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 [UCI]I804:21031-200000605759

Thesis for the Degree of Master of Science

Evidences of Brittle deformation associated with

Reactivation and Tectonic Inversion in Geoje
Island, SE Korea

By

Hategekimana Francois

Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences

The Graduate School

Pukyong National University

February, 2022
Evidences of Brittle deformation associated with
Reactivation and Tectonic Inversion in Geoje
Island, SE Korea

Advisor: Prof. Kim Young-Seog

By

Hategekimana Francois

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science
in the Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, The Graduate School,
Pukyong Nation University

February, 2022
 Contents

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................. iii

Dedication ...........................................................................................................................................................iv

List of figures.......................................................................................................................................................v

Abstract ...............................................................................................................................................................ix

Chapter 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background .........................................................................................................................................1

1.2. Problem statement and objectives......................................................................................................5

1.3. Format and outline of thesis ...............................................................................................................6

Chapter 2. Geological Settings ...........................................................................................................................7

Chapter 3. Study Area and used Materials and Methods..................................................................................9

3.1. Study area .....................................................................................................................................................9

3.2. Materials and method.................................................................................................................................10

Chapter 4. Results..............................................................................................................................................12

4.1. Sedimentary characteristics of the area ....................................................................................................12

4.2. Structural Characteristics of the area .......................................................................................................15

4.2.1. Part I: Brittle deformation history from the kinematic relationship between dikes and faults. .........15

4.2.1.1. Outcrop 1 .............................................................................................................................................17

4.2.1.2. Outcrop 2 .............................................................................................................................................19

4.2.1.3. Outcrop 3 ..............................................................................................................................................21

4.2.2. Part 2. Brittle deformation History analyzed from fault reactivation and Tectonic inversion...........23

4.2.2.1. Sinseondae site....................................................................................................................................24

4.2.2.2. Site 2. Gucheon-ri Site.........................................................................................................................26

4.2.2.3. Site 3. Yulpo-ri Site ............................................................................................................................28

4.2.2.4. Site 4. Dapo-ri Site..............................................................................................................................29

i
Chapter 5. Discussion........................................................................................................................................30

5.1. Dike and fault interactions.........................................................................................................................30

5.1.1. Fault evolution .......................................................................................................................................33

5.1.1.1. Fault development from pre-existing structures ................................................................................34

5.2. Tectonic Inversion......................................................................................................................................35

5.3. Deformation events ....................................................................................................................................37

5.4. Tectonic implications.................................................................................................................................38

Chapter 6. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................40

Appendices.........................................................................................................................................................41

ii
 Acknowledgments
It’s a great pleasure to take this opportunity to appreciate everyone who contributed to the completion of

this research. Firstly, I thank the almighty God for his protection and mercy on me, he stayed with me from

the beginning to the end. I would like also to acknowledge SeAH Networks and the University of Rwanda

for giving me the opportunity to come to Pukyong National University and funding my research. I would

like also to convey many thanks to my advisor Professor Young-Seog Kim for allowing me to work under

his supervision and to be in his Lab, GSGR. He created a good environment in which everyone feels

comfortable and live like family. His encouragement drove and led me to complete this research. He is a

good advisor and researcher; without his help I would never have gotten this far. Great thanks to my

colleagues in my lab especially Mohammed S. M. Adam, Oh Ubi, Ohsang Gwon and others for the

discussion, comments and data collection support. I would also like to thank my committee members, not

only for reviewing and making several useful comments on my dissertation, but also for expanding my

knowledge.

iii
 Dedication
I dedicate this research to my parents who got me started on my pursuit of happiness. This thesis is

also dedicated to all the staff of the earth and environmental sciences department at Pukyong National

University, and the University of Rwanda.

iv
 List of figures
FIGURE 1. LOCATION AND GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE GYEONGSANG BASIN (MODIFIED FROM LEE AND LEE,

2001). A) LOCATION OF GYEONGSANG BASIN ON THE KOREAN PENINSULA. B) SUB-BASINS OF THE

GYEONGSANG BASIN SEPARATED BY WNW–ESE-TRENDING FAULTS. C) GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE

GYEONGSANG BASIN. 1) TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY/VOLCANIC ROCKS. 2) UPPER CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE

PLUTONIC ROCKS. 3) UPPER CRETACEOUS YUCHEON GROUP. 4) LOWER CRETACEOUS HAYANG GROUP . 5)

LOWER CRETACEOUS SINDONG GROUP . 6) PRE-CRETACEOUS METAMORPHIC/PLUTONIC ROCKS. THE

STUDY AREA IS SHOWN BY THE RECTANGLE . ....................................................................................................8

FIGURE 2. DETAILED GEOLOGICAL MAP OF GEOJE ISLAND. STUDY AREAS ARE MARKED BY FINGER -LIKE

SYMBOLS. ...........................................................................................................................................................11

FIGURE 3. SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES EXPOSED AT SINSEONDAE SITE . A. SOFT SEDIMENT DEFORMATION

STRUCTURES (CONVOLUTE BEDDING) WITHIN SILTSTONES. B. MUDCRACKS FORMED IN SILTY SEDIMENTS

POSSIBLY CAUSED BY CLIMATE CHANGE FROM WET TO DRY CONDITIONS. ..................................................13

FIGURE 4. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE GYEONGSANG SUPERGROUP. GEOLOGICAL AGES ARE BASED ON

PALYNOMORPHS (CHOI, 1985, 1989; YI ET AL., 1994) AND LEE ET AL. (2001). SEONGPO-RI F ORMATION IS

CORRELATED WITH HAMAN FORMATION OF HAYANG GROUP......................................................................14

FIGURE 5. FIELD PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING THE LOCATIONS OF THE THREE OUTCROPS AT SINSEONDAE.....16

FIGURE 6. PLANAR VIEW FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN AT SITE 1. A, DIKE 2-1 INTRUDED BY DIKES 4-1 AND

3-2-1 THROUGH SINISTRAL AND DEXTRAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS, RESPECTIVELY. B, TWO CONJUGATE

FAULTS ON DIKE 2-1.C, NW-ORIENTED DIKE (3-1-1) THAT IS OVERPRINTED BY NW SINISTRAL STRIKE-SLIP

FAULT . D, NW-STRIKING SINISTRAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULT ON DIKE 3-1-1 WITH A LINKING ZONE OF FAULT

SEGMENTS. BLUE ARROWS INDICATE THE DIRECTION OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS. RED

ARROWS INDICATE THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT . THICK BLUE SOLID LINE IS DIKE PLANE ,THIN BLUE

SOLID LINE INDICATES THE TIP DAMAGES, RED LINE IS FAULT AND PURPLE ONE IS VEIN ............................18

v
FIGURE 7. PLANAR VIEW FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN AT SITE 2. A) FIELD PHOTOGRAPH OF SITE 2. B) NE-

STRIKING DEXTRAL STRIKE-SLIP FAULT DISPLACING NW-TRENDING VEINS. C) NE-STRIKING SINISTRAL

STRIKE -SLIP FAULT DISPLACING NW-ORIENTED VEINS. D) LINKING ZONE SHOWING NW SINISTRAL STRIKE-

SLIP FAULT. E) DIKE 4-2 INTRUDING DIKE 3-2. F) DIKE 4-2 INTRUDING ALONG A DEXTRAL STRIKE-SLIP

FAULT .YELLOW LINES ON FIGURE F INDICATE PIERCING POINTS SHOWING THE OPENING DIRECTION OF THE

DIKE . RED AND BLUE ARROWS INDICATE THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT AND MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS,

RESPECTIVELY . THICK BLUE SOLID LINE IS DIKE PLANE WHILE RED ONE IS FAULT. THIN BLUE LINE IS

SECONDARY FRACTURE AND DASHED BLUE LINE NEAR THE PIERCING POINTS INDICATE THE TIP OF THE

SEGMENT FAULTS. .............................................................................................................................................20

FIGURE 8. A. FIELD PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN AT SITE 3 OUTCROPS. B) STRIKE-SLIP FAULT WITHIN DIKE 1-3. C)

DIKE 3-3 INTRUDING DIKE 1-3. D) DIKE 3-3 INTRUDING ALONG PRE-EXISTING MODE I FRACTURES. THE

DIKE WAS LATER REACTIVATED AS FAULT . E) SKETCH OF DIKE 3-3 AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES. F)

MODEL OF DIKE 3-3 EMPLACEMENT AND REACTIVATION. BLUE ARROWS INDICATE THE ORIENTATION OF

MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS WHILE RED ARROWS INDICATE THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT . THICK BLUE

SOLID LINE INDICATES DIKE PLANE WHILE THICK RED SOLID LINE INDICATES FAULT. THIN BLACK LINES

INDICATE MODE I FRACTURES. .........................................................................................................................22

FIGURE 9. CROSS-SECTIONAL FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN AT SINSEONDAE. A, FIELD PHOTOGRAPH OF

NE-STRIKING OBLIQUE NORMAL FAULT CUTTING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. B, FIELD PHOTO SHOWING NE-

STRIKING REVERSE FAULT DEVELOPED IN SEONGPO-RI FORMATION INDICATING THE REACTIVATION OF

NE-OBLIQUE NORMAL FAULT IN FIG. 9A. C, NW-STRIKING NORMAL FAULT. OVERLAID PHOTOGRAPHS ON

FIGURE A SHOWS OBLIQUE SLICKEN LINES AND THE RECONSTRUCTED PALEO-STRESS ANALYSIS USING WIN

TENSOR PROGRAM INDICATING NNE-SSW EXTENSION. D, E-W-STRIKING TRANS-TENSIONAL FAULT . RED

LINE SHOWS THE FAULT WHILE THE WHITE DASHED LINE SHOWS THE BOUNDARIES OF DISPLACED LAYERS.

