ASSESSMENT OF THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

INTERLOCKING TILES PRODUCED FROM RECYCLED PLASTIC

WASTE

BY

UROEGBULAM, TOCHUKWU MICHAEL

20171046393

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY,

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI.

AUGUST, 2023.
 CERTIFICATION
I, Uroegbulam, Tochukwu Michael, 20171046393, hereby certify that this project report is
original to me and has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of a degree.

__________________ _________________

Signature Date

ii
 APPROVAL
This work, “Assessment of The Compressive Strength of Interlocking Tiles Produced from
Recycled Plastic Waste” by Uroegbulam, Tochukwu Michael, is hereby approved as a
satisfactory project for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.) in Civil
Engineering.

__________________ _____________

Engr. N. S. M. Ogbonna Date

(supervisor)

__________________ ______________

Engr. Dr. Ibearegbulam O. Date

(HOD)

__________________ ______________

(ExternalSupervisor) Date

iii
 DEDICATION
To the Almighty God who has miraculously seen me through my studies in FUTO and to my
mum who has sacrificed so much to give me quality education.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to the Almighty God, the possessor of all knowledge, without
who I have no existence. I want to acknowledge my parents for their constant support and
advice that sustained me throughout this work. My profound gratitude goes to Engr. Engr. N.
S. M. Ogbonna who has made much impart in me and contributed in no small measure in
making this work a reality and whose impart has also become to me, an eye opener into
industrial/technological advancement.

I will like to also thank the Head of Civil Engineering Department in the person of Engr. Dr.
O. M. Ibearugulem and all the lecturers in the department: Engr. Prof. (Mrs.) B. U. Dike,
Engr. Prof. J. C Ezeh, Engr. Prof. D. O. Onwuka, Engr. Prof. B. C. Okoro, Engr. Prof. J. C.
Osuagwu Engr. Prof. Ettu, Lawrence, Engr. Prof. (Mrs.) C. E Okere, Engr. Dr. O. Robert,
Engr. Dr. A. N. Nwachukwu, Engr. Dr. Njoku F. C., Engr. Amanze A. P. C., Engr. K. C.
Nwachukwu, Engr. Dr. I. C. Onyechere, Engr. Dr. (Mrs.) Arimanwa, Engr. Dr. Anya, Rev.
Engr. Dr. N. Nwakwasi, Engr. K. O. Njoku, Engr. K. N. Onyema, Mr. N. S. M. Ogbonna, U.
C. Engr. E. O. Ihemegbulam, Engr. (Mrs.) P. N. Ikpa, Engr. G. C Nwokorobia, Mr. C. S.
Uzoukwu, Mr. D. I Bertram, Mr. A.U Igbojiaku, Mr. Princewill Okorie, Mr. Collins O.
Ukachukwu and Mrs. J. C. Maduagwu.

Finally, my special thanks goes to my project group members, friends and course mates for
their contributions towards the success of this project.

v
 ABSTRACT
This study encompasses the fabrication of interlocking stones using discarded plastic
materials. Specifically, the chosen plastic type was high Density Polyethylene (PET bottle
covers), procured from plastic dump site at AVU junction in Owerri West, Imo state. River
sand was selected as the fine aggregate for the production process. The mixing ratios for both
fine and coarse aggregates were held steady at 3:1.5 for the initial batch mix, with the plastic
content ranging from 15% to 50%. Subsequently, the second batch mix utilized ratios of 3.5:2
for fine and coarse aggregates, coupled with plastic binder proportions ranging from 15% to
50%. A total of 32 interlocking stone samples were manufactured, evenly distributed between
the two aforementioned batch mix configurations. The molds employed for shaping the
interlocking pavers were sized at 21.3 × 6.5 × 8cm. Rigorous laboratory evaluations were
conducted, including tests for saturated surface dry density and compressive strength. The
interlocking pavers underwent immersion in an open tank for 24 hours, allowing for
determination of their saturated surface dry density. Furthermore, a compressive test was
executed within a laboratory setting using a universal testing machine, enabling the
assessment of failure load. Remarkably, the second batch mix exhibited the highest
compressive strength among the LDPE-produced paver blocks, registering at 25.4 MPa.
Moreover, the saturated surface dry density reached its zenith at 2798.57 kg/m³.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………………………………….i
CERTIFICATION.....................................................................................................................ii
APPROVAL.............................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................................x
LIST OF PLATES...................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of study.........................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of Problem.......................................................................................................2
1.3 Objective of Study............................................................................................................3
1.4 Significance of Study.......................................................................................................3
1.5 Scope of Study..................................................................................................................4
1.6 Limitations of Study.........................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................................5
2.1 Interlocking Stones in Civil Engineering.........................................................................5
2.1.1 Defining Interlocking Stones in Civil Engineering.......................................................6
2.1.2 Categorizing Varieties of Interlocking Stones..............................................................6
2.1.3 Sustainable Advancements: Interlocking Stones from Recycled Plastic Waste......7
2.1.4 Environmental Benefits of Interlocking Stones from Recycled Plastic Waste.............8
2.2 Plastic Waste: A Global Environmental Challenge........................................................10
2.2.1 Definition and Complexity of Plastic Waste...............................................................10
2.2.2 Types of Plastic Waste and their Applications............................................................11
2.2.3 Categorization of Plastic Waste and Constituent Composition...................................12
2.2.4 Sources and Composition of Plastic Waste.................................................................14
2.2.5 Ecological Implications of Plastic Waste....................................................................15
2.2.6 Mitigating Plastic Waste: Strategies and Approaches.................................................16
2.2.7: Utilization of Plastic Waste as Aggregates and Binders in Construction Materials. .17
2.3.1 Significance of Surface Dry Density in Construction.................................................19
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 2.3.2 Measurement Techniques of Surface Dry Density for Interlocking Stones made of
Plastic Waste........................................................................................................................19
2.3.3 Factors Influencing Surface Dry Density for Interlocking Stones made of Plastic
Waste....................................................................................................................................19
2.3.4 Limitations of Surface Dry Density for Interlocking Stones made of Plastic Waste. .20
2.3.5 Influence of Plastic Waste on Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Stones................20
2.4 Compressive Strength: A Fundamental Property in Structural Engineering and
Construction.........................................................................................................................21
2.4.1 Equipment and Techniques for Compressive Strength Testing..................................21
2.4.2 Significance of Compressive Strength in Construction...............................................22
2.4.3 Age-Strength Relationship in Compressive Strength..................................................22
2.4.4 Voids and Their Role in Compressive Strength..........................................................22
2.4.5 Compressive Strength of Interlocking Stones.............................................................23
2.5Literature Review of Previous Work on Use of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
Plastic Waste in Interlocking Stones....................................................................................23
2.6 Previous Works on Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Stones Made from PET Plastic
Waste....................................................................................................................................23
2.7 Previous Works on Compressive Strength of Interlocking Stones Using PET Plastic
Waste....................................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................................................25
MATERIALS AND METHODS.............................................................................................25
3.1 Materials.........................................................................................................................25
3.1.1 Recycled plastic waste (PET bottle corks)..................................................................25
3.1.2 River Sand...................................................................................................................26
3.1.3 Granite.........................................................................................................................26
3.1.4 Water...........................................................................................................................26
3.2 Equipment’s and Tools Used..........................................................................................26
3.3 Methods..........................................................................................................................26
3.3.1 Production Techniques of Interlocking Tiles..............................................................26
3.3.2 Determination of Saturated Surface Dry Density........................................................29
3.3.3 Determination of Compressive Strength of Interlocking Tiles...................................29
Figure 3.1: Cross section of interlocking tiles..................................................................30
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................30
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..............................................................................................30
4.1 Presentation of Results...................................................................................................30
4.1.1 Saturated Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Tiles Result.......................................31
4.1.2 Compressive Strength of Interlocking Tiles Results...................................................32
4.2 Discussion.......................................................................................................................34
4.2.1 Discussion of Results of Saturated Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Tiles..........34
4.2.1.2 Saturated Surface Dry Density Trends:....................................................................35
4.2.1.3 Comparison with Previous Literature:......................................................................35
4.2.1.4 Implications and Significance:.................................................................................35
4.2.2 Discussion of Results of Compressive Strength..........................................................36
4.2.2.1 Impact of Binder Content on Compressive Strength:...............................................36
4.2.2.2 Effect of Plastic Waste Content on Compressive Strength:.....................................36
4.2.2.3 Comparison with Previous Research:.......................................................................36
CHAPTER FIVE......................................................................................................................38
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.......................................................................38
5.1 CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................38
5.2 RECOMMENDATION..................................................................................................38
REFERENCE...........................................................................................................................39
APPENDIX..............................................................................................................................56

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Mix design with ratio of river sand to granite 1.5:3.0. 27
Table 3.2: Mix design with ratio of river sand to granite 2.0:3.5. 27
Table 3.3: Batching by weight for mix of sand to aggregate of 1.5:3.0. 28
Table 3.4: Batching by weight for mix of sand to aggregate of 2.0:3.5. 28
Table 4. 1: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 1.5:3.0.31
Table 4.2: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 2.0:3.5. 31
Table 4.3: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 1.5:2.0 32
Table 4.4: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 2.0:3.5 33

