Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

Ivan Franko National University of Lviv

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Department of English Philology

STRUCTURAL TYPES OF SENTENCES

Course paper

Presented by:

Svitlana Rozlutska,

3rd year - student

Supervised by:

S.M Sukhorolska, associated professor

Lviv - 2022
 Зміст

Introduction...................................................................................................................2

Сhapter 1.......................................................................................................................4

The sentence as а syntactical unit..............................................................................4

1.1 Structural types of sentences................................................................................5

1.1.1Simple or composite sentences..........................................................................6

1.1.2 Complete or incomplete sentences....................................................................8

1.1.3 Two-member (double nucleus) or one-member (single nucleus).....................9

1.2 Communicative types of sentences....................................................................11

1.3 Cleft sentenсes....................................................................................................12

1.4 Parcelling and segmentation in English sentence structure...............................13

1.5 Periodic and loose sentences. Balanced sentences.............................................14

Chapter 2.....................................................................................................................15

Actualization of different types of sentences in the short story "Cathedral" by

Raymond Carver (1981)..............................................................................................15

Conclusions.................................................................................................................22

Summary.....................................................................................................................24

List of references.........................................................................................................26

2
 Introduction
The research field: a central issue in the paper is the study of sentences in the
English language.

The purpose of the research is to examine different types of sentences and

the ways they are actualized in different pieces of literature.

The aims to be solved: to present different types of structural sentences,

among them: simple and composite sentences, complete or incomplete (elliptical),
two-member (double nucleus) or one-member (single nucleus), cleft, loose, periodic
and balanced sentences. A special look should be take on communicative types of
sentences and the processes of parcelling and segmentation.

Topicality of theme: English is an international language, studied all over the

world. English grammar is a vitally important aspect of such studies, so any
improvements in this field will definitely benefit learners.This work reflects modern
trends in linguistics and we hope it would serve as a good manual for those who want
to master modern English language.

Object of study: Identification and analysis of structural types of sentences in

the short story "Cathedral" by Raymond Carver (1981).

Subject of study: classification and study of structural types of sentences in

English language.

Methods of analysis: the close study of theoretical part, the investigation of

various grammar books, making tables and conducting summaries, employing the
acquired knowledge in the practical part, structural methods of analysis.

Theoretical value: this course paper contains dozens of useful information

both for scholars and students. Indeed, knowing how to properly construct sentence is
a key to sufficient language learning. Furthermore, the problem of classification of
sentences is a highly complicated one , so we tried to deal with it by showing how it
works on the example.
3
 Practical value: the practical significance of our work . First of all, it can be
widely operated by students and avid English learners. Secondly, teachers of English
language can use it for teaching English grammar. Thirdly, in High Schools and
scientific circles of linguistic kind it can be successfully used by lecturers and
philologists as modern material for writing research works dealing with English
verbs.

Materials: grammar books, selection from the short story, dictionaries, articles
used to provide empirical data for the investigation.

Structure: the course paper consists of an introduction, two chapters,

conclusions, summary, and bibliography.Within the introduction part we give the
brief description of our course paper. The main part of the work is divided into two
parts: theoretical and practical. In chapter one we present general grammar rules, the
definition of the sentence, its types and classification etc. In chapter two we deal
with the actual realization of different types of sentence in a short story. In the
conclusion to our work we give results of the investigation made within the course
paper. Bibliography comprises of some sources used in conducting a research. It
includes linguistic books and articles dealing with the theme, a number of used
dictionaries and encyclopedias and also some internet sources.

4
 Сhapter 1

The sentence as а syntactical unit.

The notion of sentence has not so far received an exact definition, which would
enable us to find out whether a certain linguistic unit is a sentence or not. English
philologists Fedorenko and Sukhorolska in their book point out that “there exist many
— more than three hundred — definitions of the sentence, but none of them is
generally accepted. Of these, two definitions have been most often used in grammar
books: a) a sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought(notional
approach); b) a sentence is a group of words that contains an unsubordinated subject
and predicate (formal approach)”[ 1 p. 243]. The following general points apply to
any English sentence.

1. Though а sentence contains words, it is not merely а collection of

all words, but something integral, а structural unity built in accordance with
one of the syntactical patterns existing in а given language.
2. All the sounds of а sentence are united by typical intonation and
the meanings are interlaced according to some pattern to make one
communicative unit.
3. The sentence is the basic unit of communication distinguished
from all other units by its predicativity (the relation of the sentence to the
situation of speech.