............................................................................................................................................................................25

FIGURE 10. A, FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN AT GUCHEON-RI SITE. B, E-W TRANS-TENSIONAL FAULT

CUTTING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF SEONGPO-RI FORMATION. C, E-W TRANS-TENSIONAL FAULT . SOLID RED

vi
LINE INDICATES THE FAULT WHILE DASHED ONE SHOWS INFERRED FAULT. BLACK LINES INDICATE

FRACTURES IN THE DAMAGE ZONE...................................................................................................................27

FIGURE 11. FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN AT YULPO-RI SITE. A, SINISTRAL STRIKE SLIP FAULT CUTTING

ANDESITIC ROCKS. B, SLICKEN LINES ON THE NW-TRENDING SINISTRAL STRIKE SLIP FAULT WIN TENSOR

PALEO-STRESS ANALYSIS SHOWING E-W/WNW-ESE COMPRESSION ...........................................................28

FIGURE 12. FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN AT DAPO-RI SITE. A, NE-STRIKING TRANS-TENSIONAL FAULT . B,

DEXTRAL COMPONENT OF THE NE-STRIKING TRANS-TENSIONAL FAULT WHICH DISPLACED NW-TRENDING

SHEAR ZONE . C, MAGMATIC DIKE INTRUDED WITHIN NE-STRIKING TRANS-TENSIONAL FAULT. B LUE LINE

SHOWS DIKE PLANE, WHILE THE RED ONE SHOWS THE FAULT. BLUE ARROW IN FIGURE 10C INDICATES THE

ORIENTATION OF THE MAXIMUM COMOPRESSIVE STRESS WHILE THE PURPLE ONE INDICATES AN

EXTENSIONAL DIRECTION. ................................................................................................................................29

FIGURE 13. ROSE DIAGRAM (LEFT) AND CONTOUR DIAGRAM OF EQUAL-AREA, LOWER HEMISPHERE

STEREOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION (RIGHT) OF DIKE ORIENTATIONS............................................................31

FIGURE 14. STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF ALL TYPES OF FAULTS

OBSERVED IN GEOJE ISLAND. BLUE ARROW INDICATES THE ESTIMATED ORIENTATION OF MAXIMUM

PRINCIPAL STRESS WHILE THE PURPLE ONE INDICATES THE LEAST PRINCIPAL STRESS DIRECTION. ...........32

FIGURE 15. OUTCROP PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN AT SINSEONDAE SITE SHOWING THE FORMATION OF PULL-

APART STRUCTURE FROM THE EVOLUTION OF THE FAULT. FORMATION MECHANISM OF STRIKE SLIP FAULTS

FROM PRE -EXISTING STRUCTURES. RED SOLID LINE SHOWS THE FAULT WHILE BLUE ONE SHOWS

SECONDARY FRACTURE. BLUE ARROW INDICATES THE DIRECTION OF THE MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS.

............................................................................................................................................................................34

FIGURE 16. BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SUMMARY OF THE DEFORMATION EVENTS IN GEOJE ISLAND

AND THE OCCURRENCE OF TECTONIC INVERSION. ..........................................................................................36

FIGURE 17. THE COMPARISON OF THE DEFORMATION HISTORY OF THIS RESEARCH (RIGHT) AND YANG, ET

AL., (2008) (LEFT) IN RELATION WITH THE ORIENTATION OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS. B LUE ARROWS

vii
INDICATE THE ORIENTATION OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS. GREY AND BLACK ARROWS

INDICATE THE SUCCESSION OF EVENTS............................................................................................................37

FIGURE 18. THE PROPOSED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURAL DEFORMATION EVENTS WITHIN GEOJE

ISLAND AND YANGSAN FAULT SYSTEM AND THE RELATIONSHIP WITH REGIONAL TECTONIC SETTINGS

AROUND KOREAN PENINSULA (MODIFIED FROM CHEON ET AL., 2019). BLUE ARROWS INDICATE THE

DIRECTION OF MAXIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRESS, PURPLE ARROWS INDICATE THE ORIENTATION OF THE

LEAST PRINCIPAL STRESS, BLACK ARROWS SHOW THE DIRECTION OF SUBDUCTING PLATE WHILE RED

ARROWS INDICATE THE MOVEMENT DIRECTION ALONG YANGSAN FAULT SYSTEM. RED LINE SHOWS

YANGSAN FAULT SYSTEM. THE QUESTION MARK INDICATES THE LACK OF PREVIOUS STUDIES.................39

viii
Evidences of Brittle deformation associated with Reactivation and Tectonic Inversion in Geoje Island, SE
Korea

Hategekimana Francois

Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, The Graduate School,

Pukyong National University

Abstract

Kinematic analyses of magmatic intrusions and faults can provide useful information on the stress conditions and the

chronological relationships between dike emplacement, fault reactivation, tectonic inversion hence deducing brittle

deformation events within rocks. A well exposed coastal platform in Geoje island is selected for this study, because

there are well developed dykes and faults. The study area is mainly composed of Cretaceous Seongpo-ri formation,

which is mostly composed of shale, sandstone and hornfels intruded by magmatic dikes. Most of the magmatic dikes

are developed along pre-existing structural features (faults and fractures) indicating that their emplacements were

structurally controlled, while others created their own paths. Because dike commonly opens to the least principal stress,

the direction of the least principal stress can be obtained from dike geometry and orientation through matching of

piercing points located on both sides across a dyke. Also, the deformed dikes can give more information associated

with the later deformations. Brittle deformation history can also be studied using fault reactivation and tectonic

inversion. Identifying the kinematic indicators along the faults provides enough information about the faulting events.

Based on these analyses, we extracted seven deformation events from the study area, which are kinematically related

to the change of maximum regional principal stress. The results indicate that the structures of the study area are mostly

controlled by the reactivation of the NNE-trending Yangsan strike-slip fault located to the northeast from the study

area. Tectonically, the brittle deformation in Geoje island was probably induced by the relative stress relationship

between Philippine sea plate and Pacific plate subducting under Eurasian plate.

ix
 Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Background

Magma is transported from its source to Earth’s surface via vertical or sub-vertical fractures that can feed

volcanoes. However, not all magmas erupt, and most remain trapped within the crust (Crisp, 1984; Shaw,

1985). Dikes can be used to study paleo-stress in the Earth’s crust because it is generally accepted that

magmatic dikes intrude in the direction normal to the least principal stress (σ3; Anderson, 1951). However,

it is common for dikes to intrude along pre-existing weak structures such as faults and joints, which then

makes it difficult to determine the direction of least principal stress. Thus, the method of matching piercing

points that are located on both sides of a dike is a useful one for inferring the paleo-stress during intrusion

(Yang et al., 2008). It is clear, therefore, that changes in tectonic stress as well as the orientations of pre-

existing fractures all play roles in determining the geometry and propagation direction of dikes (Odé, 1957;

Muller and Pollard, 1977; Pollard, 1987; Rubin, 1995; Dahm, 2000; Mériaux and Lister, 2002; Geshi, 2005;

Gudmundsson and Phillip, 2006; Acocella and Neri, 2009; Siler and Karson, 2009; Schofield et al., 2010).