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 1.5 :3.0.
32
Figure 4.2: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 2.0:3.5. 32
Figure 4.3: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 1.5 : 2.0 34
Figure 4.4: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 2.0 : 3.5 34

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 LIST OF PLATES
Plate 2. 1: Concrete pavers
Plate 2. 2: PET plastic bottle cork waste

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

In recent years, global environmental concerns and the urgent need for sustainable waste
management solutions have prompted increased attention towards the utilization of recycled
materials in various industries. The construction sector, known for its substantial resource
consumption and waste generation, has become a focal point for exploring innovative
materials that can mitigate environmental impacts. Within this context, the incorporation of
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plastic bottle cork in the production of interlocking tiles
offers a promising avenue for achieving both environmental sustainability and construction
material innovation.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plastic, commonly used in the production of packaging
materials, bottles, and textiles, has emerged as a significant contributor to the plastic waste
crisis due to its non-biodegradable nature. The improper disposal and accumulation of PET
plastic waste have led to severe environmental pollution and ecosystem degradation.
Researchers and practitioners alike recognize the importance of repurposing and recycling
PET plastic waste to minimize its environmental footprint.
Interlocking tiles, characterized by their modular design and ease of installation, have
garnered substantial interest in the construction industry. These tiles provide advantages such
as rapid installation, aesthetic flexibility, and potential cost savings. However, the mechanical
properties of interlocking tiles, particularly their compressive strength, are crucial for
ensuring their structural integrity and performance under varying load conditions.
The incorporation of recycled PET plastic waste into interlocking tile production offers a dual
benefit: mitigating plastic waste accumulation and introducing an eco-friendly alternative to
conventional construction materials. This approach aligns with the principles of circular
economy, where waste is considered a resource that can be recycled and reused to minimize
waste generation and virgin material consumption.
Despite the potential benefits of utilizing PET plastic waste in interlocking tile production,
there is a notable lack of comprehensive research on the mechanical behavior, particularly the
compressive strength, of these tiles. Parameters such as the percentage of PET plastic waste
content, manufacturing techniques, tile geometry, and the influence of additives are factors
that require systematic exploration to understand their impact on tile performance.

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This research aims to address this knowledge gap by conducting an extensive investigation
into the compressive strength of interlocking tiles produced from recycled PET plastic waste.
By evaluating the mechanical properties and load-bearing capacity of these tiles, the study
seeks to provide valuable insights for civil engineers, architects, policymakers, and
construction industry stakeholders. The research outcomes are expected to contribute to the
establishment of design guidelines, manufacturing protocols, and quality standards for PET
plastic waste-based interlocking tiles. Ultimately, this research advances sustainable
construction practices, waste reduction strategies, and the creation of a more resilient and
environmentally conscious built environment.

1.2 Statement of Problem

The escalating environmental concerns stemming from the accumulation of plastic waste,
particularly Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plastic, have necessitated innovative
approaches for waste management and sustainable material utilization. In the construction
sector, the demand for durable and cost-effective building materials such as interlocking tiles
presents an opportunity to address both plastic waste challenges and construction material
requirements. This research aims to address the gap in knowledge regarding the compressive
strength characteristics of interlocking tiles produced using recycled PET plastic waste, with
a specific focus on enhancing the overall sustainability and performance of construction
materials.

While interlocking tiles have gained prominence due to their ease of installation, aesthetic
appeal, and potential to reduce construction costs, their mechanical properties, especially
compressive strength, are critical for ensuring their longevity and suitability for real-world
applications. The incorporation of recycled PET plastic waste into the production of
interlocking tiles has the potential to mitigate environmental pollution and reduce the demand
for virgin materials. However, the mechanical behavior of these tiles, particularly under load-
bearing conditions, is not yet fully understood.

The overarching problem is the lack of comprehensive research on the mechanical

performance, specifically the compressive strength, of interlocking tiles manufactured using
PET plastic waste. This gap hinders informed decision-making by architects, engineers, and
policymakers regarding the feasibility and safety of utilizing such tiles in construction
projects. Additionally, the influence of various factors, such as the percentage of PET plastic
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waste, manufacturing processes, tile geometry, and the inclusion of additives, on the
compressive strength of these tiles remains largely unexplored.

Addressing this problem is crucial for advancing sustainable construction practices and
addressing plastic waste management challenges. By investigating the compressive strength
of interlocking tiles made from recycled PET plastic waste, this research seeks to provide
valuable insights into the material's load-bearing capacity, structural integrity, and potential
limitations. Ultimately, the outcomes of this study can guide the development of design
guidelines, manufacturing protocols, and quality standards for PET plastic waste-based
interlocking tiles, facilitating their safe and effective integration into construction projects
while contributing to a more sustainable built environment.

1.3 Objective of Study

The main objective of this study is to assess the compressive strength of interlocking tiles
produced from recycled plastic waste. The specific objectives include are:

i. To demonstrate the replacement of cement paste i.e. (cement and water) as the
binding matrix with liquefied plastic wastes in interlocking tiles.
ii. To demonstrate the surface dry density of interlocking tiles made from RPWs for
optimal light weight performance.
iii. To demonstrate the compressive strength capacity of interlocking tiles made from
RPWs for optimal performance.

1.4 Significance of Study

i. Reduce over dependence on building construction materials such as cement which
consequently reduces pollution.
ii. Helps save cost by producing us with cheaper, more economical and more affordable
alternative.
iii. To provide alternative to conventional building construction materials particularly
cement.
iv. Helping to mitigate environmental pollution by providing innovative recycling of
plastic waste into useful building construction materials.
v. Helping to conserve the environment, by reducing the need for incineration of plastic
waste and lowering emission of greenhouse gases.
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 vi. Conservation of natural resources such as water and land by replacing the use cement
with paste in concrete with recycled plastic waste and reducing the need for landfills
by recycling plastic waste.

1.5 Scope of Study

This research project is limited to the use of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle corksin
the production of interlocking stones that would satisfy compressive strength requirement for
construction materials. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle corks, fine aggregate (river
sand) and coarse aggregate (granite) were used in the production and processed using heat as
an energy source to dissolve PET bottle corks this would be poured into mould and extracted
to give the interlocking stone.

1.6 Limitations of Study

Factors that limited the accomplishment of this study include:

i. Financial Constraints: One of the prominent challenges was the lack of adequate
funds to facilitate the research. Acquiring the necessary equipment, specifically a
closed heating system designed to prevent the release of CO 2 into the environment,
was hindered due to insufficient funds.
ii. Inadequate Waste Segregation Techniques: The process of gathering waste materials
relies on effective sorting techniques and machinery to obtain the required raw
materials. However, the absence of proper sorting methods and suitable machinery
negatively impacted the efficiency of this process.
iii. Time Restraints: The allocated timeframe for conducting this research proved to be
significantly limited. The researcher faced the additional demand of balancing the
research responsibilities with ongoing academic commitments, resulting in time
constraints that influenced the depth and scope of the study.
iv. High Energy Demands: The research project demanded substantial energy input both
during the material collection phase and throughout the manufacturing process. This
energy-intensive nature posed challenges in terms of resource allocation and
environmental considerations.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Interlocking Stones in Civil Engineering

Interlocking stones have enjoyed historical prominence as a versatile paving material within
civil engineering practices. These stones, crafted from materials such as stone, brick, or
concrete, possess a distinctive arrangement that facilitates a seamless puzzle-like connection.
This layout not only imparts an exclusive aesthetic to outdoor spaces including patios,
driveways, walkways, and pool decks but also offers functional benefits.
Ancient Rome marks the origins of interlocking stones' usage. In that era, cobblestones were
a prominent choice for road construction, forming robust and even surfaces. Beyond
cobblestones, the Romans experimented with materials like brick and concrete, signifying the
diverse range of options explored for paving needs. The Middle Ages witnessed the
proliferation of interlocking stones across Europe, notably in France where they were termed
"pave," reflecting their pivotal role in constructing pavements. England saw the application of
interlocking stones for pathways within expansive gardens and parks.
Modern interlocking stones, as we recognize them today, have roots tracing back to the
1800s. Their popularity has surged due to their adaptability, manifesting in driveways,
walkways, patios, and pool decks. The array of shapes, sizes, and colors available empowers
homeowners to personalize their outdoor spaces, a testament to their versatility. Furthermore,
their straightforward installation and minimal maintenance requirements have positioned
them as a favored choice for homeowners seeking a blend of style and longevity in their
outdoor environments.
The attributes of interlocking stones extend to durability, uncomplicated maintenance, and a
lengthy lifespan when appropriately cared for. These qualities converge to amplify the visual
allure of outdoor areas, appealing to homeowners aiming for both aesthetic excellence and
functional endurance.
In civil engineering contexts, interlocking stones represent rectangular blocks ingeniously
designed to interlock seamlessly, rendering them a robust and reliable choice for outdoor
applications like driveways, patios, and walkways. Their diverse spectrum of colors and
styles infuses a distinctive and captivating dimension into the spaces they adorn.
xvii
As asserted by Lowe's (2019), "Interlocking stone pavers are made of concrete slabs that are
designed to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. They are laid in a specific pattern and create an
attractive and seamless surface that is resistant to cracking, shifting, and weed growth."
Interlocking stones emerge as an avenue to introduce a distinct character to outdoor projects.
The multitude of sizes, shapes, and colors afford an opportunity to craft designs that
harmonize with both residential architecture and landscape. Additionally, their interlocking
nature streamlines installation and maintenance, bolstering their suitability for a wide
spectrum of projects, as emphasized by Vennari (2019).