Predicativity is as essential a part of the content of the sentence as intonation is

of its form. The sentence as a predicative unit of language verbalizes human thought
and represents lingually the main predicative form of thought, i.e. the proposition
within a sentence the word or combination of words that contains the meanings of
predicativity may be called predication. The main parts of the sentence are the subject
and the predicate. In the sentence “He thought of a new plan”, the predication is he
thought. He indicates the person, thought the tense and mood components of
predicativity [ 1 p. 243].

5
 1.1 Structural types of sentences

It is generally assumed that sentences may be regarded from the point of view of their
structure and their communicative value. From the point of view of their structure,
sentences can be 1) simple or composite (compound and complex), 2) two-member or
one-member 3) complete or incomplete (elliptical). These three classifications are
based on different types of organization of the components of the sentence. However,
it is still probably, that it would not be easy for an ordinary English learner to
distinguish among the mentioned types. In the following paragraphs we are going to
take a close look on the main differences of the classified types.

Firstly, it must be emphasized, that the difference between compound and

complex sentences lies in the relation between their clauses.

Secondly, one-member and two-member sentences differ in the number of

principal parts they contain. Two-member sentences have two principal parts the
subject and the predicate. It follows that, one-member sentences have only one
principal part which is neither the subject or the predicate. For instance: An old park.
Summer. Dusk – of a summer night. Living at the mercy of a woman!

Complete and incomplete (elliptical) sentences are distinguished by the

presence or absence of word-form in the principal positions of two member
sentences. In complete sentences both principal positions of the subject and the
predicate are filled with word-forms. On the contrary, in elliptical sentences, one or
both of the main positions are not filled: Playing children? Should I call you, or you
me?

From the viewpoint of their role in the process of communication, sentences

are divided into four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.

6
 1.1.1Simple or composite sentences

In the first stage, it is important to point out the simple sentence and its structure.
The basic pattern of a simple sentence in English is one subject-predicate unit. It is
the pattern of a two-member sentence. However, this pattern can be varied.

Simple sentences should be divided into extended (with other secondary

members) and unextended (contains no other parts but the subject and the predicate
(SV and SVC). A two-member simple sentence may be either complete or incomplete
(elliptical). An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in
the principal positions ( subject or predicate) are omitted. There are several types of
elliptical sentences in English. Generally, the omission occurs in a word - form in the
subject or predicate position. For example: Seems difficult. Going home soon. You
sure? [2, p. 255]. Nevertheless, there are some modifications to be mentioned in next
paragraphs. There should be also inferred the principle of recoverability (the principle
of working out exactly what the omitted words are.)

One - member sentences are the opposite ones to the two-member. They are of
two types: nominal and verbal. Thus, nominal with principal part expressed by a noun
and verbal – by a non-finite form of the verb (infinitive or gerund). For example:
Silence. To think of that. [1, p. 256]

In the second stage, we are going to take a look at the composite sentence. It
must be emphasized that the simple sentence contains only one prediction (subject-
predicate unit) and the composite – more than one. In a composite sentence, each
prediction together with attached words makes up a clause (a dependent unit within
sentence). Clauses may be linked by means of coordination (a way of linking
grammatical elements to make them equal) or subordination (the way of linking
which makes one of elements dependent upon the other), thus forming a compound
or complex sentence. Coordination is usually signaled by a linking word, called
coordinator (and, or, but, correlatives both…and, either… or). It can be syndetic
(marked by conjunction) and asyndetic (no conjunction).

7
 In complex sentences, the clauses are linked by subordinators with a lot of
different meanings. For example: although, if, that, when, while, in order that, as
long as, in case. In subordination, one clause – the subordinate, dependent, or
embedded clause – is subordinated to another – the matrix, main, or principal clause.
The principal clause can be simply a word, called a head-word. Coordinate clause,
does not change its position, whereas subordinate does. The clauses of compound
sentences are regarded as independent. There can be several instances of
subordination such as: consecutive, parallel heterogeneous. Sometimes, there may
occur compound-complex and complex compound sentences. A complex sentence is
built up on the principle of subordination. Traditionally subordinate clauses are
arranged in three groups: nominal clauses, attributive clauses and adverbial
clauses.

All nominal clauses have a function of a noun. There are such types of
nominal clauses: a subject clause (Why she left him is a mystery); a predicative clause
(The fact was that he had forgotten about it); an object clause (I don`t know why I
like you so much); an appositive clause (The story that I had resigned was published).

Another type of clauses are attributive clauses, which function as modifiers to a

word of nominal character. For instance: I don`t like girls who can`t hold their
tongues. [1, p.284].