Other researchers have shown that the direction of dike intrusion also depends on a buoyancy factor (e.g.,

Lister and Kerr, 1991; Dahm, 2000; Mériaux and Lister, 2002), and the buoyancy of a dike depends on the

density difference between rock and magma and the vertical gradients of the normal external deviatoric

stress (Takada, 1989).

Pre-existing fractures, including faults, often act as conduits for magma, and dikes can be intruded along

pre-existing fractures, joints, and faults that undergo dilation (Delaney et al., 1986; Tokarski, 1990;

Gudmundsson, 2011). They can also be deflected along bedding to form sills (Gudmundsson, 2006). If a

dike intrudes along a pre-existing fracture, the opening direction, determined from piercing points, can be

used to infer the direction of the least principal stress during intrusion (Anderson, 1951; Odé, 1957; Zoback

and Zoback, 1980; Best, 1988; Ernst et al., 1995).

The kinematic analysis of faults can provide useful information on paleo-stresses (e.g., Kim et al., 2003;

1
Wilson et al., 2003; Crider and Peacock, 2004; Blenkinsop, 2008), and we can infer paleo-stress conditions

from the orientations of faults and associated fractures and their slip senses (Wallace, 1951; Bott, 1959;

Gushchenko, 1975; Angelier and Mechler, 1977; Parfenov, 1981; Angelier, 1984; Lisle, 1987; Nemcok and

Lisle, 1995; Rebetskii, 1997; Yamaji, 2000; Célérier et al., 2012; Fossen, 2016). Thus, paleo-stresses can

be analyzed by studying conjugate faults (Anderson, 1951; Gzovsky, 1954; Gzovsky et al., 1972), shear

zones (Hansen, 1971; Cowan and Brandon, 1994), and fractures and veins (e.g., Nickelsen and Hough,

1967; Nikolaev, 1977; Engelder and Geiser, 1980), and structural events can be reconstructed from the

results of stress-field analyses of faults and dikes. It is critical, therefore, to understand the stress field in

order to estimate the reactivation of faults (Morris et al., 1996) and to assess the tectonic activity in any one

area (e.g., Jamison, 1992; Van der Pluijm, 1997; Cardozo et al., 2016).

The relationships of dike geometry, distribution, structural deformation, emplacement mechanism, and time

help in restoring deformation events (Halls, 1982; Ernst et al., 1995; Li, 2000; Marinoni, 2001; Bleeker and

Ernst, 2006; Hou et al., 2006, 2010; Goldberg, 2010; Ernst, 2014), and hence contribute to deducing tectonic

activity in an area. Moreover, understanding the stress state is crucial in seismology (Kayen et al., 2011)

and engineering, especially in studies of slope stability (Mohamad et al., 2010; Tan et al., 2014).

Deformation history also can be deduced from tectonic inversion through the analysis of reverse

reactivation of pre-existing normal faults. Structural inversion refers to the occurrence of different

displacement events along a pre-existing fault plane (e.g., Holdsworth et al, 1998). This inversion is

recognized through structural, morphologic, geochronological and stratigraphic records (White et al., 1986;

Holdsworth et al., 1997; Lacassin et al., 1998; Kim et al., 2001; Maruyama & Lin, 2004; Javadi et al., 2015).

The reverse reactivation of normal faults also known as inversion has been studied in previous researches

(e.g. Buchanan & Buchanan, 1995; McClay, 1989; Williams et al.,1989). The study of the inversion

requires understanding fault reactivation. Fault reactivation is recognized from the repetition of

displacement and associated deformation using absolute or relative time markers. When used in isolation,

the changes in the sense or the direction of movement along the fault and shear zones are not always enough

criteria to define the reactivation. For example, multiple slip vectors can arise due to the reorientation of

2
local incremental strain and stress fields due to slip on nearby faults (Cashman & Ellis 1994) or due to

kinematic partitioning of crustal strains (Tikoff & Teyssier 1994). The understanding of fault reactivation

is based on describing whether the fault is extinct or not (Muir Wood and Mallard, 1992), evaluating

possible periodic fault activity (e.g. Blair and Bilodeau, 1988; Cartwright et al., 1998; Lisle and Srivastava,

2004) and determining the effects of reactivation on fault-growth, behavior and scaling relationships (e.g.

Cartwright et al., 1998; Meyer et al., 2002; Walsh et al., 2002; Nicol et al., 2005).

The inverted listric or planar faults were used in the study of the influence of footwall geometry on structural

inversion (Buchanan and McClay 1991). The inversion is characterized by the reactivation and the steep

propagation of the detachment fault into the post-rifting sequence with the tips of extensional faults serving

as the nucleation points for the new reverse faults. It has been interpreted that gently dipping normal faults

develop through normal reactivation of thrusts (Brewer and Smythe, 1984; Enfield and Coward, 1987), and

steep dipping reverse faults originate from normal faults (e.g. Williams et al., 1989).

During the reverse reactivation of normal faults, typical geometries are produced. These structures include

(a) inversion anticlines (e.g. Morley et al., 2003; Tavani et al., 2011; Yamada & McClay, 2004); (b) thrust

ramps (e.g. McClay, 1989), (c) inversion thrust faults (e.g. McClay & Buchanan, 1992), (d) uplift or up‐

thrusting of hanging‐wall wedges of syn-extensional “growth” strata (e.g. Panien et al., 2005; Roberts,

1989) and (e) folding of the original fault(s) (e.g. Allen et al., 2001). While, these are mostly considered as

typical inversion structures, there are possible wider range of geometries during reverse reactivation of

normal faults depending on (a) the geometry of the original normal faults in the cross section and along the

strike (e.g. Buchanan & McClay, 1991) and (b) the timing and magnitude of reverse reactivation (e.g. Brun

& Nalpas, 1996; McClay, 1989).

The tectonic inversion can be influenced by: (a) the change in the regional stress field caused by the pushing

forces associated with far-field stresses (Bezerra et al., 2020; Buiter & Pfiffner, 2003; Marques et al., 2014;

Nogueira et al., 2015); (b) the presence of lithospheric-scale strength variations including hardness zones

and zones of weakness from previous orogenic cycles (Bonini, Sani, & Antonielli, 2012; Buiter et al., 2009;

3
Lowell, 1995; Marques et al., 2014; Nogueira et al., 2015); (c) local asthenospheric upwelling (Buiter

et al., 2009; Garcia, Julià, Nemocón, & Neukirch, 2019; Schlische et al., 2003; Tuitt et al., 2010); (d)

geometry of pre-existing faults, and attitude of faults relative to the stress field (Bonini et al., 2012; Brun

& Nalpas, 1996; Buchanan & McClay, 1991; Marques & Nogueira, 2008; Ziegler et al., 1995); and (e)

weakness zones inherited from sediments with a low thermal conductivity (Buiter & Pfiffner, 2003; Buiter

et al., 2009; Turner & Williams, 2004). Weaker sedimentary layers may act as decollement layers

accommodating shearing. In case of anisotropic material sequence, the interlayer slip leads to footwall

folding (Buiter & Pfiffner, 2003). This research revealed the history of brittle deformation in Geoje island

by studying dike emplacement, fault reactivation and tectonic inversion, and in turn providing the

relationship with the tectonic activities around Korean Peninsula.

4
1.2. Problem statement and objectives

Understanding brittle deformation within rocks is crucial for interpreting regional structural deformation

history. The study of brittle deformation in rocks provide information on fault reactivation and tectonic

inversion in an area. Geoje island, the study area of this research is located in the southern part of Korean

peninsula. It is also located in the southern end of Yangsan Fault System. Based on its location, there might

be a great relationship between structural deformation history in Geoje island and the Yangsan Fault System.

Moreover, the contribution of material property and pre-existing structures and the tectonic settings around

Korean peninsula on the structural deformation in Geoje island is not well studied. Therefore, the study of

the deformation history within sedimentary rocks of Geoje island is important to solve these questions.

5
1.3. Format and outline of thesis

This thesis is an amalgamation of the already published paper and the submitted manuscripts from my

Mater’s researches. It combines two manuscripts entitled “Brittle Deformation History based on the

Analyses of Dikes and Faults within Sedimentary Rocks in Geoje island, SE Korea” published in the

Journal of Korean Society of Engineering Geology and “Contribution of Pre-existing Material Property

and Structures During Structural Inversion in Sedimentary Rocks in Geoje Island” that will be submitted

later. This thesis mainly consists of introduction, research methods, results, discussion and conclusion. The

thesis introduction outlines the field of study and reviews the literature and concepts required to develop a

basic understanding of the research. The Introduction also describes the themes of my research and the

relations between the manuscripts. The concluding chapter of the thesis discusses the results and

conclusions of the manuscript chapters and relates them to each other and to the overall field of study. The

concluding chapter also comments on the significance of contributions and the limitations of the thesis

research, and it proposes several ideas for future work to improve and complement the presented research.