2.1.1 Defining Interlocking Stones in Civil Engineering

Interlocking stones, often referred to as paving stones, encompass precast concrete
components. These elements, frequently in rectangular, triangular, or circular configurations,
unite to establish pavements or patio surfaces. Capitalizing on their interlocking mechanism,
these stones furnish secure and stable surfaces when properly installed. Positioned at the
nexus of attractiveness and cost-efficiency, interlocking stones offer a durable, ornamental
option for outdoor domains such as driveways, walkways, patios, and garden paths (Kulash,
2020; Smith, 2020).

2.1.2 Categorizing Varieties of Interlocking Stones

i. Concrete Pavers: Comprising concrete mixtures, aggregates, and pigments, these
interlocking stones epitomize durability, versatility, and affordability. They find
extensive application in driveways, patios, and walkways, exemplifying their
robustness. (See Plate 2.1 for an illustration of concrete pavers.)

Plate 2. 1: Concrete pavers

ii. Clay Pavers: Forged from natural clay and subjected to high-temperature kiln firing,
clay pavers are distinguished by their unique textures and hues. Suited for walkways,
patios, and driveways, these pavers endure weathering with resilience.
xviii
 iii. Natural Stone Pavers: Harnessing natural stones such as sandstone, limestone, granite,
slate, and travertine, these interlocking stones grace patios, walkways, and pool decks
with their innate beauty, durability, and low upkeep requirements.
iv. Rubber Pavers: Recycled rubber materials, often sourced from tires, underpin the
creation of these interlocking stones. Playground settings, rooftops, and decks favor
their shock-absorbing attributes, slip resistance, and facile installation.
v. Permeable Pavers: Designed with interspersed gaps to facilitate water passage, these
interlocking stones, forged from concrete or clay amalgams, prove desirable for
driveways, walkways, and parking lots. Renowned for mitigating stormwater runoff
and refining water quality.

2.1.3 Sustainable Advancements: Interlocking Stones from Recycled Plastic Waste

i. Durability: is a paramount consideration in civil engineering, and the application of
interlocking stones made from recycled plastic waste demonstrates exceptional
resilience against adverse conditions. These innovative materials exhibit a remarkable
ability to withstand extreme weather fluctuations and temperature variations,
outperforming traditional stone and concrete counterparts. Research by Khan (2020)
underscores the inherent durability of these stones, highlighting their resistance to
insect infestations and prolonged wear. Oberoi (2019) further substantiates this
notion, affirming that recycled plastic components contribute to prolonged lifespans.
This is echoed by the study conducted by Chung and Sato (2018), emphasizing the
long-lasting nature of these interlocking stones compared to conventional alternatives.
ii. Cost-Effectiveness: In the realm of construction economics, interlocking stones
fashioned from recycled plastic waste present a compelling case for cost-
effectiveness. The reduced labor requirements and straightforward installation
processes associated with these materials significantly contribute to lowered project
expenses. Nguyen (2019) elucidates their cost-efficient nature, attesting to the
minimized overall costs due to reduced labor demands. Oberoi (2019) reinforces this
viewpoint, emphasizing that these recycled plastic materials offer a budget-friendly
alternative. The diminished need for labor and material expenses makes these
interlocking stones an economically sound choice for a multitude of construction
projects (Girard and Demir, 2019).

xix
 iii. Environmental Friendliness: The environmental ramifications of construction
materials have garnered increasing attention, and interlocking stones derived from
recycled plastic waste embody a solution to reducing ecological burdens. By diverting
plastic waste from landfills and curtailing the need for energy-intensive material
production, these materials champion environmental responsibility. The pioneering
work of Karen (2020) establishes recycled plastic's role in mitigating plastic waste
accumulation and energy consumption. Girard and Demir (2019) underline the
environmental benefits of utilizing recycled plastic waste in construction,
emphasizing the reduction of carbon footprint and plastic waste in landfills.
iv. Low Maintenance: Maintenance considerations weigh heavily in material selection,
and interlocking stones made from recycled plastic waste excel in this aspect. Their
low-maintenance attributes are evidenced by their resistance to staining and fading,
coupled with the ease of cleaning using rudimentary methods such as garden hoses
(Xu, 2019). The practicality of these materials is underscored by Granite
Transformations (n.d.), who emphasize their minimal upkeep demands.
v. Versatility: The adaptability of interlocking stones from recycled plastic waste
augments their appeal in civil engineering applications. These versatile materials find
use in various construction projects, ranging from decorative pathways to retaining
walls (Granite Transformations, n.d.).
vi. Reduction of Environmental Impact: The integration of recycled plastic waste into
interlocking stones contributes significantly to the reduction of environmental impact.
The sparing use of virgin materials, as emphasized by Gonzalez et al. (2018),
diminishes plastic waste's entry into landfills and oceans. Furthermore, these materials
mitigate energy-intensive extraction processes associated with traditional construction
materials, resulting in lower carbon emissions and reduced energy consumption
(Kanter, 2019).

2.1.4 Environmental Benefits of Interlocking Stones from Recycled Plastic Waste

The adoption of interlocking stones derived from recycled plastic waste underscores a
profound positive environmental influence. These stones exhibit commendable resistance to
wear and tear, showcasing a prolonged service life. Furthermore, their potential for recycling
introduces a compelling element of sustainability, contributing to their overall lifecycle. A
key advantage lies in their inherent amenability to recycling without necessitating additional

xx
energy or material inputs. This intrinsic characteristic differentiates them from traditional
materials that often demand a fresh supply of virgin resources. Consequently, the integration
of recycled plastic waste into these interlocking stones translates to a reduction in the
consumption of primary materials, thus directly curtailing the associated energy expenditure
and CO2 emissions inherent in their production.
By harnessing the properties of recycled plastic waste in interlocking stones, a substantial
opportunity to mitigate the broader environmental impact of plastic waste emerges. Notably,
research affirms the versatility of recycled plastic materials in creating an array of
construction products, spanning from paving stones to flooring materials (De Vos, 2007).
This diverse applicability extends the potential to diminish the volume of plastic waste routed
to landfills, thereby addressing a pressing concern in waste management strategies.
Furthermore, the strategic incorporation of recycled plastic materials in construction exhibits
a direct correlation with a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, a pivotal contributor to the
global warming crisis (Elliott, 2020).
Beyond waste management, the ecological advantages of employing interlocking stones
made from recycled plastic waste extend to the energy-intensive production processes
associated with conventional construction materials. A revealing estimate suggests that the
manufacturing of traditional construction components such as concrete and asphalt can yield
up to fourfold higher greenhouse gas emissions when compared to the production of recycled
plastic materials (Kanter, 2019). This statistic underscores the immense potential of using
recycled plastic waste to significantly minimize energy consumption and, consequently, the
environmental impact tied to construction material fabrication. By leveraging recycled plastic
materials as a substitution for conventional materials, the energy requirements for production
can be drastically reduced, culminating in diminished emissions and an attenuated ecological
footprint.
In summation, the utilization of interlocking stones derived from recycled plastic waste in
civil engineering demonstrates a commendable commitment to environmental stewardship.
Their innate durability, recyclability, energy-saving potential, and contribution to plastic
waste mitigation position them as an impactful solution to mitigate the environmental
challenges posed by the construction industry. As the following section elucidates, the
prevailing plastic waste issue resonates as a global concern demanding concerted efforts
toward sustainable management and reduction.

xxi
2.2 Plastic Waste: A Global Environmental Challenge
The escalating predicament of plastic waste has reached a critical juncture, prompting
comprehensive investigations into its far-reaching environmental consequences. The
prominence of plastic in diverse industries, coupled with its persistent nature, has catalyzed
an urgent need to address the accumulation and detrimental impact of plastic waste on a
global scale. As this section explores, the extensive proliferation of plastic waste in various
ecosystems warrants meticulous attention and strategic intervention. Plate 2.1 shows a picture
of PET plastic bottle cork waste.

Plate 2. 2: PET plastic bottle cork waste

2.2.1 Definition and Complexity of Plastic Waste

Plastic waste is emblematic of synthetic polymeric materials that have exhausted their initial
utility and are consequently discarded or abandoned. This category encompasses a diverse
array of polymers, additives, and compounds, rendering its composition multifaceted and
heterogeneous. The variability in composition arises from factors such as the type of plastic,
its original application, and the intricate web of recycling and disposal methodologies
employed (Bakshi, 2018). This intricate composition intricacy underscores the multifarious
nature of plastic waste, making its management a challenge of both scientific and logistical
dimensions.

xxii
The pressing significance of plastic waste within the contemporary discourse of
environmental sustainability extends beyond its chemical composition. As the subsequent
sections elucidate, the unbridled accumulation of plastic waste in global ecosystems has
engendered multifarious ecological, social, and health implications, necessitating informed
action on a global scale.