Finally, adverbial clauses are usually classified according to their meaning (the
relation they bear to the main clause). They are divided into: clauses of time (When
the cat away the mice will play); clauses of place (Why can`t we go where it`s
warm?); clauses of manner (I am sorry I talked the way I did at lunch); clauses of
comparison (His wrist healed sooner that he desired); clauses of condition (If it
rains, he won`t go); clauses of concession (You shall kiss me whether you will or
not); clauses of purpose (I tell you all this that you may understand me perfectly);
clause of cause (You say this because you are jealous); clause of result ( I was
exhausted that I couldn`t talk); clause of attendant circumstance ( As there was a
meeting, he was playing on the phone).
8
 1.1.2 Complete or incomplete sentences

According to general rules, a two-member sentence may be either complete or

incomplete (elliptical). Elliptical sentences are generally identified as sentences with
the subject or predicate missing. Those words can be omitted as they carry only
grammatical function without new information.

Rayevska in her “Modern English Grammar” mentions the following types of

elliptical sentences:

a) omission of the subject e. g.: Looks like rain; Don`t know anything about it;

b) omission of the predicate in patterns with there is, there are, e. g.: Soames
stole a glance. No movement in his wife's face;

c) omission of auxiliary, copulative and other function verbs e. g.: You going
to take Irene?

d) omission of the subject and auxiliary verb e. g.: Remember that boy?
Staying with my father?

e) sentences without a word-form in the subject and predicate position, usually

in response e. g.: Where are you going? – Home.

f) omission of predicate in replies to questions e. g.: Who lives there? – Jack.

[13, p. 213]

The principle of being able to work out exactly what the omitted words are, by
looking at the context, is called the principle of recoverability. There are three kinds
of recoverability: textual, situational and structural.

Some of the above given types of elliptical sentences have become regular
idiomatic expressions, e. g.: colloquial See? for Do you see?

That do? (= will that do?)

All in all, ellipsis is typical of conversational English.

9
 1.1.3 Two-member (double nucleus) or one-member (single nucleus)

One-member and two-member sentences differ in the number of principal parts they
contain. Two-member sentences have two principal parts – the subject and the
predicate. One-member sentences have only one principal part, which is neither the
subject nor the predicate: An old park. Evening.

Nominal sentences name person or thing. For example: Night. Summer. The
restless, inhuman, and yet so human, angry sadness of the creature's eyes!
(Galsworthy). Emotionally colored sentence with “oh” are also common: Oh, the
shame of this day! "Oh, the ducks! These sentences always refer to the present. They
are uttered with an especially expressive intonation. Nominative sentences differ
from elliptical sentences with a suppressed verbal predicate in that they do not
contain any second any parts which might be connected with a verbal predicate. If we
analyze the following sentences — A small but cosy room; in the background a little
writing table; to the left a sofa — we see that only the first is a one-member sentence
containing a noun with its attributes; the two other sentences are elliptical because the
prepositional phrases in the background and to the left are adverbial expressions of
place which may refer only to a suppressed verbal predicate. It is true that in a
different context the very same prepositional phrases might serve as attributes to
some noun (The table in the background was a writing table. The house to the left is
a hospital), but that is not the case in our examples, where the adverbial character of
the two phrases is quite evident. Nominative sentences share the characteristics of
two-member sentences; they may be unextended or extended, declarative, inter-
rogative, imperative, exclamatory or negative in their form.

Imperative sentences with the predicate verb in the imperative mood also
belong to one-member sentences. For example: “Come here!” said the man with the
wooden leg... (Dickens.) “Don’t wait for me.” (Galsworthy.)

10
 One-member sentences may comprise an infinitive in the function of its
leading member. Such sentences are usually emotionally colored: “To put a child in
that position!” (Galsworthy.); Only to think of it! (Galsworthy.)

It seems reasonable to make distinction between a) nominal or "naming"

sentences and b) infinitival sentences. There are should be pointed such types of
nominality: one-member nominal sentences; compression by nominalization
(gerundive, participial, infinitival, absolute); prepositional nominal; premodification
of nouns by nouns; separable nominals (to get publicity); infinitival sentences;
verbless nominal sentences (He a coward?); substantivation of sentence fragments.

Distinction between related syntactic processes: a) transportations of nouns

into sentences; b) transpositions of sentences into nouns.

The range of their use in actual speech: a) existentional sentences; b)

relational; c) actional; d) qualitative sentences.

Action and agentive nominal. Action nominals. English has a regular process
for the formation of names of actions. The example of “action” gerundive nominal is:
(I don`t approve of his going there.)

In terms of grammatical organization infinitival sentences should reasonably

be subdivided into one-member and two-member sentences. The two groups may
well be illustrated by the following examples: a) To be unworldly and quite good!
How new! How exciting!... To be one who lived to make people happy. (Galsworthy)
b) That fellow to talk of injuries! (Galsworthy)

In two-member sentences the infinitive is preceded by a noun or a nounal

phrase. Infinitival sentences are fairly common in spoken English and literary prose.