6
 Chapter 2. Geological Settings
Korean peninsula is located along the east of Eurasian continental margin. During Cretaceous, Eastern

Eurasia was subjected to sinistral trans-current tectonics and reactivated several times due to the subduction

of proto-pacific plate (Chun and Chough, 1992; Kinoshita, 1995; Kim et al., 1997). Sinistral movement led

to the formation of back arc basins and strike slip faults parallel to the plate margin.

Geoje island, the study area is located in Gyeongsang basin which is the largest continental basin in Korea

and is located on the eastern part of a northeast-trending sinistral trans-current fault system (Fig. 1). The

basin fill called Gyeongsang supergroup is nonmarine strata intruded by volcanic and plutonic rocks (Choi,

1986; Chang et al., 1997). Gyeongsang supergroup is subdivided into 3 groups such as Sindong, Hayang

and Yucheon. Sindong and Hayang groups are dominated by mudstones, sandstones and conglomerates

deposited under fluvial, alluvial and lacustrine environments whereas Yucheon group is mostly composed

of volcanic rocks of silicic to intermediate composition (Chang, 1975, 1977; Chang et al., 1997).

The Gyeongsang Basin is an extensional and it is tectonically divided into Yeongyang, Uiseong, and

Miryang minor subbasins from north to south (Chang, 1977). These subbasins are cut by several systematic

fault sets which constrain the origin and evolution of Gyeongsang basin. In the Uiseong block, WNW-

trending sinistral strike-slip faults, the Gaum fault system predominates whereas the Miryang Block is

transected by NNE-trending dextral strike-slip faults, the Yangsan fault system. The two fault systems do

not cross cut. Lee and Hwang (1997) suggested that they might have been produced by non-coeval

geological events and they concluded that the Yangsan fault system was generated after the Gaum fault

system. In review, Hwang et al. (2007a,) suggested that these fault systems could be coeval based on the

model for conjugate faults evolution by block rotation in opposite directions (Ron et al., 1984; Nur et al.,

1986). There are other pull-apart cretaceous basins with stratigraphic units correlated with those in the

Gyeongsang Basin (Won et al., 1990; Lee et al., 1992; Kim et al., 1994; Chough et al., 2000; Lee and Kim,

2003).

7
Seongpo-ri Formation in which the study area belongs is correlated with the upper Albian to lower

Cenomanian of the upper Haman Formation of the Hayang Group (Lee et al. 2008). This formation is

located at the southern termination of the Yangsan Fault System (Fig. 1), and is mostly hornfelsic due to

intrusion of the stock shaped granitic body and intermediate dykes.

Figure 1. Location and geological map of the Gyeongsang Basin (modified from Lee and Lee, 2001). A)
Location of Gyeongsang Basin on the Korean Peninsula. B) Sub-basins of the Gyeongsang Basin separated
by WNW–ESE-trending faults. C) Geological map of the Gyeongsang Basin. 1) Tertiary
sedimentary/volcanic rocks. 2) Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene plutonic rocks. 3) Upper Cretaceous Yucheon
Group. 4) Lower Cretaceous Hayang Group. 5) Lower Cretaceous Sindong Group. 6) Pre-Cretaceous
metamorphic/plutonic rocks. The study area is shown by the rectangle.

8
 Chapter 3. Study Area and used Materials and Methods
3.1. Study area

In this research, Geoje island was selected because its brittle deformation and the relationship with the

tectonic settings around Korean peninsula were not well known. In addition, well exposed structures within

sedimentary rocks pushed us to do this research in this area. Geoje island is located on the southern coast

of Gyeongsangnam-do province, South Korea. Geoje island has the surface area of 402.3 km². 4 sites;

Sinseondae, Gucheon-ri, Yulpo-ri, Dapo-ri were selected for this study (Fig. 2). Sinseondae was divided

into 3 outcrops depending on the studied structures (Fig. 5). This area is located in the southern end of

Yangsan fault system, thus there is a close relationship between the area and Yangsan Fault System giving

the implications to the tectonic settings around the Korean peninsula.

9
3.2. Materials and method

Field data and previous researches were combined to understand the brittle deformation history within the

sedimentary rocks of Geoje island. Structural analysis aimed at addressing the geometry and kinematics of

brittle or hydroplastic structures such as faults, extensional fractures, joints, veins and dikes. Dike

orientations were measured together with the structural attitudes of the associated structural features as the

evidences of deformation. In addition, kinematic indicators of the faults were gathered and analyzed to get

the paleo-stress giving information to the occurrence of tectonic inversion. Structural data were grouped

into sets basing on their geometry, kinematics, observed structural signatures and relationship. The sets

were interpreted as formed by different deformation events on the basis of their kinematic consistency,

stratigraphic overprints and regional scale distribution. Rose diagrams and contour diagram of equal-area,

lower hemisphere stereographic representation and geological modelling were used to analyze structural

data. Paleo-stress was studied using win tensor program developed by Delvaux and Sperner (1993). The

obtained deformation history was compared with previous deformation along the Yangsan Fault System to

understand the relationship with the tectonic settings around Korean peninsula.

10
Figure 2. Detailed geological map of Geoje island. Study areas are marked by finger-like symbols.

11
 Chapter 4. Results
4.1. Sedimentary characteristics of the area

On the basis of the lithology, sedimentary structures and the occurrence of webbed bird tracks, Seongpo-ri

Formation is correlated with the upper Albian to lower Cenomanian of the upper Haman Formation (105.4

Ma) of the Hayang Group (Lee et al. 2008). This formation is dominantly composed of hornfelsic and less

common non-hornfelsic rocks. The hornfels formed due to the contact metamorphism of sedimentary rocks

and the intrusion of granitic bodies and dikes. Hornfels are often banded with alternating black and white

layers indicating sedimentary origin (Braddock, 1969). Hornfels in Geoje island are composed of shales,

sandstones and mudstones which metamorphosed into hornfels. Layers in hornfels dip between 12ᵒ and 18ᵒ

to the Northeast. The presence of sediment deformation structures in siltstone is an indicator of liquefaction

which may be induced by seismic shaking, gravitational instabilities, overloading and unequal loading,

storm currents, wave-induced cyclical and/or impulsive stresses, sudden changes in groundwater level,

relative sea level rise and transgression, various kinds of bioturbation, and seismic shock (Lowe 1975; Sims

1975; Allen 1977; Glennie & Buller 1983; Owen 1987, 1996; Obermeier, 1996; Jones & Omoto 2000;

Rodrìguez Pascua 2000; Moretti & Sabato 2007). The association of cross-beds and soft sediment

deformation structures and their location near the shores of the sea can be attributed to the storm current

origin. This area is also characterized by mud cracks filled with sand. The presence of mud cracks are the

indicators of alternating wet and dry conditions as the site is close to the sea.

12
Figure 3. Sedimentary structures exposed at Sinseondae site. A. Soft Sediment Deformation Structures
(convolute bedding) within siltstones. B. Mudcracks formed in silty sediments possibly caused by climate
change from wet to dry conditions.

13
Figure 4. Stratigraphy of the Gyeongsang Supergroup. Geological ages are based on palynomorphs (Choi,
1985, 1989; Yi et al., 1994) and Lee et al. (2001). Seongpo-ri Formation is correlated with Haman
Formation of Hayang Group.

14
4.2. Structural Characteristics of the area
4.2.1. Part I: Brittle deformation history from the kinematic relationship
between dikes and faults.

Geoje island is mostly dominated by strike-slip faults with minor dip-slip faults as the components of

oblique faults or separate events. The dominance of strike slip faults inherited from the location of the study

area in the southern termination of Yangsan strike slip fault system and the regional tectonic settings around

the Korean peninsula. The selected outcrops in this study present various magmatic dikes which were

mostly controlled by pre-existing structures (faults and fractures). Where possible, piercing points of dikes

were matched and used to show the opening direction implying the control of pre-existing structures. On

the other hand, when the dike has a constant thickness and has no piercing point, it is suggested not to have

been controlled by pre-existing structures, so the opening direction is perpendicular to the strike of the dike.

All the kinematic indicators were identified around each fault and dike to determine the possible orientation

of maximum principal stresses. According to Kim et al., (2003), the orientation of the maximum

compressive stress on the fault plane is round 45ᵒ. This principle was used to identify the possible

orientation of the stress on the identified fault planes. Dike relationship and structural deformation were

studied and compared with other sites for precise interpretation.

