Energy Transfer in Turbo-Machines

Consider a generalized turbo-machine as shown in figure 1. Let m be the steady state

mass flow rate (kg/s) of the fluid flowing through a generalized turbo machine.

radial direction (meridional path)

axial direction
rangential path
c2m
c2
c1m
c1 c2a
c2u
c1a flow path of the fluid
particle r2
Inlet r 1 c1u
exit

Axis of the turbo-machine

.
m - mass flow rate

Fig. A generalized turbo-machine

C1 = Absolute velocity of flow at the inlet (m/s),
C2 = Absolute velocity of flow at the outlet (m/s),
C1m = The meridian component (radial component) of absolute velocity at inlet (m/s),
C2m = The meridian component (radial component) of absolute velocity at outlet (m/s),
C1a = The axial component of absolute velocity at inlet (m/s),
C2a = The axial component of absolute velocity at outlet (m/s),
C1u = The tangential component of absolute velocity at inlet (m/s),
C2u = The tangential component of absolute velocity at outlet (m/s),

By the principle of linear momentum we have,

Fa = Axial force = m Ca Where Ca = changein axial velocity
Therefore Fa = m ( C2a − C1a ) --- (1)
Similarly,
Fr = Radial force = m Cm
Fr = m (C2m - C1m ) --- (2)
and, Ft = Tangential force = m Cu
Ft = m (C2u - C1u ) ---(3)

1 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

As seen from eq (1), we find that the change in velocity in the axial direction leads to an
axial thrust on the turbo machine. This has to be generally avoided and is absorbed by the
help of axial thrust bearings. Hence as far as possible, turbo machines are designed in
such a way that the axial velocity component at any point in the flow path remains same
throughout the machine.
Therefore Fa = m ( C2a − C1a ) = 0 as C2a = C1a

Similarly from eq (2) we find that the change in velocity in the radial direction leads to a
radial thrust on the turbo machine. This has to be generally avoided and can be absorbed
by the use of journal bearings. Hence as far as possible, turbo machines are designed in
such a way that the radial velocity component at any point in the flow path remains same
throughout the turbo-machine.
Therefore Fr = m ( C2m − C1m ) = 0 as C2m = C1m
Here the subscript ‘m’ stands for the meridional direction which is nothing but the flow in
the radial direction.

From eq (3) we find that the change in the absolute velocity component in the tangential
direction leads to a tangential force on the turbo machine blade. Since the desired
objective is to rotate the impeller this force represents the useful component of energy
transfer.

Euler’s Turbine Equation for General Energy Transfer in a Turbo machine:

According to this equation it is assumed that,

- The fluid is invisid ( non-viscous),
- There are no dissipation effects (loss) in the flow.
Derivation;
Applying Newton’s second law of motion to develop the Euler’s equation, for a
rotational system, Newton Second Law states that the impressed or applied torque is
equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum.

Angular momentum = moment of linear momentum

So the time rate of change of momentum at the inlet radius r1 = mC1u and the time rate
of change of momentum at the outlet radius r2 = m C2u

The time rate of change of angular momentum at the inlet = r1mC1u

The time rate of change of angular momentum at the outlet = r2 mC2u

According to Newton’s second law for rotating system, the rate of change of angular
momentum = Torque T
Therefore, T =r1mC1u - r2 mC2u =m ( r1 C1u - r2 C2u ) N-m.

2 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Let P = power input by a pump or power output by a turbine in KW
Power P = T = m ( rC1 1u − r2 C2u ) 

If u1 and u2 are the tangential velocities of the rotor blades at the inlet and outlet radius
r1 and r2 respectively,
u1 =r1 ω & u2 =r2 ω
Then P = m ( u1C1u − u2 C2u ) Nm/s or w
We have defined the head of a turbo-machine as energy transfer per unit mass.
Therefore H = Power transfer per unit mass flow rate
P m ( u1C1u − u2 C2u ) Nm / s
or H = = = u1C1u − u2 C2u Nm / kg
m m kg / s
Therefore H = u1C1u − u2 C2u Nm / kg

In case the head is defined as the energy transfer per unit weight of the fluid,

m ( u1C1u − u2 C2u ) Nm / s u1C1u − u2 C2u

h= = m
mg N/s g
Therefore H = gh

In case of a turbine (power generating turbo-machine), the work done per unit time or
energy transfer is positive. Therefore ‘H’ is positive.