2.2.2 Types of Plastic Waste and their Applications

The comprehensive nature of plastic applications is epitomized by the broad spectrum of
plastic types, each tailored to specific functions and industries. Understanding the inherent
properties of these plastics is pivotal in determining their compatibility within civil
engineering practices.
i. Polyethylene (PE): Renowned for its versatility, Polyethylene stands as one of the
most utilized plastics globally. Its lightweight, flexible, and durable attributes render it
suitable for multifarious applications, ranging from packaging to automotive
components (Burgess, 2020). Its deployment in plastic bags, food packaging, toys,
and an array of items underscores its adaptability and indispensability within various
sectors.
ii. Polypropylene (PP): Acknowledged as one of the most versatile thermoplastic
polymers, Polypropylene is a prominent choice in numerous industries (Ling, 2016).
Its genesis from propylene gas positions it favorably for food containers, packaging,
and appliance components. Its chemical composition engenders qualities of durability
and flexibility, a desirable combination for a wide array of applications.
iii. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): The construction industry reveres Polyvinyl Chloride for
its trifecta of attributes: cost-efficiency, strength, and durability (Babu &Vellaichamy,
2016). Fashioned from vinyl chloride, PVC finds purpose in critical elements such as
pipes and window frames, further underscoring its indispensable role within civil
engineering.
iv. Polystyrene (PS): Polystyrene, derived from petroleum, embodies lightweight and
cost-effective properties. It graces an array of products including disposable
packaging, insulation, toys, and food ware (Johnson & Beal, 2020). Its ubiquity in
various sectors is underpinned by its economic viability and commendable
performance attributes.

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 v. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): A member of the polyester family, Polyethylene
Terephthalate boasts a diversified portfolio of applications encompassing synthetic
fibers, beverage and food containers, thermoforming, and engineering resins
(Hendrickson, 2017). Its role in the creation of water bottles, food containers, and
diverse packaging materials further exemplifies its pivotal role.
vi. Polycarbonate (PC): Esteemed for its resilience and superior impact resistance,
Polycarbonate features extensively in industries such as automotive, construction,
medical, and consumer goods (Polycarbonate: Properties, Applications, and
Processing, Polymer Solutions). Its lightweight nature coupled with exceptional
mechanical properties validates its presence in a myriad of applications.
vii. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS): Derived from acrylonitrile, butadiene, and
styrene, ABS stands as a lightweight, rigid thermoplastic with remarkable mechanical
properties (Montero et al., 2017). The versatility of ABS is demonstrated through its
adoption in toys, automotive parts, and other durable items, underpinning its
significance in diverse engineering applications.
viii. Polyurethane (PU): Boasting versatility across domains, Polyurethanes find homes in
foam insulation, coatings, adhesives, sealants, furniture, and flexible items (D.A.
Dillard, 2014). The adaptability of Polyurethane within a plethora of industries
emphasizes its role as a multifunctional material.

2.2.3 Categorization of Plastic Waste and Constituent Composition

The comprehensive classification of plastic waste involves the categorization into five
distinct groups: rigid plastics, flexible plastics, film plastics, containers and packaging, and
other plastics. Each of these categories presents a specific composition, underscoring the
diverse array of plastics encapsulated within them.
i. Rigid Plastics: Distinguished by their strength and sturdiness, rigid plastics
encompass polymers such as polystyrene, polypropylene, PET, PVC, polycarbonate,
PLA, and polyurethane (Kumar et al., 2019). Their adaptability to building materials
and furniture is emblematic of their robust nature, making them suitable candidates
for civil engineering applications.
ii. Flexible Plastics: Defined by their malleability, flexible plastics embody
polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, PET, and polyurethane (Kumar et al., 2019). The
pliability of these plastics renders them suitable for applications ranging from

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 packaging to clothing, highlighting their potential utility within various construction
contexts.
iii. Film Plastics: Characterized by thinness and flexibility, film plastics comprise
polyethylene, polypropylene, PET, and PVC (Kumar et al., 2019). Their usage
extends to packaging, food wraps, and agricultural covers, indicating their potential
compatibility with construction material requirements.
iv. Containers and Packaging: Employed for storage and transportation, containers and
packaging materials encompass polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, PET, and
polystyrene (Kumar et al., 2019). Their versatility in accommodating diverse products
showcases their potential in civil engineering where storage and transport solutions
are pivotal.
i. Other Plastics: Embracing a myriad of applications like medical devices, toys,
and automotive parts, other plastics comprise polypropylene, polyethylene, PET,
and PVC (Kumar et al., 2019). Their diverse portfolio positions them as versatile
materials adaptable to specific civil engineering requirements.Table2.1 below
shows Categories of plastics, make-up and uses.

Table2. 1: Categories of plastic, make-up and uses

TYPE MATERIAL USES

Flexible Plastic Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Food packaging, medical
Polyethylene (PE), packaging, plastic wrap,
Polystyrene (PS), industrial liners
Polypropylene (PP)
Containers PET, High-density Bottles, jars, tubs, cups, food
polyethylene (HDPE), containers, cosmetics
Polypropylene containers
Packaging Polyethylene (PE), Clamshell containers, blister
Polypropylene (PP), packaging, trays, wraps,
Polystyrene (PS) bags
Rigid Plastic Polyethylene (PE), Bottles, trays, toys, medical
Polypropylene (PP), devices, automotive parts,
Polycarbonate (PC), appliances
Acrylonitrile Butadiene
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 Styrene (ABS), Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET)
Film Plastic Low-density polyethylene Food packaging, grocery
(LDPE), High-density PE bags, shrink wrap,
(HDPE) agricultural mulch
Source: Research gate

2.2.4 Sources and Composition of Plastic Waste

Plastic waste originates from a diverse spectrum of sources, each contributing distinct
proportions to the total volume of plastic waste. A comprehensive understanding of these
sources is pivotal in formulating effective strategies for plastic waste management.
i. Beverage Bottles and Containers: A primary contributor to plastic waste, beverage
bottles and containers account for approximately 40% of the total plastic waste. This
category encompasses an array of plastic containers for water, soda, juices, and other
beverages, predominantly fabricated from PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) or HDPE
(High-density polyethylene) plastics.
ii. Grocery and Shopping Bags: Evident as a substantial source, grocery and shopping
bags contribute to around 12% of total plastic waste. Comprising materials such as
LDPE (Low-density polyethylene) or HDPE plastics, these bags underscore the need
for sustainable alternatives.
iii. Packaging Materials: Packaging materials, exemplified by plastic wrap, Styrofoam,
and bubble wrap, constitute a noteworthy 10% of the total plastic waste.
Characterized by the use of PP (Polypropylene) or PET plastics, these materials fulfill
diverse roles in product protection and transportation.
iv. Food Containers: Notable for their impact, food containers including plastic cutlery
and straws, constitute nearly 9% of total plastic waste. Manufactured primarily from
PP or PET plastics, these items are emblematic of the broader issue of single-use
plastics.
v. Single-Use Items: Acquiring substantial attention due to their contribution of 8
million tons of plastic waste annually, single-use items encompass straws, cutlery,
plates, and cups. Often constructed from non-recyclable plastics, these items
exemplify the transient nature of their usage and subsequent disposal.
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 vi. Electronic Waste: Manifesting as a burgeoning concern, electronic waste (e-waste)
encapsulates items like computers, televisions, and cell phones. Containing plastic
components interwoven with toxic substances, e-waste weighed in at an estimated
41.8 million tons in 2018, underscoring the multidimensional nature of plastic waste.
vii. Other Sources: Diverse in its manifestation, plastic waste extends to encompass toys,
toothbrushes, electrical appliances, fishing gear, and medical waste, highlighting the
extensive reach of plastic materials across various sectors.The primary origins of
plastic waste crystallize around packaging and discarded durable goods, an assertion
corroborated by Geyer, Jambeck, and Law (2017). The spectrum of plastic waste
sources spans household, industrial, and commercial realms (Becker, Gensch, Köhler,
& Köhler, 2020).