Three outcrops in Sinseondae were selected for data collection and data interpretation (Fig. 5). The lithology

in the outcrops is mostly dominated by hornfelsified shales and siltstones intruded by magmatic dikes.

These Cretaceous rocks were structurally deformed by dikes, faults and fractures. Structural attitudes of

these features were measured and interpreted to restore brittle deformation history in the study area.

15
Figure 5. Field photograph showing the locations of the three outcrops at Sinseondae.

16
4.2.1.1. Outcrop 1

Field observations in site showed that the intrusions of dikes were structurally controlled. faults and

fractures played a great role in the kinematic emplacement dikes. the NE–SW-trending dike 2-1 intruded

within the cretaceous sedimentary rocks of Geoje island. this dike has a constant thickness, and no piercing

points were observed on it. the absence of piercing points can indicate that the opening direction is

perpendicular to the strike of the dike. however, the dike is parallel but not overprinted by ne-trending

normal fault (Fig. 12a). From these observations, we can suggest therefore, that the intrusion of dike 2-1

was controlled by pre-existing NE-normal fault. This dike was structurally deformed as shown by strike

slip faults cutting it and the crosscutting dikes (Fig. 6a). Dike 2-1 was displaced by both NNW-trending

sinistral and NW-trending dextral strike-slip faults, but because there is no crosscutting relationship

observed, the chronology of these faulting events is not clear. There are two possibilities for the intrusion

of dikes 4-1 and 3-2-1. 1) they might have intruded along NNW–SSE sinistral strike-slip and NW–SE

dextral strike-slip faults, respectively, or 2) they might have intruded independently of those faults and

represent later events. however, the lack of any slip surfaces or other kinematic indicators overprinting the

dikes may indicate that the dikes represent later events. in addition, no piercing points were observed on

either of these dikes, and this can be attributed to the fact that the dikes have been eroded, with only short

remnants of the dikes remaining in the outcrop. we suggest, therefore, that the intrusion of dikes 3-2-1 and

4-1 took place later than the faulting, where dike orientations were controlled by the orientations of pre-

existing sinistral and dextral strike-slip faults, respectively.

NW–SE sinistral and E–W trans-tensional faults shows conjugate fault systems. Those two faults overprint

dike 2-1 and they offset one another and intersect at an angle of 52° (Fig. 6B). It has been postulated that

conjugate faults for at an angle less than 60ᵒ when they were formed from the reactivation of mode I

fractures. The conjugate faults offset one another due to the partition of stress between the two faults. These

conjugate faults represent another deformation event after the intrusion of dike 2-1.

NW-oriented dike 3-1-1 is highly fractured with dike parallel fractures. There is no evidence that dike 3-1-

17
1 was controlled by pre-existing structures, but it is overprinted by a sinistral strike-slip fault (Fig. 6C), as

shown by the pull-apart structures around the dike (Fig. 6D). The point of intersection of the dike and fault

is highly fractured, and this further indicates that the fault post-dates the intrusion of the dike.

Figure 6. Planar view field photographs taken at site 1. A, Dike 2-1 intruded by dikes 4-1 and 3-2-1 through
sinistral and dextral strike-slip faults, respectively. B, Two conjugate faults on dike 2-1.C, NW-oriented
dike (3-1-1) that is overprinted by NW sinistral strike-slip fault. D, NW-striking sinistral strike-slip fault
on dike 3-1-1 with a linking zone of fault segments. Blue arrows indicate the direction of maximum
principal compressive stress. Red arrows indicate the direction of movement. Thick blue solid line is dike
plane,thin blue solid line indicates the tip damages, red line is fault and purple one is vein.

18
4.2.1.2. Outcrop 2

Similar to the site 1, this site also presents some deformation events evidenced by vein displacement, pull-

apart formation, and cross-cutting dikes (Fig. 7). Field observations showed that NW-oriented veins are

displaced by both NE-striking sinistral (Fig. 7C) and dextral (Fig. 7B) strike-slip faults but no direct

evidence for the order between sinistral and dextral faults. The presence of both sinistral and dextral strike

slip faults along the NE-direction is an indicator of fault reactivation under ~N-S and ~E-W compression

respectively. Fig. 7D shows a linking zone formed by fault segment interaction at the tips, indicating a NW-

striking sinistral strike-slip fault. Basing on the kinematic analysis, this NW-oriented sinistral strike slip

fault is interpreted to be formed under E-W compression.

NW-trending dike 3-2 was intruded by dike 4-2 oriented in NNW (Fig. 7E). The analysis of each dike and

the crosscutting relationship of these dikes shows that the two separate events were caused by the change

in the direction of maximum principal stress from NW-SE to NNW-SSE compression. The yellow lines

connecting piercing points in dike 4-2 show the opening direction. Because the opening direction is

perpendicular to the maximum compressive stress, in this dyke the direction of maximum compressive

stress is oblique to the main striking direction of the dike. The unconnected end parts of the two segment

faults shown by the blue dashed lines near the piercing points are an indicator of linking zone (Fig. 7F).

The inferred principal stress condition indicates dextral strike-slip faulting. Therefore, it can be concluded

that dike 4-2 intruded along dextral strike-slip faults under NNW-SSE compression (Fig. 7F).

19
Figure 7. Planar view field photographs taken at site 2. A) Field photograph of site 2. B) NE-striking dextral
strike-slip fault displacing NW-trending veins. C) NE-striking sinistral strike-slip fault displacing NW-
oriented veins. D) Linking zone showing NW sinistral strike-slip fault. E) Dike 4-2 intruding dike 3-2. F)
Dike 4-2 intruding along a dextral strike-slip fault.Yellow lines on figure F indicate piercing points showing
the opening direction of the dike. Red and blue arrows indicate the direction of movement and maximum
principal stress, respectively . Thick blue solid line is dike plane while red one is fault. Thin blue line is
secondary fracture and dashed blue line near the piercing points indicate the tip of the segment faults.

20
4.2.1.3. Outcrop 3

Like other sites, this site also shows deformation events including cross-cutting dikes and faults within

dikes (Fig. 8). NNE- oriented dike, dike 1-3, is displaced by WNW-ESE dextral strike-slip fault with 1 m

of displacement (Fig. 8B), and it is intruded by NW dike, dike 3-3, indicating two separate events (Fig. 8C).

Dike 3-3 is oriented in the same direction as mode I fractures in Fig. 8C. The absence of theses fractures

on the dike indicates that they predated dike intrusion. Therefore, we can suggest that the intrusion of dike

3-3 was controlled by pre-existing mode I fractures (Fig. 8D). E-W fractures near dike 3-3 are at around

40ᵒ and limited to the dike planes on which there are slip surfaces. Therefore, we suggest that these fractures

represent the tip damages of the fault indicating faulting event after dike intrusion due to the stress

perturbation. The model presented in Fig. 8F summarizes 3 developing stages around the dike 3-3. 1) Mode

I fractures formed parallel to the direction of maximum principal stress, 2) Dike 3-3 intruded by dilating

mode I fractures formed in stage 1, 3) Stress perturbation caused the formation of sinistral strike-slip fault

around the dike forming the linking zone (Fig. 8E).

21
Figure 8. A. Field photograph taken at site 3 outcrops. B) Strike-slip fault within dike 1-3. C) Dike 3-3
intruding dike 1-3. D) Dike 3-3 intruding along pre-existing mode I fractures. The dike was later reactivated
as fault. E) Sketch of dike 3-3 and associated structures. F) Model of dike 3-3 emplacement and reactivation.
Blue arrows indicate the orientation of maximum principal stress while red arrows indicate the direction of
movement. Thick blue solid line indicates dike plane while thick red solid line indicates fault. Thin black
lines indicate mode I fractures.

22
4.2.2. Part 2. Brittle deformation History analyzed from fault reactivation and
Tectonic inversion

The most dominant faults observed in all 4 sites are strike slip faults but dip slip faults were also observed.

Some of those observed dip slip faults are the components of trans-tensional faults while others are separate

events. The use of slicken lines and other kinematic indicators led to the interpretation of the type of fault

and paleo-stress in the study areas. Tectonic inversion in Geoje island was evidenced by the presence of

both extensional and compressional displacements along the NE-striking fault. Structural deformation in

Geoje island was characterized by the reactivation of normal faults into strike slip faults and reverse faults.