Verbless two-member sentences may be divided into two types: SP and PS,
each of them characterized by various structural elements. Type SP. The predicate (P)
may be expressed by nouns, nounal groups, infinitives or participles, e. g. Type PS.
In patterns of this type predicate (P) may be expressed by nouns, nounal groups.
11
 1.2 Communicative types of sentences

There are four types of communicative sentences: declarative, interrogative,

imperative and exclamatory. A declarative sentence contains a statement which
gives some information about various events, activities, attitudes, thoughts, feelings.
A statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative. For example: I have just
applied for this job.

Interrogative sentences contain questions. Their function consists in asking

for information. They are graphically identified by a question mark. Interrogative
sentences have a number of structural and communicative modifications. There
should be pointed out, such types of questions: general questions (yes - no question),
the speaker asks whether something exists or not; a tag question – a short yes-no
question, added to a statement (e.g. You know her, don`t you? She didn’t fall, did
she?); an alternative question implies a choice between two or more alternative
answers (e.g. Will you go to the cinema or opera?); suggestive questions - a peculiar
kind of yes-no questions, they are asked for the sake of confirmation (e.g. You really
want to go now, tonight?); pronominal questions (special questions, wh-questions)
open with an interrogative pronoun (what, which, who, whom, where, when, why,
how) they function to get more detailed and exact information about an event or
phenomenon (e.g. Who came first? How can I help you?); echo questions – question
words preceded by prepositions (e.g. About what?); a rhetorical question – disguised
statement, no answer is required (e.g. How could I be so stupid?).

Imperative sentences express commands which convey the desire of the

speaker to make someone, the listener to perform an action. For example: Open your
textbooks. Be quick! Besides commands proper, imperative sentences may express
request (Help me), invitation (Have a drink with me tonight), warning (Mind your
head on the beam). persuasion, advice (Take an aspirin), good wishes (Have a nice
day!) a prohibition (Don't interrupt me). Finally, we are going to mention
exclamatory sentences, that are used to impress the extent to which speakers are
impressed or aroused by something (e.g. What a mess you`ve made!)
12
 1.3 Cleft sentenсes

Emphatic or cleft sentences fall into two patterns.

1) In the first pattern, the emphasized part is placed in the position of the predicative,
which is followed by a clause. The main clause represents “it- clause” , and
subordinate - an attributive, temporal or nominal that-clause. It is my friend who told
me this. We can also express this in a simple sentence: My friend told me this.
Splitting into two clauses serves as a device for placing emphasis.

2) The second pattern or (pseudo-cleft sentences) is used to emphasize the

predicate, which is split into the operator in the subordinate subject clause and the
infinitive in the main clause: What John liked was to read books at home.

Appended clauses are used to intensify a statement in the previous clause:

You are not ill, are you?

Absolute or emancipated subordinate clauses are used absolutely as

independent exclamatory sentences. They may have the form of a conditional or
comparative clause: If only I knew his address! As though you didn`t know!

Parenthetical clauses are often called comment clauses, because they do not
simply add to the information given in the sentence but comment on its truth and the
manner. For example: My parents, you know, were peasant. He is, as I told you,
their only son.

These clauses have stereotyped conversational formulas: you know, you see,
I see, as you know, what`s more. They may occur in front, mid and end position.
They can be also patterned like independent sentences, coordinate, or subordinate
clauses.

13
 1.4 Parcelling and segmentation in English sentence structure

Parcelling is a process of placing syntactically dependent sentence-element out of its

usual sentence frame and setting it off by a full stop like an independent unit. These
patterns are divided into:

1)Adverbial adjuncts in isolated position: They ran close into wind. Slowly.
Fantastically slowly. (Aldridge)

2)Isolated predicatives: He was exhausted. Completely finished, and sick with

the balt water in him. (Aldridge)

3) Isolated subject-groups in patterns with the introductory it: It had been the
most ironical thing of all. To arrive from Gadvos after releasing those from the
Metaxists.

4)Isolated parts of complex modal predicate: If you have troubles let me share
them. You are so much to me — my only trouble I can fix your life. Join it with mine.
(Dreiser)

5)Isolated attributive adjuncts: He had reached the centre of Parliament

Square, when a figure coming towards him swerved suddenly to its left and made in
the direction of Victoria. Tall, with a swing in its walk. (Galsworthy)

6) Prepositional and prepositionless objects in isolated position: Brian said to

his cousin: "I'm signing on as well in a way, only for life. I'm getting married". Both
stopped walking. Bert took his arm and stared: "You're not".