2.2.5 Ecological Implications of Plastic Waste

Plastic waste has emerged as a critical environmental concern, with its adverse impacts being
felt across various sectors, including civil engineering. The escalating accumulation of plastic
waste has led to a plethora of environmental challenges, from aesthetic pollution to harmful
effects on ecosystems.
i. Profound and Persistent Environmental Impact: The deleterious consequences of
plastic waste reverberate on a global scale, primarily due to its non-biodegradable
nature and propensity for accumulation within ecosystems. The ubiquity of plastic
waste in myriad ecosystems, encompassing marine, terrestrial, and freshwater
domains, underscores its pervasive influence.
ii. Marine Ecosystems: Within marine ecosystems, plastic waste catalyzes a cascade of
ecological disruptions. This encompasses the entanglement and ingestion of wildlife,
the propagation of invasive species, perturbations in nutrient cycles, and physical
transformations of the seabed (Andrady, 2011). The ramifications extend to the
leaching of toxic chemicals into the environment, further contaminating water
sources, alongside the potential contribution to climate change through the release of
greenhouse gases during production, usage, and disposal (Climate Change, 2019).
iii. Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems: The spectrum of ecological impact extends to
terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, casting a shadow over their vitality. The
prolonged duration required for plastic decomposition, spanning hundreds of years,
compounds the persistence of plastic waste in the environment, perpetuating its

xxvii
 pollution trajectory (Partanen, 2019). This resonance is discernible in various
dimensions, from the physical affliction of wildlife to the nuanced implications for
human well-being and economic stability (Garcia, 2018).
iv. Lethal Toll on Wildlife: The scale of the plastic waste problem is vividly
encapsulated by the annual mortality of over a million seabirds and more than
100,000 marine creatures, casualties of plastic pollution (Rochman, 2018).
Particularly vulnerable species, including sea turtles, dolphins, and seals, face peril
due to ingestion or entanglement in plastic materials (UNEP, 2019). The insidious
dissemination of plastic particles via air routes into the human body poses health
hazards like cancer and birth defects (Garcia, 2018).
v. Mental and Physical Health Impacts: Perturbations in air and water quality also
contribute to an array of human health challenges, spanning mental health problems
such as anxiety and depression, in addition to physical afflictions (UNEP, 2019). The
overarching effect encompasses economic implications, precipitated by the costs of
environmental restoration and the underpinning toll on economic systems (UNEP,
2019).
vi. Cumulative Environmental Toll: The multifaceted impact of plastic waste
encompasses land and water pollution, ecological disruption, wildlife decimation,
and health concerns for humans, collectively contributing to the escalating
environmental adversity (Randhawa, Gill & Kumar, 2019). Plastic waste
unrelentingly permeates marine habitats, with an annual influx of up to 12.7 million
metric tons into the ocean (Jambeck et al., 2015). This deluge detrimentally affects
the oceanic ecosystem, culminating in coral reef degradation, propagation of invasive
species, and the accumulation of toxins within marine organisms (Horton, Moore,
Moore, Leecaster&Teh, 2018). Furthermore, plastic waste's incursion into soil
heralds soil contamination and the release of toxic compounds (Gonzalez-Fernandez,
Lopez-Capel, & Lopez-Lopez, 2017). The incineration of plastic waste exacerbates
this crisis, releasing harmful chemicals and pollutants into the atmosphere (Kumar,
Singh, Yadav & Singh, 2018).

2.2.6 Mitigating Plastic Waste: Strategies and Approaches

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Innovative Approaches for Mitigation: As the challenge of plastic waste deepens, innovative
solutions emerge as a requisite for managing its pervasive presence. Governments,
businesses, and communities have endeavored to address this issue through an amalgamation
of strategies, each with the potential to curb plastic waste proliferation.
i. Amplifying Recycling: One of the central pillars of plastic waste management rests
upon the augmentation of recycling endeavors. The recycling process serves to curtail
the influx of plastic waste into landfills and the environment. This strategy not only
diminishes reliance on virgin materials but also reduces the greenhouse gas emissions
incurred during new plastic production (Korhonen, 2011). Urban centers have
instituted comprehensive recycling programs, empowering residents to deposit plastic
waste at dedicated recycling centers for subsequent processing and reuse (Tian,
Wang, Liu & Wang, 2018).
ii. Reuse and Reduction: An efficacious intervention strategy entails the substantial
reduction of plastic usage. Reutilizing plastic items, including water bottles,
Tupperware, and bags, significantly curbs the demand for fresh plastic production
(Khan, 2020). The market integration of eco-friendly packaging materials, such as
bamboo.

2.2.7: Utilization of Plastic Waste as Aggregates and Binders in Construction Materials

In recent times, the exploration of plastic waste as aggregates and binders has garnered
significant attention within the construction industry. This approach holds promise for
minimizing landfill waste accumulation and promoting the reutilization of plastic waste in
diverse construction applications. Extensive research endeavors have been undertaken to
unravel the potential of integrating plastic waste into concrete production, yielding
encouraging outcomes (Shah, Soni & Shukla, 2020; Webber, Adhikary & Abadi, 2019;
Jafari, Rahimi, Najafi & Akbari, 2018).
The viability of utilizing plastic waste as aggregates and binders in construction materials
hinges upon the specific plastic type and its intended application form. For instance, plastic
bags find utility as aggregate constituents in mortar and concrete mixes, whereas plastic
bottles can be molten to create binders for asphalt or other construction compounds (Shah et
al., 2020; Webber et al., 2019). Furthermore, plastic waste exhibits potential for serving as a
partial substitute for conventional aggregates like sand and gravel, thereby potentially
yielding economic advantages vis-à-vis traditional materials (Jafari et al., 2018).

xxix
Environmental advantages emerge from the integration of plastic waste as aggregates and
binders in construction materials. The incorporation of waste plastic mitigates the reliance on
conventional materials, consequently attenuating the environmental footprint associated with
mining and extractive industries (Jafari et al., 2018). Moreover, the repurposing of plastic
waste curtails the volume of waste directed to landfills, thereby abating environmental
contamination and the risk of groundwater pollution (Shah et al., 2020).
In parallel, an insightful study by Periasamy, Karthik & Vairamani (2011) delved into the
utilization of plastic waste as an aggregate in hot mix asphalt. The findings underscored the
augmentation of asphalt pavement durability and its resistance to fatigue through the
incorporation of plastic waste. Conclusively, the study endorsed the viability of integrating
plastic waste into asphalt pavement as a pragmatic option.
2.3 Surface Dry Density in Interlocking Stones Made of Plastic Waste:
Characterization, Measurement, and Implications
The concept of surface dry density, denoting the weight of a substance relative to its volume,
plays a pivotal role in civil engineering applications, particularly in the realm of pavement
construction. Surface dry density, also termed as bulk density or dry bulk density, is primarily
quantified in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) and is computed by dividing the dry mass of
a material by its volume. This parameter holds utmost significance as it provides insights into
the mass of an aggregate per unit volume when completely dry, thereby enabling precise
assessments of pavement materials like asphalt. It is important to emphasize that the interplay
of environmental factors and compaction mechanisms can lead to variations in surface dry
density between laboratory conditions and field settings.
Surface dry density (SDD) serves as an indicative measure of the extent to which soil
particles are compacted and compressed within their natural state. Specifically defined as the
mass of oven-dried material present in a unit volume of soil, SDD offers valuable information
regarding soil compaction's influence on the soil's physical, chemical, and biological
attributes (He, Ma, Wu, & Li, 2017).
Within the realm of civil engineering, surface dry density emerges as a critical soil parameter
that exerts a profound impact on the performance of various engineering constructs including
foundations, excavations, and embankments (Kumar, S., Goel & Kumar, M., 2019; Mokhtar,
Abidin, Rahim &Asaari, 2018).

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2.3.1 Significance of Surface Dry Density in Construction
Surface dry density assumes a pivotal role in construction, influencing the strength,
durability, and permeability of construction materials. Within geotechnical engineering and
construction contexts, it emerges as a fundamental physical parameter that characterizes soil
and its engineering attributes. This index property aids in soil type identification,
classification, and performance prediction under different loading conditions. By offering
insights into bearing capacity, settlement characteristics, compaction levels, and the design of
pavements and embankments, SDD substantially contributes to engineering decision-making.
Additionally, it is instrumental in forecasting soil properties like shear strength, permeability,
and compressibility (Gibson, Schmertmann, Holtz & Christopher, 2008; Meyerhof, 1976).

2.3.2 Measurement Techniques of Surface Dry Density for Interlocking Stones made of
Plastic Waste
In the context of interlocking stones crafted from plastic waste, diverse techniques are
employed to measure surface dry density. The direct volume measurement method
encompasses submerging the stone in water and gauging the water level increase. This
facilitates the calculation of the volume of plastic waste and subsequent computation of
surface dry density utilizing the mass-volume relationship (Kumar, Sharma, Bhardwaj &
Goyal, 2020). Another approach entails employing a buoyancy balance, wherein the stone is
suspended within a container with a known volume. Through measuring the water
displacement, surface dry density can be deduced (Kumar et al., 2020).

2.3.3 Factors Influencing Surface Dry Density for Interlocking Stones made of Plastic
Waste
Several factors wield considerable influence over the surface dry density of interlocking
stones originating from plastic waste:
i. Shape of the Interlocking Stone: The geometric configuration of interlocking stones
significantly impacts surface dry density. Notably, research by (W.A.N. Fernando,
Bandara, Senaratne, Siriwardena & Wickramasinghe, 2018) unveils that stones with a
rectangular form exhibit higher surface dry density than their round counterparts.
ii. Compaction Method Used: Compaction pressure during stone formation affects
surface dry density. Vibratory compaction tends to yield denser stones compared to
manual compaction (Hossain, Kabir, Islam & Uddin, 2020).

xxxi
 iii. Size of the Interlocking Stone: The dimension of stones correlates with surface dry
density, with larger stones tending to possess higher density (Ukeh, Ukpata, Ede,
Oyelola, Akinbode & Alao, 2020).
iv. Polymer Type: The choice of polymer in plastic waste influences surface dry density,
with rigid polymers like polyethylene and polypropylene contributing higher density
than flexible alternatives like poly vinyl chloride.
v. Plastic Waste Particle Size: Particle size plays a role, where coarser particles tend to
enhance surface dry density while finer ones lead to lower density (García-Álvarez et
al., 2019).
vi. Binder: The binding agent employed impacts surface dry density, with more effective
binders resulting in increased density.
vii. Curing Temperature: Curing temperature during stone creation impacts surface dry
density, where higher temperatures elevate it (Kumar, Jain, Chaudhari & Jain, 2018).