Since H = u1C1u − u2 C2u , it is required that for a turbine, u1C1u  u2 C2u

This implies that the flow through the turbo-machine such as a turbine is radially inward
or in other words from outer radius to the inner radius, as shown in figure 2.

Fig. 2 Flow inside a turbine

Here C1u represents the important component of energy transfer at the inlet. Therefore
C1u component should be preferably large.

The C2u term is a subtractive component in the energy transfer expression. Hence this
component should preferably be negative or zero to get maximum energy transfer.

3 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

For pumps or compressors, the energy transfer is from the rotor to the fluid. Hence H is
negative.
Therefore H = − ( u1C1u − u2 C2u ) = ( u2C2u − u1 C1u )
Therefore for pumps and compressors, u2C2u  u1 C1u
This implies that the flow through a pump or a compressor is radially outward, as shown
in figure 3 (which is from the inner radius of the rotor to the outer radius of the rotor).

Fig. 3 Flow inside a pump or a compressor

Here C2u represents the important component of energy transfer at outlet. Therefore C2u
component should be preferably large. The C1u term is a subtractive component in the
energy transfer expression. Hence this component should preferably be negative or zero
to get maximum energy transfer.

For maximum energy transfer usually C1 is made radial for radial turbo machine and
axial for axial turbo-machine.
For axial turbo-machines (fig. 4) u1 = u2 = um.

Blade
or vane Axial flow out
Axial flow in

Input

Fig. 3b Flow inside an axial flow pump or a compressor

Therefore H = um ( C2u − C1u )

4 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Energy Transfer in terms of Velocity Component

The absolute path of a fluid particle while flowing through a turbo machine is a spiral path.
The fluid has a velocity relative to the flow passage at each instant of time ( w ) and is also
subjected to a tangential velocity impressed on the particle by the rotating rotor ( u ). The
absolute path is made up of a relative path with the rotating motion. Thus the absolute
velocity c is the vector sum of relative velocity w and the tangential velocity u or
c = w + u as shown in figures 5, and 6.
u2
w2u c2u
2 2
Drawn tangential
w c2m
c2
to the impeller profile 2 u2 =r2
Drawn tangential to
the rotor circle at the
Radial component impeller exit
direction at the outlet

w1u
w1

Drawn tangential to
1

u1 the impeller profile

c 1m

at the inlet
c 1u
1
c1

Inlet eye

u1
Drawn tangential
to the rotor circle
at the inlet of impeller

Fig. 5a Velocity triangle of a power absorbing turbo machine

w1u 1
c1u
1 1 c1 w1
w1 c1m w1
c1 c1m
1 1

u1 c1u w1u
u
Fig. 5b Velocity triangle of the flow at the inlet of the impeller

5 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 w2u 2
c2u c2 w2
2 2 c2m
w2 c2m 2 2
c2 c2u w2u
u2
u2=r2
Fig. 5c Velocity triangle of the flow at the outlet of the impelle

w1 c1 c1m c1
1 1 1 1
u1 w1u u1
 c1u
Inlet velocity triangle
Runner vane
w2 w2
c2m
 2 2 c2  2 2c2
u2 u2 c2u
Exit velocity triangle
Fig. 6 Velocity triangle of a power generating turbo machine

Definitions
Blade Angle (  ): It is the angle between the relative velocity vector w and the
tangential velocity vector ‘u’ and is measured opposite to the resultant absolute velocity
vector ‘c’.
Note that the tangential vector component ‘u’ is drawn away from the tip of the impeller
blade or runner vane towards the direction of rotation. The relative velocity vector ‘w’ is
drawn tangential to the impeller blade or runner vane towards the direction of flow.
Flow Angle (  ): It is the angle between the absolute velocity vector c and the tangential
velocity vector ‘ u ’.