This reverse reactivation of normal faults or the change from extensional to compressional settings is what

is known as tectonic inversion. Sometimes it is challenging to know whether the fault is pure strike slip,

dip slip or oblique. Therefore, the use of slicken lines is a proper way to interpret faulting events and

understand the paleo-stress. It has been suggested that the characteristics of fault zone play a great role in

the determination of structural inversion. Structural maturity of fault zones controls frictional strength along

faults. The lower friction and cohesion along mature faults make them easy to sleep than immature faults

(e.g. Ikari et al., 2011). Immature faults with less cumulative displacements are characterized by simple

geometries and they represent early stages of fault zone evolution (e.g. Martel et al., 1988). Drag fold is

one of the indicators of increased friction force around the fault plane. Anisotropic characteristic of the

stratigraphic sequence facilitates interlayers slip leading to the folding of layers (Buiter& Pfiffner, 2003).

This explains the presence of fault associated folding at the outcrops.

23
4.2.2.1. Sinseondae site

Sinseondae area is dominated by strike slip faults but also shows dip slip faults. Cretaceous sedimentary

rocks are deformed by magmatic dikes and faults. Sedimentary rocks are cut by NW-striking normal fault

with ~2 m of displacement (Fig. 9C). This fault was displaced by NE-normal fault. NE-striking normal

faullt show a vertical displacement of ~60 cm (Fig. 9A). In this area, NE-dikes were found. The dike shows

no piercing point and it has been overprinted by NW-sinistral and E-W-terans-tensional conjugate strike

slip faults (Fig. 6B). From these observations, we can interpret that dike 2-1 intruded within NE-normal

faults. NE-reverse fault in Fig.9B is an indicator of tectonic inversion in Geoje island.

E-W-trans-tesnional and NW-sinistral strike slip faults can be interpreted as Andersonian conjugate faults

with an intersection angle of ~50ᵒ. Fig. 9D shows the E-W-transtensional fault due to the presence of

negative flower structure. Negative flower structures are mostly found in wrench zones where blocks move

parallel to each other (i.e., pure strike-slip faults) with a divergent component (i.e., divergent or trans-

tensional wrench faults). Those structures are mostly common in releasing bends and step over regions

(Cunningham & Mann, 2007; Harding, 1985; Holdsworth et al., 1998; Mitra & Paul, 2011; Wu et al., 2009).

Therefore, the E-W trans-tensional fault conjugated with NW-sinistral fault can be interpreted as a

transtensional fault than pure strike slip fault.

24
Figure 9. Cross-sectional Field photographs taken at Sinseondae. A, Field photograph of NE-striking
oblique normal fault cutting sedimentary rocks. B, Field photo showing NE-striking reverse fault developed
in Seongpo-ri formation indicating the reactivation of NE-oblique normal fault in Fig. 9A. C, NW-striking
normal fault. Overlaid photographs on figure A shows oblique slicken lines and the reconstructed paleo-
stress analysis using Win tensor program indicating NNE-SSW extension. D, E-W-striking trans-tensional
fault. Red line shows the fault while the white dashed line shows the boundaries of displaced layers.

25
4.2.2.2. Site 2. Gucheon-ri Site

In this site, sedimentary rocks of Seongpo-ri formation are deformed by steeply dipping faults associated

with drag folds (Fig. 10B&C). The cross-sectional view in the outcrops shows that these faults are reverse

faults. Steeply dipping reverse faults are doubtful, that is why slicken lines should be checked for

confirmation. Slicken lines along the fault plane indicate that those faults are oblique faults dominated by

dextral strike slip movement. Therefore, the combination of slicken lines and stepping structures on

slickensides indicated a trans-tensional nature of faults.

Drag folds can be formed during the initial stages of faulting or during faulting resulting from the resistance

to slip or shearing on the fault (Davis 1984, p. 270, Ramsay & Huber, 1987, p. 509, Dennis, 1987, p. 342,

Groshong, 1988). Drag folds can be used to indicate the shear sense on normal and reverse faults as the

intermediate stress axis is parallel to the bedding of faulted rocks. Thus, the slip direction of cylindrical

drag folds is roughly perpendicular to fold axis (Alexander Becker, 1995). Drag folds present along the

fault can be interpreted as the results of the reverse component of the fault. Moreover, drag folds can also

be used to interpret the type of rock material. When rocks are rich in clay and when there is an increased

friction along the fault plane, drag folds are consequently formed.

Some faults are branched at the tip, possibly because of the difference in compaction of top and bottom

layers. The difference in rock consolidation between top and underlying layers explain why faults are less

developed within top layers due to energy dissipation during fault growing while undergoing fault

propagation.

26
 Figure 10. A, Field
photographs taken at
Gucheon-ri site. B, E-W
trans-tensional fault
cutting sedimentary
rocks of Seongpo-ri
formation. C, E-W
trans-tensional fault.
Solid red line indicates
the fault while dashed
one shows inferred fault.
Black lines indicate
fractures in the damage
zone.

27
4.2.2.3. Site 3. Yulpo-ri Site

The rock type in this area is Mesozoic Cretaceous andesitic breccia with tuff layer. Andesitic rock

has been deformed by NW-striking sinistral strike slip fault (Fig. 11A). The fault gauge is 5 cm

thick with slicken lines of 12ᵒ of rake (Fig. 11B). Slicken side stepping structures indicate sinistral

movement. According to Cheon et al., (2020), the intrusion of andesitic rocks within Gyeongsang

Basin started since ~90 Ma. Kinematic analysis using Win tensor program indicated that this NW-

sinistral strike slip fault cutting andesitic rocks formed under E-W compression.

Figure 11. Field photographs taken at Yulpo-ri site. A, Sinistral strike slip fault cutting andesitic rocks. B,
slicken lines on the NW-trending sinistral strike slip fault win tensor paleo-stress analysis showing E-
W/WNW-ESE compression.

28
4.2.2.4. Site 4. Dapo-ri Site

Similar to other sites, Dapo-ri site is lithologically characterized by hornfelsized shale, sandstone and

conglomerates. These rocks were highly structurally deformed by faults and intruding dikes. The

relationship between sedimentation, dike intrusion and faulting is useful to understand the chronology of

events. NE-striking transtensional fault was observed in Dapo-ri site cutting and deforming sedimentary

rocks (Fig. 12A). As observed in figure 12B, NE-striking fault displaced NW-trending shear zone. NE-

striking transtensional fault strike in the same direction as the dike in Figure 12B. In addition, NE-oriented

dike consist of piercing points indicating the control of pre-existing dextral strike slip fault during dike

intrusion. From this, we interpreted that dike intruded within the NE-striking transtensional fault.

Figure 12. Field photographs taken at

Dapo-ri site. A, NE-striking trans-
tensional fault. B, Dextral component
of the NE-striking trans-tensional fault
which displaced NW-trending shear
zone. C, Magmatic dike intruded
within NE-striking trans-tensional
fault. Blue line shows dike plane, while
the red one shows the fault. Blue arrow
in figure 10C indicates the orientation
of the maximum comopressive stress
while the purple one indicates an
extensional direction.

29
 Chapter 5. Discussion
5.1. Dike and fault interactions

Restored deformation events from the study area can be classified into seven events. These events are

reconstructed based on the orientation of principal stresses analyzed from fault slip sense, dike geometry

and kinematics.

It is commonly known that the propagation direction of dike intrudes in the direction of maximum principal

compressive stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal compressive stress (Anderson, 1951).

However, if the dike intrudes along pre-existing fractures, the opening direction sometimes could not follow

the rule and should be inferred from piercing points on both sides of the dike (Delaney et al., 1986). Because

matching of piercing points provides more reliable opening direction, if the opening direction is not

perpendicular to the dike strike, it could be assumed that the dike intruded along a pre-existing feature

(Delaney et al., 1986; Le Gall et al., 2005). The line connecting the piercing points on dike 4-2 is oblique

to the strike of the dike and the unconnected end parts of the two fault segments indicate the linking

relationship. Therefore, based on the direction of maximum principal stresses inferred from this dike, we

can suggest that dike 4-2 intruded along a dextral strike-slip fault (Fig. 7F). In addition, dike in figure 12C

also shows the piercing points indicating dextral strike slip fault control during its intrusion.

Dikes observed in the study area can be grouped into 4 main sets based on their cross-cutting relationship

and striking directions and kinematic analysis. These sets are NNE- SSW, NE-SW, NW-SE, and NNW-

SSE from the oldest to the youngest (Fig. 13). According to dike relationship, NE-oriented dikes were

intruded by both NW and NNW-oriented dikes. So NE-trending dikes are older than the two others (Fig.