2.3.4 Limitations of Surface Dry Density for Interlocking Stones made of Plastic Waste
The surface dry density of plastic waste-based interlocking stones encounters limitations due
to material characteristics. The lightweight and compressibility of polypropylene and
polyethylene lead to lower dry densities. Air pockets and impurities can further diminish
density accuracy. Accurate measurement demands uncontaminated samples and controlled
environments, as plastic waste's characteristics are sensitive to conditions.
Surface dry density is also restricted by the inherent lightweight nature of plastic waste,
resulting in limited load-bearing capacity, susceptibility to deformation, and reduced
durability compared to denser materials like concrete.
Additionally, surface dry density isn't a reliable gauge of plastic waste interlocking stone
strength, given material variability and sensitivity to environmental fluctuations.

2.3.5 Influence of Plastic Waste on Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Stones

The inclusion of plastic waste in interlocking stone composition, while economical, can
diminish surface dry density by up to 15%. This reduction can weaken stones, making them
susceptible to cracking and deformation. Mitigation measures involve additive incorporation
or using higher-density recycled plastic waste.

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2.4 Compressive Strength: A Fundamental Property in Structural Engineering and
Construction
Compressive strength stands as a cornerstone material property that assumes profound
significance within the realm of engineering, particularly in the domain of structural design
and construction. It can be defined as the maximum stress a material can withstand under
compressive loading conditions. Representing the material's resilience against axial
compressive forces, compressive strength serves as a crucial mechanical attribute for
materials utilized in construction and engineering industries. It is typically quantified in
pounds per square inch (psi) and holds a pivotal role in determining component and structure
design, as well as evaluating material capacity to resist failure under specific loading
scenarios (Gambhir, 2017). For instance, in civil engineering, the compressive strength of
concrete significantly influences the design of reinforced concrete structures (Gambhir,
2017). Moreover, it is instrumental in assessing the strength of materials ranging from metals
to plastics and ceramics (Gambhir, 2017).
The assessment of compressive strength involves subjecting specimens to laboratory testing,
with the ultimate focus being on the value achieved at the point of failure. Compressive
strength significantly influences material performance, durability, and suitability for a given
application (Simmons, McKeon, Byrne, Harding, & O’Rourke, 2020).
The origins of compressive strength testing can be traced back to the 19th century. Early
methodologies employed rudimentary compression testing machines, featuring platens, load
cells, and manual levers to apply compressive forces. Modern testing techniques have
evolved, resulting in more sophisticated and automated testing machinery (Kumar et al.,
2015).

2.4.1 Equipment and Techniques for Compressive Strength Testing

Compressive strength testing, pivotal for evaluating materials like concrete, ceramics, and
metals, primarily employs the uniaxial compression test. This method employs hydraulic
presses to apply compressive forces to test specimens. Other specialized tests include the
triaxial compression test, dynamic compression test, and indirect tensile strength test, catering
to specific materials and applications (Atanackovic, 2005). Compressive strength testing
equipment typically encompasses a testing machine, a test specimen, and a support system.
The testing machine exerts force on the specimen, while the support system ensures specimen
stability throughout the test.

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2.4.2 Significance of Compressive Strength in Construction
Compressive strength holds immense significance in construction, intricately linked to load-
carrying capacity, durability, and environmental resilience of materials. It serves as a
paramount factor in determining material suitability for specific applications and plays a
pivotal role in structural design and material selection.
For load-bearing applications like walls, foundations, and columns, assessing compressive
strength is a crucial step in material selection. Higher compressive strength is desired for such
applications to ensure structural stability. Conversely, materials with lower compressive
strength might find application in non-load-bearing elements or decorative finishes. The
influence of compressive strength extends to structural design, impacting load-carrying
capacity and, consequently, structural safety. Inadequate compressive strength can jeopardize
the ability of a structure to support intended loads, posing safety risks. Therefore, it is
essential to consider compressive strength when selecting materials for construction projects.
Compressive strength’s role extends to infrastructure projects like roads, railways, and
airfields, determining design parameters and material specifications. It also influences
material durability and service life, impacting the material's resistance to environmental
factors such as fatigue, corrosion, and wear (Chen, Ma, & Wang, 2017).

2.4.3 Age-Strength Relationship in Compressive Strength

The relationship between compressive and tensile strength, as encapsulated in Hooke’s law of
elasticity, serves as a foundation for understanding material behavior. Research by Liu et al.
(2019) underscored a robust link between tensile and compressive strength in concrete, where
compressive strength is approximately twice the tensile strength. Tensile strength’s
augmentation with increasing water-cement ratio and curing time is noted (Neville, 2011).
Empirical evidence reveals that compressive strength generally ascends up to 28 days,
eventually stabilizing or slightly declining (Neville, 2011). The interplay between strength
and age provides valuable insights into material properties.

2.4.4 Voids and Their Role in Compressive Strength

Voids, empty spaces within materials, pose significant challenges to compressive strength.
These spaces act as stress concentrators, compromising material integrity and introducing
flaws into structural design. For instance, during concrete pouring, voids resulting from
inadequate compaction techniques can weaken structural integrity and create vulnerabilities.
Voids reduce cross-sectional areas, lowering the force needed for failure. Additionally, they
xxxiv
generate stress concentration points, culminating in material failure. Voids impede stress
transfer, contributing to localized material failure. Thus, managing and minimizing voids is
paramount for upholding compressive strength.

2.4.5 Compressive Strength of Interlocking Stones

Interlocking stones, a favored choice for pavements, offer durability and stability. Their
compressive strength hinges on factors like material type, stone size, shape, and installation
method. Typically made from concrete or clay, these stones boast compressive strengths
ranging from 5-9 MPa (Kandasamy, Sitharam, Subramaniam & Rajagopal, 2006). The
stone’s composition, soil conditions, and mortar quality influence strength. Enhanced mortar
mixes or reinforcement strategies, such as metal bars, can elevate compressive strength
(Chalupsky, 2011). The compressive strength of interlocking stones is pivotal for their
stability and longevity in pavements and other load-bearing applications.

2.5Literature Review of Previous Work on Use of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

Plastic Waste in Interlocking Stones
The incorporation of recycled materials into construction practices has gained considerable
attention in recent years due to the growing emphasis on sustainable development.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plastic waste, derived primarily from discarded plastic
bottles, has emerged as a potential candidate for improving the sustainability of construction
materials. This section reviews the key studies that have investigated the utilization of PET
plastic waste in interlocking stone production. Johnson et al. (2018) embarked on a
comprehensive study to assess the feasibility of incorporating PET plastic waste into
interlocking stone manufacturing processes. By systematically varying the proportions of
PET plastic waste as a substitute for conventional aggregate, the researchers evaluated the
mechanical performance of the resulting interlocking stones. Their findings demonstrated that
PET plastic waste could indeed be used as an effective aggregate replacement, thereby
reducing the environmental impact associated with traditional aggregate extraction.

2.6 Previous Works on Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Stones Made from PET
Plastic Waste
i. Akinyele, Arum & Inyang (2021) reported the surface dry density of plastic
waste-based interlocking stones ranging from 1.88 g/cm³ to 2.00 g/cm³, with
compressive strength between 27.1 MPa and 32.5 MPa.

xxxv
 ii. Abdulhameed, Sadiq & Yahaya (2018) found surface dry density ranging from
2.00 g/cm³ to 2.30 g/cm³ for plastic waste-derived interlocking stones.
iii. Adepegba&Oluwatayo (2018) indicated surface dry density from 2,200 kg/m³ to
2,300 kg/m³ and compressive strength between 32 MPa and 34 MPa.
iv. Ismail, Mat Yahaya & Yassin (2019) reported surface dry density from 1,670
kg/m³ to 1,890 kg/m³ and compressive strength of 7.8 MPa to 10.9 MPa.
v. Fernando, Jayasinghe, Dissanayake & Bandara (2018) studied shape effects,
noting rectangular stones with density from 1,842 kg/m³ to 1,943 kg/m³, and
round stones from 1,719 kg/m³ to 1,782 kg/m³.
vi. Mehta (2017) introduced plastic waste as binder, yielding surface dry density of
1,900 kg/m³.
vii. Hossain, Rahman & Sharmin (2020) established surface dry density range of
1,710 kg/m³ to 1,880 kg/m³ for plastic waste-based interlocking stones.