Velocity vector ‘cu’ is the projection of absolute velocity vector ‘c’ on the tangential
component ‘u’. Velocity vector ‘wu’ is the projection of relative velocity vector ‘w’ on the
tangential component ‘u’.

From fig. 5 we have

c12 = c12m + c12u
c12m = c12 − c12u --- (a)
Also c = w −w
2
1m
2
1
2
1u

6 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 c12m = w12 − ( u1 − c1u ) = w12 − (u12 + c12u − 2u1c1u )
2
--- (b)
Equating eq (a) and eq(b) we get
c12 − c12u = w12 − u12 − c12u + 2u1c1u
c12 = w12 − u12 + 2u1c1u

u1c1u =
2
( c1 + u12 − w12 )
1 2
--- (c)

Similarly from figure 5

u2c2 u =
2
(
1 2
c2 + u22 − w22 ) --- (d)

Therefore the head of the turbine

H = u1C1u − u2 C2u =
2
(
1 2
c1 + u12 − w12 ) − ( c22 + u22 − w22 )
1
2
 c12 − c22   u12 − u22   w22 − w12 
or H = + +  --- (e)
 2   2   2 
In the above expression
 c12 − c22 
  = Kinetic head or Impeller head in N-m/kg.
 2 
 u12 − u22 
  = Centrifugal head in N-m/kg.
 2 
 w22 − w12 
  = Relative velocity head or reaction head in N-m/kg.
 2 

Head of a pump or a compressor

H = u2 C2u − u1C1u =
2
(
1 2
c2 + u22 − w22 ) − ( c12 + u12 − w12 )
1
2

 c 2 − c 2   u 2 − u 2   w2 − w22 
H pump =  2 1  +  2 1  +  1 
 2   2   2 
 c 2 − c22 
Let us consider the kinetic head component  1  for a turbine. For large energy
 2 
c2 c2
transfer 1 should be as large as possible and the subtractive component 2 should be
2 2
as small as possible.

7 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 rotor

C1
C1
blade

C2 C2

Draft tube for increasing

the pressure

Fig. 7 Axial flow turbine

c22
Thus the exit kinetic energy component represents the waste kinetic energy going out
2
of the rotor at its exit. We can make c2 the least when c2 is directed either axially (c2 = c2a)
or radially (c2 = c2m). Hence a turbine should be designed in such a way that the exit flow
through the blade should be either radially directed (radial flow turbo-machines such as
Francis turbine) or axially directed (such as Kaplan turbine) refer to figure 7.

In reaction type hydraulic turbines, exit of the rotor is attached to a draft tube as shown
c2
in figure 7. This is because the exit kinetic energy 2 is considerably large (in single stage
2
generally). Thus the waste kinetic energy has to be recovered through a diffusion process
in the draft tube, where the exit velocity c2 is diffused to lower velocity c3. Due to the
c2
large kinetic energy associated with the 2 , the pressure energy is quite low (and is in fact
2
below atmospherics pressure i.e., vacuum). Now the overall energy transfer is nothing
but overall pressure drop across the turbine.
i.e. p = p1 − p2
So if the exit of the runner is expanded without draft tube to the atmospheric pressure,
the  p across the turbine is lower. Hence to keep the useful vacuum pressure at the exit
of the runner, the draft tube is necessary so that p = p1 − ( − p2 ) = p1 + p2 which gives
rise to more energy transfer due to larger pressure drop.