6A). In addition, NW-oriented dikes are intruded by NNW-oriented dikes (Fig. 7E). In summary, based on

the crosscutting relationship and kinematic analysis, the order of dike intrusion is NNE-SSW, NE-SW,

NW-SE, NNW-SSE, and ENE-WSW/E-W which is useful to understand the order of brittle events in Geoje

island.

30
Figure 13. Rose diagram (left) and contour diagram of equal-area, lower hemisphere stereographic
representation (right) of dike orientations.

Faulting events observed and measured from the field can be mainly classified into 3 sets based on their

strikes; NW-SE, NE-SW, and E-W (Fig. 14). Based on the slip senses, sinistral strike-slip faults are

dominant in NW-SE direction, trans-tensional faults are dominant in E-W whereas NE-SW faults are

dominantly oblique normal and reverse faults (Fig. 14). Those faults reactivated several times in relation

with stress direction. The evolution of those faults are shown by the formation of pull apart structures. The

formation of pull-apart (Fig. 6D, 7D& 8D) can be associated with the fact that basement fault geometries

are nonlinear (e.g., Aydin and Nur, 1982; An and Sammis, 1996; Dooley and Schreurs, 2012).

NW sinistral strike-slip faults and E-W trans-tensional faults show Andersonian conjugate sets. Conjugates

faults in dike 2-1 have an intersection angle of 52ᵒ and post-date dike intrusion (Fig. 6B). Because trans-

tensional faults displaced sinistral faults, it is doubtful whether they are conjugate or two separate events.

For this debate, Freud (1974) proved that it is impossible for intersecting conjugate faults to be displaced

synchronously. However, Nicol et al. (1995) concluded the possibility of synchronous movement on

conjugate faults. Odonne & Massonnat, (1992a) suggested that offsetting sets can be caused by the

difference in length or the orientation to the major principal strain axis. In other words, the larger slip on

one conjugate pair induce the slip on the other pair. In addition, the formation of conjugate faults at low

31
angle ≤ 60ᵒ may be caused by the shear deformation along the pre-existing Mode-I fracture (Hancock, 1985).

Conjugate faults on dike 2-1 show an offset relationship and the intersection angle ≤ 60ᵒ. Therefore, we can

suggest that these conjugate faults resulted from the shearing along mode I fractures and the offset along

the NW sinistral strike slip fault was induced by dextral strike slip fault.

Sinistral faults Trans-tensional faults

Normal faults Reverse faults

Figure 14. Stereographic projection showing the distribution of all types of faults observed in Geoje Island.
Blue arrow indicates the estimated orientation of maximum principal stress while the purple one indicates
the least principal stress direction.

32
The cross-sectional view of the outcrops revealed that NE-oriented faults are oblique normal faults and

reverse faults while E-W- striking faults are not pure strike slip faults but trans-tensional faults. NW-SE

sinistral strike slip faults formed synchronously with E-W trans-tensional faults as conjugate faults. Dikes

and fault interaction can be briefly explained that most of the faults controlled dike intrusion while others

structurally deformed dikes.

5.1.1. Fault evolution

Geoje island is dominated by strike slip faults with minor dip slip faults. Most of the strike slip faults

developed from the reactivation of pre-existing mode I fractures (Fig. 6&7&8D). Sinistral strike slip faults

are dominant in NW, while the trans-tensional faults are dominant in E-W. It has been found that NW

sinistral and E-W-trans-tensional faults show Andersonian conjugate faults with the intersection angle of

52ᵒ (Fig. 6B). Kinematic analysis of faulting events in Geoje Island showed that they are closely related

with the reactivation of Yangsan Faults System located in the northeastern part of the study area.

The evolution of the fault is affected by both pre-existing weakness zones and rock type. The reactivation

of zones of discontinuity in rocks enhances fault evolution. Competent and incompetent rocks behave

differently under deforming process. Incompetent lithologies (e.g., clay-rich shale, argillaceous limestone)

are capable of accommodating greater amounts of pre-failure strain than competent lithologies (e.g., clay-

poor limestone or dolomite) under the same conditions of deformation. Experimental studies demonstrate

that, as strain accumulates in a mechanically layered sedimentary section, brittle layers will fault first (e.g.,

dolomite;) whereas ductile layers accommodate greater pre-failure strain prior to faulting (e.g., shale)

(Donath, 1970; Ferrill and Morris, 2003, 2008; Welch et al., 2009a; Ferrill et al., 2012b). Thus, faults would

be expected to nucleate first in more competent beds, and field investigations show this to be the case (e.g.,

Eisenstadt and DePaor, 1987; Ferrill et al., 2012b, 2016b). Faults initiate from pre-existing structures,

precursory structures, or as continuous shear zones (Crider & Peacock, 2004). The recognition of fault

33
initiation and propagation is crucial for understanding strain accumulation in a region (e.g. Reches and

Lockner, 1994; Cowie et al., 1995; Knott et al., 1996).

5.1.1.1. Fault development from pre-existing structures

Several authors have proposed that faults evolve from the linkage of pre-existing structures under the

imposed stress (Segall and Pollard, 1983; Pachell et ala., 2003).

Field observations showed that most of the strike slip faults in Geoje island developed from pre-existing

mode I fractures (Fig. 6&7&8D). The procedure for the development of fault from pre-existing structures

(Fig. 15) is preceded by the development of pre-existing en-echelon joints develop parallel to the maximum

compressive stress.

Figure 15. Outcrop photograph taken at Sinseondae site showing the formation of pull-apart structure from
the evolution of the fault. Formation mechanism of strike slip faults from pre-existing structures. Red solid
line shows the fault while blue one shows secondary fracture. Blue arrow indicates the direction of the
maximum principal stress.

The rotation of the direction of regional compressive stress causes the slip across the joints. The

development of wing cracks between echelon joints lead to the development of pull-aparts. With further

displacement, blocks bounded by pull-aparts rotate resulting into a fault zone with brecciation (Crider &

Peacock, 2004) (Fig. 15).

34
5.2. Tectonic Inversion

Tectonic inversion in Geoje island is evidenced by the presence of normal and reverse displacements along

the NE-fault (Fig. 14). The presence of those displacements is associated to the change in tectonic setting

from extension to compression. Field observations indicated that NE-oblique normal faults displaced NW-

striking oblique normal fault. The oblique nature of NE-fault is shown by the presence of both dextral and

dominant normal components. Both NW and NE-oblique normal faults can be interpreted as syn-

depositional faults. Kinematic analysis of NE-oriented dikes and faults indicated that NE-oblique normal

faults controlled the intrusion of NE-dikes (Fig. 12). These two events were followed by the simultaneous

formation of conjugate (NW-sinistral and E-W-trans-tensional) faults and the reverse reactivation of NE-

oblique normal faults under NW-SE/WNW-ESE compression (Fig. 16).

During the Upper-Cretaceous, Korean peninsula was under NW-SE compression (Cheon et al., 2019,

2020, Francois & Kim., 2021). This compression changed to NE-SW during the Cenozoic period

resulting from the collision between Indian and Eurasian plates. On the other hand, during this

period, the subduction of Pacific plate changed to WNW. The reactivation of NW-normal fault to

strike slip fault under WNW-ESE compression is an indicator of the dominance of stress induced

by the subduction of Pacific plate than the collision of the Indian plate with Eurasian plate during

the Upper-Cretaceous to early Cenozoic period.

Therefore, we suggest that the formation of conjugate (NW-sinistral strike slip and E-W-trans-tensional)

faults and the reverse reactivation of NE-oblique normal faults formed during this period under NW-

compression (Fig. 16).

35
Figure 16. Block diagram showing the summary of the deformation events in Geoje island and the
occurrence of tectonic inversion.

The term tectonic inversion is characterized by basin uplift caused by δ1 change from vertical to horizontal

(Kley, 2018, Nogueira et al. 2015). This explains the presence of the uplifted and folded sediments within

the sedimentary rocks of Gyeongsang basin. Tectonic inversion is mainly affected by regional temporal

variations in stress patterns within plates, global episodic intraplate stress changes, material property and

the complex alternation of extensional and shortening phases of the upper crust in strike-slip zones. The

tectonic inversion can also be facilitated by the softness of the clay-rich sediments due to the reduced

effective frictional strength (Buiter & Pfiffner, 2003; Buiter et al., 2009; Turner & Williams, 2004).

Seongpo-ri formation is dominated by shales, siltstone, and sandstones explaining the occurrence of the

tectonic inversion. In summary, NW-normal fault reactivated as sinistral strike slip fault, while NE-oblique

normal faults reactivated as reverse fault.