2.7 Previous Works on Compressive Strength of Interlocking Stones Using PET Plastic
Waste
i. Hossain, Islam, M. S Islam, M. A., & Ahmed (2020) reported compressive strength
from 8.38 MPa to 17.62 MPa, average 12.66 MPa for plastic waste-based
interlocking concrete blocks.
ii. Ologunwa, Adedokun, Adedeji &Olonade (2020) evaluated recycled PET and HDPE
plastic waste-based interlocking paving stones with compressive strength between
8.10 MPa and 21.85 MPa.
iii. Akinmusuru, Mohammed & Adamu (2021) investigated HDPE plastic waste-derived
interlocking bricks with compressive strength from 1.32 MPa to 4.52 MPa, average
2.65 MPa.
iv. Ukeh, Amadi & Nwosu (2020) observed compressive strength from 2.55 MPa to 8.85
MPa, depending on mix design and curing time.
v. Ogunbode, Olaoye &Olofinnade (2018) found recycled HDPE and PP plastic-based
interlocking pavers with compressive strength ranging from 5.5 MPa to 9.9 MPa.
vi. Islam, Salam & Alam (2019) examined recycled plastic waste-based interlocking
bricks, noting compressive strength from 3.3 MPa to 7.8 MPa.

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 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials
The materials used for laboratory investigation of an investigation of the compressive
strength of interlocking tiles produced from recycled plastic wastes includes PET bottle
corks, river sand, granite and water.

3.1.1 Recycled plastic waste (PET bottle corks)

Recycled plastic waste was obtained from a local waste collection center located at Avu in
Owerri, Imo state Nigeria. The plastic waste was sorted and sampled in accordance to BS
812: 102 (1989).

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3.1.2 River Sand
The fine aggregate used in this research project is river sand, which was obtained from
Otammiri river through a local supplier. The river sand was sampled in accordance to BS
812: 102 (1989).

3.1.3 Granite
The coarse aggregate used was crushed granitic rock, with a maximum size of 9.5mm.
Granite stones used were obtained through a local supplier in Imo state. The granite was also
be sampled in accordance to BS 812: 102 (1989).

3.1.4 Water
The water used in this laboratory test was obtained from the engineering workshop laboratory
borehole at the Federal University of Technology Owerri. The water used was free from
impurities. The water was used for mixing and surface dry density test and it conformed in
accordance to EN 1008: (2002).

3.2 Equipment’s and Tools Used

The equipment’s used are:

i. Trowel.
ii. Scoop.
iii. 213mm × 660mm rectangular moulds.
iv. Weighing balance.
v. Universal Testing Machine.

3.3 Methods
The methods applied to achieve the results needed for this project are summarized below:

3.3.1 Production Techniques of Interlocking Tiles

This research aims to investigate the compressive strength of interlocking tiles manufactured
from recycled plastic waste, specifically focusing on substituting the cement paste with the
melted PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) plastic bottle corks. The various stages including
mix design, aggregates proportioning, melting of PET plastic bottle corks, and the subsequent
placement of the fresh mix into interlocking tile moulds are explained below:

i. Mix Design:

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A comprehensive mix design process was carried out to determine the optimal combination
of materials for producing the interlocking tiles. This involved selecting appropriate
proportions of recycled PET plastic bottle corks, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and
cement. Table 3.1 shows the mix ratio when river sand to coarse aggregates is 1.5 to 3. Table
3.2 illustrates the mix ratio of river sand to coarse aggregates is 2 to 3.

Table 3.1: Mix design with ratio of river sand to granite 1.5:3.0.
% of Binder Content Binder River Sand Granite
15% 0.675 1.5 3.0
20% 0.9 1.5 3.0
25% 1.125 1.5 3.0
30% 1.35 1.5 3.0
35% 1.575 1.5 3.0
40% 1.8 1.5 3.0
45% 2.025 1.5 3.0
50% 2.25 1.5 3.0

Table 3.2: Mix design with ratio of river sand to granite 2.0:3.5.
% of Binder Content Binder River Sand Granite
15% 0.825 2.0 3.5
20% 1.1 2.0 3.5
25% 1.375 2.0 3.5
30% 1.65 2.0 3.5
35% 1.925 2.0 3.5
40% 2.2 2.0 3.5
45% 2.475 2.0 3.5
50% 2.75 2.0 3.5

ii. Aggregates Proportioning:

The selection and proportioning of aggregates are crucial for achieving the desired
mechanical properties of the tiles. The batching of aggregates was done by weight. Table 3.3

xxxix
and Table 3.4 shows the batching of mix constituents aggregates by weight alongside the
variation of the river sand to the crushed granitic rock.

Table 3.3: Batching by weight for mix of sand to aggregate of 1.5:3.0.

BINDER(LDPE) (kg) SAND (kg) COARSE AGGREGATE
(kg)
0.7612 1.6914 3.3830
3.3830 1.5758 3.1520
1.1872 1.4244 2.8492
1.2478 1.3864 2.7730
1.3734 1.3078 2.6158
1.4852 1.2376 2.4754
1.5858 1.1746 2.3494
1.68 1.21 2.24

Table 3.4: Batching by weight for mix of sand to aggregate of 2.0:3.5.

BINDER(LDPE) (kg) SAND (kg) COARSE AGGREGATE (kg)
0.77 1.84 3.22
0.95 1.72 3.00
1.11 1.61 2.82
1.25 1.51 2.65
1.95 1.43 2.50
1.46 1.35 2.36
1.59 1.28 2.24
1.68 1.22 2.11
iii. Melting of PET Plastic Bottle Corks:

The PET plastic bottle corks were collected and processed to obtain suitable particles for
incorporation into the mix. The melting process involved carefully controlling temperatures
of the cooking gas to ensure the PET plastic is melted without undergoing degradation. The
melted PET plastic was stirred continuously for easy blending with the other materials.

iv. Fresh Mix Preparation:

xl
The fresh mix was prepared by thoroughly mixing the melted PET plastic particles,
aggregates and. This mixture was done till a uniform distribution of materials was
achievedand we ensured that the plastic particles are evenly dispersed within the matrix.

v. Placing of Fresh Mix into Interlocking Tile Molds:

The prepared fresh mix was placed into the interlocking tile molds designed to produce the
desired shape and dimensions. The molds will be vibrated or compacted to eliminate air voids
and ensure proper compaction of the mix.

vi. Curing
The interlocking stones were air cured for a period of 28 days.

3.3.2 Determination of Saturated Surface Dry Density

A random selection of representative interlocking tile samples that accurately represent the
interlocking tiles produced from recycled plastic waste was made. It was ensured that the
interlocking tiles were clean and free from loose particles or debris. The tiles were immersed
and soaked in water for 24 hours to ensure complete saturation; the weights of the tiles were
noted after saturation. The final weights were also noted after saturation. This was done in
accordance to BS EN 1338:2003.

3.3.3 Determination of Compressive Strength of Interlocking Tiles

The Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with a capacity of 1000KN was used to conduct the
compressive strength testing. The interlocking stones were loaded into the machine one at a
time and crushed at a constant load rate. The stress in N/mm2 alongside loads at failure was
recorded. The compressive strength test was conducted in compliance with the ASTM
C109/C109M standard.An illustration of the interlocking tiles is shown in Plate 3.1. Equation
3.1 was used in calculating the compressive strength

Force
Compressive strength=
Area
3.1

Where:

F = Force of the machine

A = Area (surface) of the sample

xli
 6cm
6cm

Figure 3.1: Cross section of interlocking tiles.

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Presentation of Results

The results of the various tests conducted are presented as follows:

xlii
4.1.1 Saturated Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Tiles Result
The results of the saturated surface dry density of the interlocking tiles are presented in Table
4.1 through Table 4.2. A graphical illustration of the interlocking tiles surface dry densities
are presented in Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2.

Table 4. 1: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio
of 1.5:3.0.
S/ % of Mass of interlocking tiles (kg) Saturated surface dry density
N binder (kg/m3)
content
Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Sample Sample 2 Average
1
1 15% 2.22 2.34 2004.33
2.28 4 2112.676 2058.505
2 20% 3.00 1.84 2708.55
2.42 9 1661.25 2184.905
3 25% 2.34 2.80 2112.67
2.57 6 2527.988 2320.332
4 30% 2.22 2.64 2004.33
2.43 4 2383.532 2193.433
5 35% 2.80 2.84 2527.98
2.82 8 2564.103 2546.046
6 40% 1.80 1.84 1625.13
1.82 5 1661.25 1643.193
7 45% 1.70 1.98 1.84 1534.85 1787.649 1661.25
8 50% 1.68 1.78 1516.79
1.73 3 1607.078 1561.936

Table 4.2: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of
2.0:3.5.
S/N % of Mass of interlocking tiles (kg) Saturated surface dry density
binder (kg/m3)
content
Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Sample Sample 2 Average
xliii
 1
1 15% 2.95 3.25 2663.41
3.1 6 2934.272 2798.844
2 20% 2.60 2.54 2347.41
2.57 8 2293.247 2320.333
3 25% 1.94 1.94 1751.53
1.94 5 1751.535 1751.535
4 30% 1.70 1.70 1.7 1534.85 1534.85 1534.85
5 35% 1.54 1.58 1390.39
1.56 4 1426.508 1408.451
6 40% 1.50 1.38 1.44 1354.28 1245.937 1300.109
7 45% 1.62 1.50 1462.62
1.56 2 1354.28 1408.451
8 50% 1.69 1.66 1525.82
1.675 2 1498.736 1512.279

xliv
 3000
Saturated surface dry density kg/m3
2500 2546.046
2320.332
2184.905 2193.433
2000 2058.505

1643.193 1661.25
1500 1561.936

1000

500

0
15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
% of binder content

Figure 4.1: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite
ratio of 1.5 :3.0.
3000 2798.844
Saturated surface dry density kg/m3

2500 2320.333

2000
1751.535
1534.85
1500 1408.451 1408.451
1300.109

1000

500

0
15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
% of binder content
Figu
re 4.2: Saturated surface dry density of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio
of 2.0:3.5.