8 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 c12
Also represents the inlet kinetic energy to the rotor blades. Figure 8 shows a turbine
2
in which a volute casing is used to accelerate the flow before the fluid enters the rotor
c12
blades so as to increase the inlet kinetic energy component .
2

Volute casing
Impeller

Fig. 8 Flow in a turbine

c2
In case of pumps or compressors, 1 represent the subtractive kinetic energy at the inlet.
2
Thus we have to make the c1 to approach the impeller either radially (i.e. c1 = c1m) or
axially (c1 = c1a). This is called shock-less entry.
Radial exit Radial exit

Radial inlet Axial inlet

c22
The component is not a useful form of energy at the exit of the pump impeller. This is
2
because we require a high static pressure rise at the outlet of the pump or compressor.
c2
So a volute casing is used at the exit of the impeller to convert the high kinetic energy 2
2
into an useful form of energy which is the static pressure rise by taking the fluid through
an increasing cross section passage (refer figure 9).

9 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 Volute casing

Inlet Impeller

Outlet

Fig. 9 Flow in a pump

Centrifugal Head Component:

 u22 − u12 
Consider the centrifugal head of a pump which is =   N-m/kg
 2 
Centrifugal head is the energy transfer per unit mass that is required to move the fluid
particle from a smaller radius to a larger radius. It can be shown that this head directly
gives rise to static pressure change.

u2=r2

p+dp
dr dr
r2 p
u1=r1
r
 r1

Fig. 10 Centrifugal force on a fluid particle

Let  be the density of the fluid. Let dA be the normal area of cross section of a fluid
particle along the radial direction and let this small element of fluid particle be subjected
to centrifugal force at radius r (refer figure 10).

Now the centrifugal force on the element = dp dA

= dm.r. 2
= ( dA.dr. ) .r. 2

10 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 dp
Therefore dp.dA = ( dA.dr. ) .r. 2 or =  2 r.dr

Integrating the above expression within the limits,
2 2
1
 dp =   r.dr
2

 1 1

p  r −  2 r12 u22 − u12

2 2
= 2
=
 2 2
p u2 − u1
2 2
Therefore =
 2

It can be seen that the centrifugal head is nothing but static pressure head in a turbo-
machine.

Reaction Head or Relative Head Component

 w22 − w12 
Relative velocity head or reaction head =   in N-m/kg.
 2 
In case of a turbine, for the head HT to decrease, the relative component of the head i.e.
 w22 − w12 
  has to be positive. That is w2 > w1 or the blade passage should be designed
 2 
such that it converges towards the exit of the rotor.

Let p1 and p2 be the static pressure at the inlet and exit of the rotor blade passage.
Inlet
w2
w1 Exit

Exit w1
 w2  Inlet

(a) (b)
Fig. 11 a) Turbine b) Pump
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem,
p1 w12 p2 w22
+ = +
 2  2

p1 − p2 w22 − w12
or =
 2

11 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Thus the relative velocity head (reaction head) gives rise to static pressure change.
w2 − w12
Referring to figure 11, for a turbine the static pressure change is given as, 2 and
2
w12 − w22
for a pump, the static pressure change is given as .
2
For pumps, the blades should be set such that they form diverging flow passage as
shown in figure 11b.

Therefore for a pump,

 c22 − c12 
  =Kinetic head or dynamic head = Hdy.
 2 
 u22 − u12   w12 − w22 
 +  = static pressure head = Hst.
 2   2 
Therefore Htotal = Hstatic + Hdynamic

Degree of Reaction
Degree of Reaction is the ratio of Static pressure head to the total pressure head of a
turbo-machine.
H
Hence, Degree of Reaction R = static
H Total
Therefore for a turbine,

R= 2 2
( u12 − u22 ) + ( w22 − w12 )
( c1 − c2 ) + (u12 − u22 ) + ( w22 − w12 )
1-R = 1-
H static
= 2 2
( c12 − c22 )
H Total ( c1 − c2 ) + (u12 − u22 ) + ( w22 − w12 )
Depending on the relative value of static pressure head and the dynamic pressure head
we have different types of reaction machines.