Closely related to "parcelling" is "segmentation". Parcelling can split a

sentence into two or more parts, whereas segmentation is, in fact, a twofold
designation, a special kind of reduplication where the sentence is split into two
interdependent sentence elements related as "the theme" and "the rheme"
respectively, the former being set off in a position of an independent unit. A few
typical examples for illustration: And those geese — they don't seem, to mind your
counting their features, do they? (Galsworthy). [14, p. 197, 198]
14
 1.5 Periodic and loose sentences. Balanced sentences.

From the point of view of general design all sentences are periodic or loose. A
periodic sentence often produces a dramatic tension and suspense to the main point at
the end of the sentence. The dependent clauses that come before the independent
clause serve to stress the importance of the key idea. A loose sentence, in contrast,
creates the effect of immediacy and naturalness. So, it follows that a periodic
sentence is a sentence in which the main clause is given at the end of the sentence in
order to create interest or suspense. An example of periodic sentence is "I couldn't
wait any longer, I went to sleep." On the contrary, a loose sentence is a sentence with
a main clause, followed by a dependent clause. An example of a loose sentence is "It
was obvious a storm was coming because of the lightning, thunder and calm in the
air. I went to the movies yesterday, bought candy, and shopped at the mall." A
periodic sentence aims to make the reader read the whole sentence and to figure out
the main thought. An independent clause also gains greater emphasis by its placement
as the final revelation of a periodic sentence.

A balanced sentence is a sentence made up of two parts that are roughly

equal in length, importance, and grammatical structure, as in the advertising slogan
for KFC: “Buy a bucket of chicken and have a barrel of fun.” In contrast with a loose
sentence, a balanced sentence is composed of a paired construction on the level of the
clause. Although not necessarily indicative of meaning by themselves, Thomas Kane
notes in “The New Oxford Guide to Writing” that balanced and parallel constructions
do reinforce and enrich meaning. Because the words that comprise the sentence are
the true conveyers of intent, then, Kane intends balanced sentences to be understood
as modifiers to rhetoric [19]. Some more examples of balanced sentences: “Every
man has a right to utter what he thinks truth, and every other man has a right to
knock him down for it.” “Light is faster, but we are safer.” (Global Jet Airlines’
advertising slogan)

All things considered, loose, periodic and balanced sentences contribute and
emphasize the general comprehension and credibility of sentences.
15
 Chapter 2

Actualization of different types of sentences in the short story "Cathedral"

by Raymond Carver (1981)

To begin with, it is worth mentioning that “Cathedral” is one of the most famous
short stories that have ever been written. The story "Cathedral" was drawn from a
real-life incident, when Carver's partner Tess Gallagher was visited by her blind
friend. It is somewhat unique in Carver's oeuvre both in terms of its optimistic ending
and in featuring such an explicit epiphany for the character. It is likely Carver's most
anthologized story. It goes without saying that this story gives a lot of moral lessons
and opens a true meaning of vison. However, in this piece of writing we are mostly
concerned with different types and general structure of the sentences [1].

It should be pointed out that the short story is written in the first person and
the narrator mostly describes his attitude and feeling.

We will start with analyzing simple sentences. The simple sentence in

English represents one-subject predicate unit. There are two-member and one-
member sentences, which can be extended and unextended. Let us show, examples,
as they follow: His wife had died [p.1 §1]; They talked [p.2 §1]; I shrugged [p.5 §5];
My wife laughed [p.5 §5]; He laughed. [p.10 §9]. All these sentence represent the
structure of simple, unextented sentences, as far as they commonly consist of one
subject-predicate unit without any other extending elements.

There are more . There are such examples in the text: I took the big chair.
[p.6 §6]; She sent the tape. The blind man made a tape [p.2 §1]; She was still wearing
a smile. I finished my drink, rinsed the glass, dried my hands. The blind man was
carrying his suitcase in his other hand [p.4 §2, 3, 4]; He wore brown slacks, brown
shoes, a light-brown shirt, a tie, a sports coat. [p.5 §6]; My wife gave me a savage
look. [p.8 §5]. There are some of such examples in the text. After having observed
these, we are able to make a conclusion, that simple extended sentences are the most
frequently used sentences structures in different writing activities.
16
 As it was stated earlier, a two-member sentence may be either complete or
incomplete (elliptical). Elliptical sentences are generally identified as sentences with
the subject or predicate missing. Those words can be omitted as they carry only
grammatical function without new information. In our short story we have some
examples, that represent different types of omission. Among them, it is important to
clarify such sentences:

1) omission of the subject e. g.: I said, “Coming at you,” [p.8 §14];

2) omission of the predicate in patterns with there is, there are, e. g.: . No
opinion [p.7 §4];

3) omission of the subject and auxiliary verb e. g.: “Doing fine,” the blind man
said [p.13 §3]; So we can transform this sentences into: Are you doing fine?