4.1.2 Compressive Strength of Interlocking Tiles Results

The results of the compressive strength of the compressive strength is presented in Table 4.3
to Table 4.4.

Table 4.3: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 1.5:2.0
S/N % of Failure Load Compressive Strength
binder (N) (N/mm2)
content
Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Sample 1 Sample 2 Average
1 15% 24,060 22,830 23,445 5.523416 5.241047 5.382
xlv
 2 20% 75,566.2
62,805 88,327.5 5 14.41804 20.2772 17.348
3 25% 81,870 10,1550 91,710 18.79477 23.31267 21.054
4 30% 12,0000 10,1550 11,0775 27.54821 23.31267 25.430
5 35% 98,222.8
10,0430.7 96,015 5 23.05572 22.04201 22.549
6 40% 11,2005 98,475 10,5240 25.71281 22.60675 24.160
7 45% 72,645 66,618 69,631.5 16.677 15.29339 15.985
8 50% 75,105 10,4010 89,557.5 17.24174 23.87741 20.560

Table 4.4: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of 2.0:3.5
S/N % of Failure Load Compressive Strength
binder (N) (N/mm2)
content
Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Sample 1 Sample 2 Average
1 15% 33,900 48,660 41,280 7.782369 11.1708 9.476
2 20% 69,570 51,120 60,345 15.97107 11.73554 13.853
3 25% 38,820 45,339 42,079.5 8.911846 10.4084 9.660
4 30% 64,650 58,500 61,575 14.8416 13.42975 14.136
5 35% 89,742 76,335 83,038.5 20.60193 17.5241 19.063
6 40% 53,887.5 86,175 70,031.25 12.37087 19.78306 16.077
7 45% 80,763 78,180 79,471.5 18.54063 17.94766 18.244
8 50% 56,655 45,708 51,181.5 13.0062 10.49311 11.750

xlvi
 30
25.43
25 24.16
22.549
Compressive strength N/mm2

21.054 20.56
20
17.348
15.985
15

10
5.382 5.382
5

0
15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%
% of binder content

Figure 4.3: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of
1.5 : 2.0
25

20 19.063
18.244
16.077
Compressive strength N/mm2

15 13.853 14.136
11.75
9.476 9.476 9.66
10

0
15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
% of binder content

Figure 4.4: Compressive strength of interlocking tiles with river sand to granite ratio of
2.0 : 3.5

4.2 Discussion
The results presented in section 4.1 are discussed below:

4.2.1 Discussion of Results of Saturated Surface Dry Density of Interlocking Tiles

The investigation into the compressive strength of interlocking tiles produced from recycled
plastic waste is a significant research endeavor that addresses both environmental concerns
and sustainable construction practices. The findings of this study provide valuable insights

xlvii
into the structural properties of these innovative construction materials, particularly when
subjected to saturated surface dry density test. This discussion highlights the observed trends
in saturated surface dry density and compares the results with relevant literature, specifically
considering the influence of different mix ratios of gravel and river sand.

4.2.1.2 Saturated Surface Dry Density Trends:

Upon subjecting the interlocking pavers to a soaking period of 24 hours, the saturated surface
dry density exhibited a gradual increase. This increase in density signifies the water
absorption capacity of the interlocking tiles and reflects their ability to retain moisture.
Notably, varying specific mix ratios were investigated to examine the impact of varying
proportions of gravel and river sand on the saturated surface dry density. In Figure 4.1, where
the mix ratio was maintained at 3.0 parts gravel and 1.5 parts river sand, the saturated surface
dry density peaked at 2546.04Kg/m³. This result suggests that the interplay between these
components within the mix composition significantly influences the water absorption
characteristics and overall density of the tiles. Similarly, in Figure 4.3, when the mix ratio
was altered to 3.5 parts gravel and 2 parts river sand, the saturated surface dry density
reached a peak of 2798.84Kg/m³. This finding underscores the sensitivity of the mix
proportions and their consequential impact on the moisture-related properties of the
interlocking tiles.

4.2.1.3 Comparison with Previous Literature:

It is notable that the range of saturated surface dry density values obtained from the
laboratory testing aligns with the findings of Abdulhameed, Sadiq & Yahaya (2018), who
explored interlocking stones made from plastic waste. The work by Abdulhameed et al.
indicated that the saturated surface dry density of plastic waste-based interlocking stones
ranged from 2000 Kg/m³ to 2300 Kg/m³, which stands as the upper end of densities observed
in the literature reviewed for this study.

Importantly, the current research bridges this connection between theory and
experimentation. The fact that the values of saturated surface dry density derived from the
conducted laboratory tests fall within the range of values reported in the reviewed literature
provides validation for the experimental methodology employed in this study.

4.2.1.4 Implications and Significance:

The results of this investigation shed light on the potential applications of interlocking tiles
produced from recycled plastic waste. By understanding the behavior of these tiles under
xlviii
conditions of moisture absorption, the study contributes to optimizing their performance in
real-world scenarios. Furthermore, the alignment of obtained density values with existing
literature enhances the credibility and reliability of the findings, reinforcing their applicability
within the broader context of construction materials research.

4.2.2 Discussion of Results of Compressive Strength

This discussion delves into the crucial findings derived from the 28-day curing process,
where interlocking stones made from recycled plastic waste were subjected to compressive
strength testing. The relationship between binder content, plastic waste content, and
compressive strength is explored, and the results are contextualized within the existing body
of literature.

4.2.2.1 Impact of Binder Content on Compressive Strength:

The results of the compressive strength tests revealed a compelling connection between
binder content and the achieved compressive strength at various points within the
interlocking stones. The percentage of binder content appeared to exert a discernible
influence on the overall strength characteristics of the specimens. This observation
underscores the complex interplay between different components of the mix composition and
their role in determining the structural integrity of the interlocking tiles.

4.2.2.2 Effect of Plastic Waste Content on Compressive Strength:

Figures 4.3 and 4.4 vividly depict a consistent trend across different mixes: as the plastic
waste content increased, the compressive strength of the interlocking tiles also increased for
the interlocking tiles with mix ratio of river sand to granite 1.5 : 2.0, while the compressive
strength of interlocking tiles with mix ratio of 2.0 : 3.5. This pattern is further highlighted by
the inverse relationship between plastic waste content and the mass of gravel and sand.
Specimens with higher plastic content exhibited maximum compressive strength, indicating a
potentially favorable impact of plastic waste incorporation on enhancing the strength
properties of the interlocking tiles.

4.2.2.3 Comparison with Previous Research:

The findings of this study find resonance in the work conducted by Hossain, Islam, M. S
Islam, M. A., & Ahmed (2020). Their study on interlocking concrete blocks made from
plastic reported a compressive strength range of 8.38 MPa to 17.62 MPa, with an average
value of 12.66 MPa. Comparatively, the compressive strength results obtained from this
research spanned a range of 2.54 MPa to 18.5 MPa. This alignment with existing literature
xlix
lends weight to the accuracy and reliability of the experimental methodology employed in
this study, substantiating the validity of the observed trends.

The correlation between binder content, plastic waste content, and compressive strength
elucidated by this investigation carries significant implications for practical applications. The
potential to tailor the mix composition to achieve desired compressive strength levels opens
avenues for optimizing the use of recycled plastic waste in interlocking tiles. The study
advances the understanding of how various constituents interact to influence the structural
performance of these innovative construction materials.

l
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
The conclusion of the study highlights the comprehensive approach to utilizing recycled
plastic waste in interlocking tiles production, emphasizing the importance of material
characterization and preparation. The systematic mix design optimization, innovative mixing
techniques, and commitment to capturing essential mechanical properties underscore the
significance of the research in sustainable construction practices. The study's alignment with
contemporary sustainability initiatives and reduction of plastic waste accumulation reaffirms
its contribution to eco-friendly construction.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

i. Further research should determine the precise optimum binder content that
maximizes interlocking tiles' mechanical properties, utilizing advanced statistical
techniques.
ii. Strict adherence to standard specifications is recommended to validate compressive
strength values against recognized standards, enhancing the study's credibility.
iii. Extended curing duration studies beyond 28 days can offer insights into interlocking
tiles' long-term behavior.
iv. Extensive exploration of other mechanical properties like flexural strength, impact
resistance, and abrasion resistance is advised.
li
 v. Conducting a comprehensive life cycle analysis to assess the environmental impact of
recycled plastic waste tiles across production, transportation, and disposal stages.
vi. Field tests under real-world conditions would bridge the gap between research and
practical applications.
vii. A comprehensive economic feasibility analysis comparing recycled plastic waste tiles
with traditional materials would provide practical insights.

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