Case (i) Zero degree of reaction Turbo-machine (R = 0): Impulse turbo-machine:

Since R = 0, it requires that Hstatic = 0, i.e. the net static pressure energy change across
the turbo-machine is zero.
Htotal = Hstatic + Hdynamic or Htotal = Hdynamic as Hstatic = 0.
 c12 − c22 
H dynamic =  
 2 

12 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Pelton turbine

Bucket blade

Output shaft

Pelton wheel

Nozzle or jet

Fig. 12 Pelton turbine wheel

In a Pelton turbine (fig. 12), there is a free jet (a jet efluxing

to the atmospheric condition). It impinges on a freely rm
rotating rotor attached with buckets (representing the
turbine blades). Since the turbine is completely exposed to splitter

the atmospheric conditions, there is no static pressure exit exit

change across the bucket. Fig 13 shows the flow over a flow normal
Pelton wheel bucket. to the bucket
Fig. 13 Flow over the bucket
Also for a Pelton turbine u1 = u2= um
and Hstatic = 0
H
Degree of reaction R = static = 0
HTotal
D’Laval Steam Turbine
u1= u2 = um
(Mean tangential
velocity of rotor)
w1
c1 w2
c2

rm

Nozzle
row Rotor
(rotating
row of
blades)
Fig. 14 D’Laval Steam Turbine

In an impulse type turbo-machine such as D’Laval steam turbine, the blades are set at
equal intervals andw1 = w2. Here the fluid enters the rotor through a nozzle (closed jet).
There is no static pressure change across the rotor blades because the centrifugal head

13 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

and the reaction head are zeros. Therefore R = 0 for this type of turbo-machine (refer
figure 14).

Case (ii) Reaction Turbo-machine (R > 0)

In a reaction type turbo-machine, the energy transfers though it causes a reaction force
as shown in figure15.

Velocity triangle for a simple

Fig.15 Barker Mill (Reaction Turbo-machine) reaction type turbo-machine
 w2 − w12 
Here w2 is greater than w1 and the reaction head =  2 
 2 
For a centrifugal turbo machine of the reaction type, Degree of Reaction,

R= 2 2
( u22 - u12 ) + ( w12 - w22 )
( c2 - c1 ) + (u22 - u12 ) + ( w12 - w22 )
For an axial flow turbo machine,

R= 2 2
( w22 − w12 )
as ( u12 − u22 ) = 0
( c1 − c2 ) + + ( w2 − w1 )
2 2

In most of the popular reaction type turbo-machines designed are those with R = 0.5.
For example – Poison 50% R turbine.

For 50% reaction axial flow machine, R = 2 2

( w22 − w12 )
( c1 − c2 ) + + ( w22 − w12 )
or w1 = c2 and w2 = c1. i.e. the velocity vectors are symmetrical at the inlet and the exit.

14 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 c1
u1= u2 = um 1 1
w1
(Mean tangential um
velocity of rotor)
w1 um = u1 = u
c1 w2
c2 2

Nozzle
row w2 2
2 c2
um
c1
pr0 c2
pr1
c0 pr2 w2 c1
w1 c2
um
(a) (b)
Fig. 16 Axial flow steam turbine (R = 0.5) (a) blade cross-section, b) Velocity
triangles
Figure 16 shows the blading of an axial flow steam turbine with reaction factor = 0.5. It
can be observed that the inlet and exit velocity triangles are mirror images as w1 = c2 and
w2 = c1. Also 1 =  2 and  2 = 1 .
In a reaction type turbo-machine, part of the energy transfer is due to static pressure
change and partly due to kinetic energy change.

For 50% R, the pressure energy change = kinetic energy change across the rotor blades.

For 100% R turbo machine in general,

R =1=
(u 2
1 − u22 ) + ( w22 − w12 )
(c2
1 − c22 ) + ( u12 − u22 ) + ( w22 − w12 )

Which means that c1 = c2 and hence there can be no energy transfer across the turbo-
machine. Therefore 100 % turbo-machine is having no significance.

It can be deduced from the above discussion that an impulse turbo-machine has a better
energy transfer than that of a 50% R turbo-machine. This is because of the fact that the
impulse turbo-machine can generate two times more energy than a 50% R turbo-
machine.

15 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

General Characteristics of Pumps and Compressors

We have a 3D impeller which is cast into an integral piece in which the blades are drawn
into the eye of the impeller. This kind of impellers is generally used in high speed turbo-
machines such as a centrifugal compressor.

