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A technique for improving the damage detection ability of the electro-mechanical impedance method
on concrete structures
S Na and H K Lee
Calibration of piezo-impedance transducers for strength prediction and damage assessmentof concrete
Chee Kiong Soh and Suresh Bhalla
Fatigue life estimation of a 1D aluminum beam under mode-I loading using theelectromechanical
impedance technique
Yee Yan Lim and Chee Kiong Soh
Practical issues related to the application of the electromechanical impedance technique inthe
structural health monitoring of civil structures: I. Experiment
Yaowen Yang, Yee Yan Lim and Chee Kiong Soh
Characterization of cement-based
materials using a reusable piezoelectric
impedance-based sensor
R Tawie1 and H K Lee2,3
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, UiTM Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Malaysia
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon 305-701, Korea
Abstract
This paper proposes a reusable sensor, which employs a piezoceramic (PZT) plate as an active
sensing transducer, for non-destructive monitoring of cement-based materials based on the
electromechanical impedance (EMI) sensing technique. The advantage of the sensor design is
that the PZT can be easily removed from the set-up and re-used for repetitive tests. The
applicability of the sensor was demonstrated for monitoring of the setting of cement mortar.
EMI measurements were performed using an impedance analyzer and the transformation of the
specimen from the plastic to solid state was monitored by automatically measuring the changes
in the PZT conductance spectra with respect to curing time using the root mean square deviation
(RMSD) algorithm. In another experiment, drying-induced moisture loss of a hardened mortar
specimen at saturated surface dry (SSD) condition was measured, and monitored using the
reusable sensor to establish a correlation between the RMSD values and moisture loss rate. The
reusable sensor was also demonstrated for detecting progressive damages imparted on a mortar
specimen attached with the sensor under several loading levels before allowing it to load to
failure. Overall, the reusable sensor is an effective and efficient monitoring device that could
possibly be used for field application in characterization of cement-based materials.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)
0964-1726/11/085023+09$33.00 1 © 2011 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK & the USA
Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
be re-used as many times as possible and therefore ensure is the complex electric permittivity at constant stress, d31 is the
better repeatability and reliability in measurements. So far piezoelectric strain coefficient and Ȳ E is the complex Young’s
limited studies [14, 15] have been reported on the development modulus of elasticity of the piezoelectric material at constant
of the reusable PZT technique for monitoring hydration and electric field. PZT transducers, when driven by an alternating
structural health of concrete based on the EMI method. They electric field, will induce vibration (converse effect). When
attached a PZT on a metal enclosure with holes and two bolts bonded onto a host structure, the resultant vibration responses,
tightened inside which are embedded in fresh concrete. It which are characteristics of the structure, modulate the current
is designed such that the two bolts can be unscrewed after flowing through the piezoelectric transducers (direct effect).
concrete has hardened and the enclosure with the bonded This modulation is a function of the degree of mechanical
PZT can be removed for future applications. However, their interaction between the transducers and the structure. Liang
reusable set-up is not suitable for long-term health monitoring et al [17] introduced a one-dimensional EMI equation to model
of concrete structures because the solid connection to the the interaction of the coupled relationship between electrical
concrete will be lost if the bolts are unscrewed. In this study, and mechanical impedance of the PZT and the structure,
a new reusable sensor as shown in figure 1, which employs a respectively, as follows [17]:
PZT plate as an active sensing transducer, is proposed for non-
Z s (ω)
destructive monitoring of cement-based materials based on the Y (ω) = iωa ε33 T
(1 − iδ) − E
d32x Ȳxx (3)
EMI sensing technique. The prime objective of this research Z s (ω) + Z a (ω)
is to develop a more effective and efficient monitoring device
where Y (ω) is the electrical admittance (inverse of impedance)
that could be used for field application. The advantage of the
of a PZT, ω is the excitation frequency, a is the geometric
proposed reusable sensor design is that the bolt attached with
constant of the PZT, ε33 T
is the dielectric constant at zero
the PZT can be removed from the rod so that it can be re-used
stress, δ is the dielectric loss tangent of the PZT, Z s (ω) is
for repetitive tests.
the structure’s mechanical impedance, Z a (ω) is the mechanical
impedance of the PZT, d3x is the PZT coupling constant in
2. Principle of EMI measurement and data E
the arbitrary x direction at zero stress and Ȳxx is the complex
processing
Young’s modulus of the PZT at zero electric field. It can be
EMI transducers such as PZT are known to provide a means of seen in equation (3) that the coupled electrical admittance of
coupling electrical and mechanical impedance. The basis of an PZT is a function of the stiffness, mass and damping of the
2
Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
3
Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
Figure 4. Repeatability of conductance spectra at first resonant Figure 5. Vicat needle test results.
frequency (sensor 1).
