good lateritic soil should be gotten for the production of brick

modified with Rice Husk Ash for better results.

2. The A-1-a (Sc (Silty- Clay)) soil shouldn’t be used for brick

production.

3. The area of the bricks should be increased, and the percentage of

cement and rice husk.

44
5.3 Contribution to knowledge
1. Identification of Rice husk Ash as a pozzolanic Material

2. Identification of modification of Rice husk Ash and Cement for a A-

1-a (SC (silty-clay)) of 2 %

45
 REFERENCES

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Modified Lateritic Soil. International Journal of Engineering and Technical
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June 2017 25 www.erpublication.org

Osinubi, K.J. (1999). “Evaluation of admixture stabilization of Nigeria black cotton

soil.” Nigeria Society of Engineers Technical Transactions, Vol. 34, No 3, pp
88-96.

Adam E.A. and Agib, A.R.A. (2001). Compressed stablised earth block
manufactured in Sudan (Paris: United Nations Educational,
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Amadi, AA and Okeiyi, A. (2017).Use of quick and hydrated lime in
stabilization of lateritic soil. International of Geo-Engineering
20117. 8(1), 1-13, 2017
ASTM C136-06 (2006).“America Standard Test Methods” International -
Standards Worldwide.
B.S. 1377 (1990).“Methods of Testing Soil for Civil Engineering Purposes”.
British Standards Institute, London.
B.S. 1924 (1990).“Methods of Tests for Stabilized Soils”. British Standards
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BS 1377 (1990).Method of Testing Soils for Engineering Purposes. British
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Chappex, T. and Scrivener K. (2012)."Alkali fixation of C-S-H in blended
cement pastes and its relation to alkali silica reaction". Cement
and Concrete Research. 42: 1049–
1054. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2012.03.010.
Compressive strength (2019). Compressive Strength of RHA Stabilized Earth
Bricks Mixed With Locust Bean Pod Extract
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures (2000).Aggregates for Concrete.
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Memphis.
Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (1997): General Specification for
Roads and Bridges, Volume II, Federal Highway Department,
FMWH, Lagos, Nigeria.

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Global-Greenhouse-Warming (2017).Cement-CO2-emissions. Retrieved
from https://www.globalgreenhouse- warming.com/ Cement-
CO2-emissions.html.19th September, 2017
James, A, Antony G, .Alexander, S (2016). Study on the Behaviour of Red
Soil Cement Concrete International Journal of Advances in
Mechanical and Civil Engineering, ISSN: 2394-2827 Volume-3,
Issue-3, Jun.-2016 Pg 158-162.
Joel, M. and Joseph, E. E. (2015): "Comparative Analysis of Cement and
Lime Modification of Ikpayongo Laterites for Effective and
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Joshua, O, Amusan, L. M, Fagbenle, O. I. &Kukoyi, P. O. (2014).Effects of
Partial Replacement of Sand with Lateritic Soil in Sandcrete
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Ma'aruf M. A.S (2012). Admixture Stabilization of Laterite Block Using
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47
 APPENDIX A

TABLE A1

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Sieve Sizes Mass Retained % Mass Cum Mass % Passing

Retained (g) Retained

5.00 0 0 0 100

4.76 20 2.0 2.0 98

3.380 46 4.6 6.6 93.4

2.36 49 4.9 11.5 88.5

1.4 120.0 12 23.5 76.5

0.6 235 23.5 47.0 53.0

0.425 33 3.3 50.3 49.7

0.15 20 2.0 52.3 47.7

0.075 278 27.8 80.1 19.6

Pan 196 19.8 99.7 0

48
TABLE A2

LIQUID LIMIT

% Content Cement and Rice Husk Rice Husk Ash

Ash (LL)

0 47.62 47.62

2 44.12 42.42

4 43.33 42.86

6 42.86 44.74

8 45.71 45.95

10 44.19 48.12

49
TABLE A3

PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)

% Content Cement and Rice Husk Rice Husk Ash

Ash (LL)

0 36.36 36.36

2 33.33 36.67

4 27.27 28.4

6 38.46 37.06

8 33.30% 41.67

10 38.46 36.36

TABLE A4

MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY

% Content MDD (KN/M3) Ash MDD (KN/M3) Ash and

Cement

0 1.79 1.79

2 1.68 1.85

4 1.66 1.85

6 1.625 1.74

8 1.623 1.71

10 1.58 1.67

50
TABLE A5

OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT

% Content OMC (%) Ash OMC (%) Ash and

Cement

0 15.71 15.71

2 14.08 16.70

4 16.92 17.58

6 16.78 17.89

8 15.84 17.75

10 16.46 17.62

51
APPENDIX B

52
53
54