Salient Design Feature of Pumps and Compressors

1. To have maximum possible energy transfer, Hp = u2c2u – u1c1u = u2c2u as u1c1u =0,
because c1 is turned into axial direction (c1 = c1a) as in a 3D impeller or is turned into
purely radial direction (c1 = c1m) as in the case of a radial pump. This inlet condition of
either radial or axial inlet is called shock less entry condition.

2. Since Hp = u2c2u for shock less entry condition, it appears that the energy transfer is
independent of tangential velocity of the rotor at the inlet i.e. u1. Hence it is possible to
have the fluid enter the impeller at smaller mean radius (with large width) or with larger
mean radius (with smaller width) without effecting the overall energy transfer, when 
is constant.
3. Since Hp = u2c2u – u1c1u is required in general, the fluid would move from a smaller radius
r1 to a larger radius r2 and it should be a radially outward flow, i.e.
r2  r1 where u1 = r1 and u2 = r2 or exit radius is larger than the inlet radius. For shock
less entry, it I is seen from figures 17 that there is an axial inlet for 3D impeller because of
the highly twisted nature of impeller vanes (c1 = c1a). However for a 2D impeller as seen
in figure 18, the entry is radial (c1 = c1m).

1=  blade

(vane)
c1= c1a
u1 w1

shock less entry

c1= c1a c1u= 0

meridonal view
Fig. 17 Flow inside the 3D impeller of a centrifugal turbo-machine

16 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 converging
blade
u 1
w1
(vane)
 c1= c1m
1=  u1

shock less entry

c1= c1m c1u= 0

meridonal view
Fig. 18 Flow inside the 2D impeller of a centrifugal turbo-machine

Head – Discharge (H - Q) Characteristics of Pumps and Compressors

We know for shock less entry H = u2c2u as u1c1u = 0. Hence the velocity triangles of the
centrifugal pump or compressor can be shown as in figure 19.

c2 w2
w1
c2m c1= c1m
1=  u1
2 2

c2u w2u
u2

 Impeller blade

c1
w1
u1
1 =

Fig. 19 Velocity triangle of a centrifugal pump/compressor

Referring to the velocity triangle at the exit of the impeller,
c2u = u2 − w2u

17 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 w2 u
Also cot  2 = or w2 u = c2 m cot  2
c2 m
Therefore c2u = u2 − c2 mcot 2
H = u2c2u = u2 ( u2 − c2mcot 2 ) = u22 − u2c2mcot 2 ---(1)

C2m is directed normal to the flow area at the exit of the impeller, as shown in figure 19.
Let Q be the discharge through the pump impeller.
We have Q = c2m A2 where A2 is the normal area at the exit of the impeller and c2m is the
velocity of the fluid normal to it.

Q
Therefore c2 m = ---(2)
A2
Substituting eq.(2) in eq.(1) we have,
Q
H = u22 − u2cot  2
A2

 D2 N
Since  = , and for a rated speed and given impeller diameter D2, u2 is constant.
60
Also for a given pump, the impeller discharge area A2 and the exit blade angle  2
remains fixed.
Therefore we can write,
H = k1 − k2Q --- (3)

Where k1 = u22 = a constant

k2 = u2cot 2 / A2 = a constant which depends on the blade exit angle  2

It can be noted from eq.(3) that the expression is in the form of straight line y = mx + c
Hence the Head vs. Discharge (H - Q) characteristics curve is a linear relationship.

Now that we have deduced that head varies linearly with discharge and has an intercept
value of +k1, from the equation H = k1 − k2Q ,

When  2 is between 00 to 900 cot  2 varies from + to zero and hence k2 is +ve.
When  2 is 900 cot  2 is zero and hence k2 is zero
When  2 is between 900 to1800 cot  2 varies from zero to −  and hence k2 is –ve

Considering the effect of exit blade angle  2 on the performance characteristics of a

centrifugal turbo-machine,

18 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Case (i) when  2 is between 00 and 900,
c2 w2
c2m
2 2

c2u w2u
u2
H
H=
 Backward swept k1- k
blade 2 Q
c1 k1
Negative slope
w1
u1
1 =
Q

Fig. 20 Performance characteristic curve (H vs. Q) of a backward swept blade of a

centrifugal turbo-machine
As  2 is between 0 to 90 , the impeller has a backward swept blade and hence cot  2
0 0

varies from + to zero . Therefore k2 is positive.