4) sentences without a word-form in the subject and predicate position, usually

in response e. g.: I feel like we’ve already met,” he boomed. “Likewise,” I said. [p.4
§5]; “A little water with the Scotch?” I said. “Very little,” he said. [p.5 §8]; “Do you
want some more, Robert?” my wife said “Maybe in a little while,” he said. [p.8 §11];
“Right,” I said. [p.12 §1];

5) omission of auxiliary, copulative and other function verbs e. g.: Know what
I mean? [p.9 §5]. HELP WANTED—Reading to Blind Man, and a telephone number
[p.1 §1].

In the analyzed short story, the ellipsis saves the speaker from needless
effort, spares his time, reduces redundancy of speech. Furthermore, elliptical
structures may also reveal such speakers' emotions as excitement, impatience,
delight, etc.

Considering all of the above, it should be assumed that in the English

language a lot of complex words and forms exist which are not so commonly known
by native English speakers as well. Only learners of English whose keen mission is to
understand the grammatical aspects of language are aware of such things.
17
 Next portion of our investigation centers on the nominal one-member
sentences, which are often mistaken for being elliptical.

As had already been stated not every sentence comprises of two principal
parts — subject and predicate. There are sentences consisting only of one member.
Such sentences are called one- member sentences. One-member sentences consisting
of a noun or a noun with its attributes are called nominative sentences.

When it comes to the analyzed story, there are not so many types of
sentences, corresponding to the nominal or general one-member sentence scheme.
Let us take a closer look on some case of usage found in the story. The Irish actor,
Barry Fitzgerald. Mostly the interior stuff. Cathedrals [p.13].

What concerns infinitive sentences, their occurrence in the text is quite rare.
On the contrary imperative sentences are often used and contribute to communicative
structure. Some examples follow: Go on now. Keep it up. [p.12 §16]; Put some
people in there now; Close your eyes now,” “Keep them that way,” Take a look.”
[p.13].

After having discussed imperative sentences, it is worth mentioning other

communicative types, which are included in the text, among them: declarative,
interrogative, exclamatory. With respect to our text, next examples of declarative
sentences have been gathered: This blind man, an old friend of my wife’s, he was on
his way to spend the night [p.1 §1] She was always trying to write a poem. She wrote
a poem or two every year, usually after something really important had happened to
her[p.1 §2]. Of course, I didn’t tell her that[p.1 §3]. It is certainly the case that almost
all of the sentences in the text are declarative. However, there are also some examples
of interrogative and exclamatory sentences. There are some illustrations of
interrogative sentences presented in the text: Was his wife a Negro? Are you crazy?
Are you drunk? What’s wrong with you? [p.3 § 9].

18
 Each of the communicative sentence, besides performing their main
communicative function may serve as exclamations: This blind man, feature this, he
was wearing a full beard! A beard on a blind man! What the hell! [p.4 § 3]

I heard my own name in the mouth of this stranger, this blind man I didn’t
even know! [p.2 § 2] She told me he touched his fingers to every part of her face, her
nose—even her neck! [p.1 § 2]. Exclamatory sentences provide the emphatic
connotation and contribute to the general emotional understanding of the main idea,
while making the reader sympathize and involve deeply into the story.

As far as the simple sentences have been mentioned, the next step in our
research is to analyze composite sentences. Before observing the examples in the
story, it is essential to distinguish between compound and complex sentences.

In approaching the issue, in the first place we will observe compound

sentences. Let us start with such examples: He would come by train, a five-hour trip,
and my wife would meet him at the station [p.1 § 2]. This sentence consists of two
independent sentences, successive in their relations, connected by conjunction “and”.
Other similar examples follow: The tape squeaked and someone began to talk in this
loud voice [p.2 §2]. “Now let us pray,” I said, and the blind man lowered his head
[p.6 §4]. There can be some modifications or stylistic devices: They’d married, lived
and worked together, slept together—had sex, sure—and then the blind man had to
bury her [p.3 §7]. Dashes are used for detachment, still the sentence preserves its
copulative coordinative structure. Besides, some sentences are linked through
adversative coordination: But he didn’t use a cane and he didn’t wear dark glasses
[p.5 §5].

On the contrary complex sentences are built on the principle of

subordination. Functional classification of the subordinate clauses has been presented
in the first chapter. The three groups: nominal, attributive and adverbial clauses will
be taken as a sample for our analysis.