4
Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
respect to the curing time and compared with the Vicat needle Figure 8. Data processing using RMSD.
test results as shown in figures 8(a)–(c). The average RMSD
values for the three samples of each mix are shown to assess
and when the cement mortar is transformed from the plastic to
the repeatability of the results. Mix 1 shows quite a variation
solid state. It can be seen that the RMSD values remain low
among the three samples but the variations in the RMSD
after the cement mortar has set.
values reduced after about 200 min of curing. Compared to
mix 1, mixes 2 and 3 show better repeatability. The better
4.2. Monitoring drying of hardened mortar
results observed for the two mixes compared to mix 1 could
be due to the use of the admixtures which helps to improve Monitoring moisture changes in concrete structures is
the workability of the mixes. It is also noted that, for all the particularly useful because large moisture loss may cause
mixes, the RMSD values decrease as the curing time passes cracking in the concrete surface that impairs the aesthetics
5
Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
of the structures [24]. Moisture loss is also an indicator of Figure 10. Total weight loss of specimen due to drying over time.
a durability problem in hardened concrete since moisture can
evaporate or diffuse from concrete through the pores within to
the surface. High porosity in concrete as a result of various
factors such as high water–cement ratio and poor compaction
is not favorable as the higher the porosity the lower the strength
of the concrete would be [25].
Recently, there have been studies carried out for
monitoring moisture changes in concrete by smart sensing
techniques. Yeo et al [26] embedded a sensor fabricated using
a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) coated with a moisture-sensitive
polymer for the detection of moisture in concrete. Stojanović
et al [27] successfully installed a wireless electronic sensor
in a clay brick and a concrete block to track the sensor’s
resonant frequency using an antenna, which is sensitive to
the presence of water in the materials. The proposed smart
monitoring device in this paper has also the potential to be used
for monitoring moisture changes in materials. The concept is
similar to the two described techniques where only a relative
moisture state can be detected and not the absolute value of Figure 11. Calculated RMSD values and moisture loss rate of
moisture content in a material. A calibration function needs to specimen.
be established in order to predict the moisture changes in the
material.
In this experiment, a 80 mm × 80 mm × 80 mm cubic change in weight loss of the hardened mortar after each day of
specimen was prepared using fresh cement mortar without exposure to ambient room temperature. It is shown in figure 11
admixture as already described in section 4.1. The specimen that greater change in the conductance spectrum occurs during
was demolded after 24 h and put in water for up to 28 days the first day of exposure and the RMSD values reduce as
of curing. At the end of the curing day, the specimen was the drying exposure time increases. It is also encouraging to
taken out from the water and surface-dried with cloth to ensure see that the moisture loss rate of the specimen as shown in
a saturated surface dry (SSD) condition before measuring its figure 11 has about the same pattern, where the rate followed
weight with a balance and obtaining the initial conductance a decreasing trend until the fifth day. According to Azenha
spectrum of the reusable sensor that was attached to the et al [24], the drying process is mainly controlled by the
hardened specimen as shown in figure 9. The weight loss and surrounding environment such as air temperature, wind and
the change in the conductance spectrum were monitored after humidity rather than moisture profile inside the material. As
each day of exposure to ambient room temperature for five drying proceeds, the rate of moisture loss decreases with less
days. water supplied to the material surface through the capillary.
Figure 10 shows the total weight loss of the specimen Based on the decreasing trend of the RMSD values and the
versus time, and the comparison between the RMSD values moisture loss rate, it can be said that the specimen was almost
and moisture loss rate is shown in figure 11. The RMSD values dried after five days of exposure to the ambient environment.
are calculated between two compared exposure times while From figure 12, we can see that the RMSD values and the
the moisture loss rate is obtained by computing the percentage moisture loss rate have a strong correlation, and by regression
6
Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
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Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
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Smart Mater. Struct. 20 (2011) 085023 R Tawie and H K Lee
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