36
5.3. Deformation events

Based on our data intrerpretation, we restored the total of seven deformation events in Geoje island (Fig.

18). These events contain both extensional and compressional events. Data were interpreted based on dike

kinematics, crosscutting relationship and other fault kinematic indicators. Slicken lines werer checked and

used to estimate the direction of principal stresses using win tensor program developped by Delvaux &

Sperner 1993. The two first events are extensional which are NW-oriented oblique normal fault displaced

by NE-oblique normal faults. Other than extensional features, five compressional structures were also

identified based on the direction of the maximum compressive stress. Those compressional events are in a

chronological order of NNE-SSW, NE-SW, NW-SE, NNW-SSE, and E-W compressions (Fig. 17).

Figure 17. The comparison of the deformation history of this research (Right) and Yang, et al., (2008) (Left)
in relation with the orientation of maximum principal stress. Blue arrows indicate the orientation of
maximum principal compressive stress. Grey and black arrows indicate the succession of events.

This research agrees with previous researches (eg. Yang, et al.,2008) (Fig. 17). Yang, et al., (2008)

previously identified 5 structural deformation events such as NNE-SSW, NE-SW, NW-SE, NNW-SSE, and

ENE-WSW in the study area based on the direction of maximum principal compressive stress using dike

patterns. This research identified same deformation history using dike and fault kinematics within Geoje

island sedimentary rocks.

37
5.4. Tectonic implications

Tectonically, the brittle deformation events identified on Geoje Island can be related to the reactivation of

the NNE-trending Yangsan strike-slip fault system, which is located in the northeastern part of the study

area. This proposal is supported by the close relationship between the orientations of maximum principal

stresses associated with the reactivation history of the Yangsan fault system, as found in previous studies

(e.g. Cheon et al., 2019) and those identified in the present study (Fig. 18). During the Late Cretaceous,

the movement on the Yangsan Fault System (YFS) was sinistral under NW–SE-directed compression

(Cheon et al., 2019). During the Miocene, the sense was also sinistral under NNW–SE-directed

compression. This NNW-SSE Miocene compression led to the formation of pull-apart basins (e.g. Ulsan,

Pohang, Janggi, Waup and Eoil) related to the back-arc opening of the East Sea (Son et al., 2015). The last

event during the Quaternary, the movement on the YFS changed from sinistral to dextral system under E–

W- or ENE–WSW-oriented compression, which is the current stress regime on the Korean Peninsula (Jun,

1991). After the Late Cretaceous, the direction of subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the Eurasian plate

changed from NNW to NW (Fig. 18). We suggest that this change in the direction of subduction of Pacific

plate induced stresses on Korean peninsula, hence the reactivation of Yangsan Fault System which affected

the deformation of sedimentary rocks in Geoje island.

38
Figure 18. The proposed relationship between structural deformation events within Geoje island and
Yangsan fault system and the relationship with Regional tectonic settings around Korean peninsula
(Modified from Cheon et al., 2019). Blue arrows indicate the direction of maximum compressive stress,
purple arrows indicate the orientation of the least principal stress, black arrows show the direction of
subducting plate while red arrows indicate the movement direction along Yangsan fault system. Red line
shows Yangsan fault system. The question mark indicates the lack of previous studies.

Given the above, we conclude that the brittle deformation of rocks on Geoje Island was caused by episodic

reactivation of the Yangsan fault system. The reactivations of the fault system were likely a result of

changing tectonic interactions among the Philippine Sea, Pacific, and Eurasian plates, and/or changes in

the angle of subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the Eurasian plate (Cheon et al., 2019). More detailed

evidence would be needed to confirm the relationship between Yangsan fault system reactivation and these

39
plate interactions and processes. Moreover, age dating is required to get the absolute ages of dike intrusion

leading to well defined chronology of events.

Chapter 6. Conclusion
This research aimed at identifying brittle deformation events from dike and fault kinematics within

sedimentary rocks in Geoje Island, southeastern Korea. Dike relationship, kinematic emplacement of dikes

and structural deformation features (faults, veins and fractures) within dikes and rocks are useful to trace

the history of brittle deformation. Dikes commonly intrude in the direction perpendicular to the least

principal stress. However, when the intrusion is controlled by pre-existing structures, matching piercing

points is relevant for the analysis of the paleostress. Most of the dikes in study area intruded within the pre-

existing mode I fractures while few others intruded within faults. In this research, seven deformation events

were discovered based on the change in the direction of principal stresses. These events are in order of NE-

SW extension, NW-SE extension and NNE-SSW, NE-SW, NW-SE, NNW-SSE, and E-W/ENE-WSW

compression from earlier to the recent. Kinematic analysis of faults indicated that during the Upper-

Cretaceous period, NE-striking oblique normal faults reactivated as reverse faults under WNW-ESE/NW-

SE-compression. This reverse reactivation of normal faults is known as tectonic inversion. The brittle

deformation history in Geoje island can be closely related to the reactivation of Yangsan strike slip fault

system located in the northeast of the study area. The reactivation of Yangsan fault system can be associated

to the relative stress change between Pacific plate and Philippine sea plate or the the change in the

subduction angle under Eurasian plate.

40
 Appendices
Appendix A: Dikes

Appendix B: Faults

41
Appendix A: Dikes

Strike Dip Dip Strike Dip Dip Strike Dip Dip

direction direction direction
142 52 76 160 70 86 124 34 90
40 110 58 158 68 70 122 32 48
40 110 58 70 160 80 140 50 70
148 58 88 150 60 54 17 107 40
19 109 45 70 160 81 40 130 70
22 112 50 146 56 56 20 110 80
60 150 54 20 110 70 14 104 90
24 114 44 124 34 90 140 50 90
138 48 68 152 62 64 20 110 90
140 50 68 178 88 78 80 170 90
136 46 88 140 50 76 136 46 70
80 170 80

42
Appendix B: Faults

Sinistral faults Trans-tensional faults Oblique normal faults Reverse faults

Strike Dip Dip Strike Dip Dip Strike Dip Dip Strike Dip Dip
direction direction direction direction
134 44 68 82 352 70 335 255 53 55 145 60
120 30 70 80 350 80 324 234 80 57 327 62
160 70 76 68 338 90 348 258 64 48 138 64
136 46 80 100 10 78 350 260 50 50 320 50
148 58 80 100 10 84 330 240 52 57 327 62
160 70 90 90 0 70 330 240 57 55 145 60
150 60 80 100 10 60 335 245 54
136 46 84 94 4 90 25 115 87
124 34 90 90 0 80 40 130 60
140 50 76 90 0 90 40 130 68
140 50 76 80 350 80 28 118 89
120 30 80 90 0 70 50 140 50
124 34 76 87 177 77
120 30 70 100 10 80
130 40 90 84 174 84
170 80 70 68 158 58
304 214 76 80 170 74
317 47 84 84 174 84
60 150 86
87 177 77
86 176 66

43
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 한국 남서부 거제도에서 재활, 지구조적 역전과 관련된 취성변형의 증거

Hategekimana Francois

부경대학교 대학원

지구환경시스템과학부 지구환경과학전공

요약

마그마 관입과 단층들의 운동학적 분석은 응력 조건, 연대학적 해석에 유용한 정보를 제공해준다.

암맥과 단층이 잘 발달해 있는 거제도 해안가를 연구지역으로 설정하였다. 연구지역은 이암,

사암으로 구성되어 있는 백악기 성포리층과 마그마 암맥의 관입으로 인한 혼펠스로 구성되어 있다.

대부분의 마그마 암맥은 기존에 존재하는 구조들(단층, 단열)을 따라 발달해 있다. 암맥은

최소주응력방향으로 관입하므로, 최소주응력방향은 암맥의 기하와 방향을 통해 알 수 있다. 또한,

변형된 암맥은 후기 변형과 관련된 더 많은 정보를 제공해준다. 취성변형사는 단층재활과 지구조

역전을 활용한 연구를 할 수 있다. 단층을 따라 운동학적 지시자를 인지하는 것은 단층활동에 대한

정보를 제공해준다. 이러한 분석에 기초하여, 연구지역에서 최대 주응력의 변화와 관련된 7 회의

변형을 도출하였다. 연구지역의 구조는 연구지역 북동쪽에 위치한 NNE 주향의 양산단층의 재활에

영향을 받은 것으로 해석된다. 지구조적으로, 거제도의 취성변형은 필리핀판과 태평양판의

유라시아판 섭입과 관련된 응력에 의한것으로 해석된다.

55