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 We are able to observe the high occurrence of nominal clauses, peculiarly
object clauses. For instance: On her last day in the office, the blind man asked if he
could touch her face [p.1 §2]. So, the principle clause dominates the subordinate one,
which functions as an object. There are some identical examples: Once she asked me
if I’d like to hear the latest tape from the blind man [p.2 §2]. Then I asked if he
wanted to smoke some dope with me. [p.7 §8]. I know you must have had a long day.
[p.7 §8] – non-prepositional object clause. An object clause may directly follow the
word it refers to: I tried to explain to the blind man what was happening. Now I
guess they’re in Italy.

Some clauses may fulfil the role of the predicative: It was then that the blind
man cleared his throat [p.12 §6]. It can be clarified by the impersonal pronoun it and
by the link verb be.

What concerns attributive clauses, they mostly modify a noun and are
introduced by relative pronouns. All the next examples are defining clauses. For
instance: She put down the knife she was using and turned around [p.3 §2] (so, what
type of knife – the knife she was using). The Englishman who was narrating the
thing said it took place in Spain once a year [p.10 §1]. The man she was going to
marry at the end of the summer was in officers’ training school. [p.1 §2]

Finally, we approach adverbial clauses, that have multiple subgroups. We

have arranged examples according to the class division: clauses of time: When we
first started going out together, she showed me the poem [p.1 §3] – subordinate
clause, proceeding the main, introduced by adverbial connective when.

Clauses of place: She sent tapes from Moody AFB and finally Travis, near
Sacramento, where one night she got to feeling lonely and cut off from people she
kept losing in that moving-around life [p.2 §3] – introduced by “where”.

Clauses of manner: He nodded, like he was trying to encourage me [p.11 §3]

– she nodded in what way. Clauses of comparison: We ate like there was no
tomorrow [p.6 §3]. Clauses of condition: But if you looked close, there was
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something different about them [p.5 §3]. Clause of result: She’d turned so that he
robe had slipped away from her legs, exposing a juicy thigh [p.6 §3] – she turned
with what result. Clause of attendant circumstance: I saw my wife laughing as she
parked the car [p.4 §3] I watched with admiration as he used his knife and fork on
the meat. [p.6 §3].

Different types of subordinate clauses presented in the story “Cathedral”

make its structure complete and well-organized.

You know what I’m saying; Know what I mean; But I can’t tell you what a
cathedral looks like; ….to him, married her childhood etc., who was now a
commissioned officer, and she moved away from Seattle. These sentence carry an
emphatic meaning, and can be assumed to be cleft.

Having highlighted the main types of the sentences, it becomes possible for
us to investigate the process of segmentation and parcelling in the sentence structure.
By "parcelling" we mean placing a syntactically dependent sentence-element out of
its usual sentence frame and setting it off by a full stop like an independent unit. In
the short story there are some cases of adverbial adjuncts in isolated position such as:
He wore brown slacks, brown shoes, a light-brown shirt, a tie, a sports coat. Spiffy.
Too much white in the iris, for one thing, and the pupils seemed to move around in
the sockets without his knowing it or being able to stop it. Creepy [p.5 §6]. Terrific.
You’re doing fine. They reach way up. Up and up. Toward the sky.

Isolated attributive adjuncts: He was leaning forward with his head turned at
me, his right ear aimed in the direction of the set. Very disconcerting. [p.9 §6]. The
expressive value of such sentence-patterns, marked by special intonation contours in
actual speech, makes them most effective.

From the point of view of general design all sentences are divided on
periodic and loose. Periodic sentence is a sentence in which the main clause is given
at the end of the sentence in order to create interest or suspense. For example, in the
text: But instead of dying, she got sick. So when the time rolled around, my wife went
to the depot to pick him up; [p.4 §2]. When we first started going out together, she
showed me the poem. The underlined parts represent the main clauses, they are
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proceeded by subordinates in order to draw a higher interest from reader. On the
contrary loose sentences don`t provide suspense. For instance: They’d become good
friends, my wife and the blind man. She wrote a poem or two every year, usually after
something really important had happened to her. [p.1 §2]. So, the sentence is
completed before the end.

Balanced sentences express the general parallel and equal scheme. In the
text: She died in a Seattle hospital room, the blind man sitting beside the bed and
holding on to her hand [p.3 §2]. As a consequence, a reader finds both parts equal
when he goes through such a sentence.

Considering all of the above, the analyzed story provides us with the wide
variety of different structural types of sentences.

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 Conclusions
On the basis of our investigation, we conclude that the sentence is the largest
independent unit of grammar. The term 'sentence' is widely used to refer to quite
different types of unit. Grammatically, it is the highest unit and consists of one
independent clause, or two or more related clauses. Orthographically and rhetorically,
it is that unit which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark
or exclamation mark.

In chapter one we covered the main issues concerning general structural

types of sentences, clearly illustrated by different examples. They provide us with the
classified schemes of sentences. As a consequence, it is essential to draw the four
basic sentence structures in English: simple, compound, complex, compound-
complex. When it comes to the organization of the components, the classification
gains new options: simple or composite (compound and complex), 2) two-member or
one-member 3) complete or incomplete (elliptical). Complete and incomplete
(elliptical) sentences are distinguished by the presence or absence of word-form in
the principal positions of two member sentences. Whereas, one-member and two-
member sentences differ in the number of principal parts they contain. From the
viewpoint of their role in the process of communication, sentences are divided into
four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. In addition, we
must mention cleft sentences which provide an emphatic connotation. The processes
of parcelling and segmentation are intended to split the sentence structure into units,
for special empathizing of its parts. Finally, we have discussed stylistic aspects such
as sentence design and were able to distinguish between periodic, loose and balanced
sentences.

Chapter two deals with the actualization of different sentence structures in

the short story “Cathedral” by Raymond Carver (1981). Obviously, theoretical
implications should be always rendered on practice. Having investigated the text of
the story, we may assume that the phenomenon of sentence is a vital part in
construction of a valid text or any other type of writing activity, as well as a discourse
23
or a speech act. For that reason, we have analyzed all the types of sentences,
presented in the sample in theoretical part and employed their rules for practical
identification of examples in the given story. So that, we argued the existence of a
special types of sentences and their value in writing preparation. As far as we were
able to illustrate the variety of types, it clearly states and modifies the importance of
our investigation, which was predetermined by the necessity to understand and use in
practice English language with all its grammatical and syntactic peculiarities.

Considering all of the above, the future research should consider the
potential of proper sentence construction in writing. Although the English language
can be complicated, the rules of writing and grammar help people communicate
effectively. Every writer follows the same structure and rules of writing so that they
can effectively write for their readers to understand them. Understanding sentence
type will help writers note areas that should be varied through the use of clauses,
conjunctions, and subordinators. The use of a variety of sentences enhances the
overall quality of one’s writing. It helps to avoid monotony and adds the right amount
of emphasis. Thus, the learning of the different functions and structure of sentences is
very important.

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 Summary

Дана курсова робота на тему «Структурні типи речень» досліджує основні

структурні типи речень в англійській мові та їхню актуалізацію в літературному
тексті. Досліджуючи, новелу «Собор» Раймонда Карвера, ми довели що
різноманітні типи речень гармонійно розвивають структуру тексту та
варіюються відповідно до письмового задуму автора, тим самим збагачують
уяву читача та провокують критичне мислення.

Курсова робота складається з таких частин: вступ, перший розділ, другий

розділ, висновки та список використаної літератури. У вступі було розглянуто
мету, завдання, предмет, актуальність теми дослідження, методи дослідження,
матеріали та структуру курсової роботи. Було оцінено теоретичну та практичну
цінність роботи. Загалом, вступ відображає короткий опис суті дослідження
структурних типів речень, як невід’ємної частину продуктивного вивчення
англійської мови. У першому розділі ми розглянули теоретичні аспекти, які
пояснюють загальні структурні типи речень, наочно проілюстровані різними
прикладами. В результаті було отримано наступну класифікацію речень: прості
або складні речення (складносурядні та складнопідрядні), 2) односкладові та
двоскладові 3) повна або неповні (еліптичні) речення. З точки зору їх ролі в
процесі спілкування, речення поділяють на чотири типи: розповідні, питальні,
наказові та окличні. Крім того, було досліджено процеси парцеляції та
сегментації цілісної структури речення. Аналогічним чином було розглянуто
стилістичні види речень, а саме: збалансовані, вільні та періодичні речення.

У другому розділі йдеться про актуалізацію різних структурних типів

речень у новелі «Собор» Реймонда Карвера (1981). Дослідження актуалізації
довело, що феномен речення є важливою частиною побудови дійсного тексту,
чи будь-якого іншого виду письмової діяльності. Тому, проаналізувавши всі
типи речень, поданих у зразку в теоретичній частині, ми використали їхні
правила для практичного визначення прикладів у даній історії. Таким чином,
25
ми аргументували існування особливих типів речень та їх значення в письмовій
діяльності, що чітко аргументує важливість нашого дослідження, зумовлене
необхідністю розуміти та використовувати на практиці англійську мову з усіма
її граматичними та синтаксичними особливостями.

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5. Hoey, M., 1991. Patterns of Lexic in Text. Oxford University Press.
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Internet sources:

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19.Cathedral By Raymond Carver (1981) -
http://www.giuliotortello.it/ebook/cathedral.pdf
20.Thomas Cane “The New Oxford Guide to Writing”
https://www.flipkart.com/oxford-essential-guide-writing/p/itm602b5ebd7f211

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