The characteristics equation for Head vs. Discharge Q is given as H = k1 − k2Q and the
slope of the straight line curve is negative as shown in figure 20.

It can be observed from the H – Q characteristic curve that, as the discharge increases,
the head of the impeller decreases.

Case (ii) wben  2 is 900,

c2
w2
2= 
2

u2
H H = K1

Blade with
radial exit

c1 k1
w1
u1
1 =
Q

Fig. 21 Performance characteristic curve of a radial impeller turbo-machine

As  2 is 900 the impeller has a radial exit blade as shown in figure 21.

19 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Since cot  2 is zero the term k2 is zero.
The characteristics equation for Head (H) vs. Discharge (Q) can be written as,
H = k1 = u22 = a constant.

It can be observed from the H vs. Q characteristic curve (figure 21) that the head is
independent of the discharge and is a constant.

Case (ii) when  2 is between 900 & 1800

When  2 lies between 900 to1800 , the impeller has a forward swept blade and hence
cot  2 varies from zero to −  . Therefore k2 is negative.
The characteristic equation for Head vs. Discharge Q is given as H = k1 + k2Q and the
slope of the straight line curve is positive as shown in figure 22.

It can be observed from the H – Q characteristic curve that, as the discharge increases,
the head of the impeller increases.
c2
w2
2
2
u2 + k 2Q
H = k1
forward curved H
blade

w1
c1 k1
u1
1 =

Fig. 22 Performance characteristic curve of a forward blade impeller turbo-machine

It can be deduced from H – Q characteristics graph that for forward curved blade, as the
static head increases, the discharge Q also increases. Though this type of characteristics
look like an attractive design, it has serious design problem which is the phenomenon of
surge during which an unstable flow reversal occurs to and from exit to inlet, leading to a
periodic situation inside the impeller. Hence the exit blade angle is never set to be greater
than 900.

20 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 e
ed blad
cur v
d
war
For
H
Radial blade
backw
ard vu
rved b
lade

k1

Q
Fig. 23 Head vs. Discharge characteristic curves of forward curved, radial and backward
curved impeller

Usually the exit blade angle is not more than 200 to 250. That is most hydraulic pumps are
of backward swept vane type. Only high speed centrifugal compressors are designed for
radial swept blades with  2 = 900. The advantage is that uniform head is obtained for any
discharge in such radial machines.

For any type of blading, (backward, radial or forward swept blades) it is found that at Q =
0, that is when the machine is just starting, a head H = k1 = u22 must develop before the
H –Q characteristic comes into being. This head is called shut-off head. Or in other words
the exit valve of the pump should be closed before starting the pump.

General Analysis of Axial Flow Pumps and Compressors

Consider an axial flow pump or an air compressor in which the flow is entering and
exiting at a mean radius rm as shown in the figure 24.
We have for energy transfer,
 c22 − c12   u22 − u12   w12 − w22 
Hp =  + + 
 2   2   2 
 u22 − u12 
Since u1 = u2 or  =0
 2 
 c22 − c12   w12 − w22 
Hp =  + 
 2   2 
 w2 − w22   c2 − c2 
In the above expression, H st =  1  and H dy =  2 1 
 2   2 

21 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 Axial flow in Blade Axial flow out
or vane

rm

Input

1 2

w2u w2
w1 c2a 2
w1u 2
c1a 1
1 c2
u1 u2
c1u c1 c2u

u1 = u2 = u
Fig. 24 Velocity triangles for an axial flow compressor

Note:- For axial flow pumps and compressors, the blade angle  and the flow angle 
are measured with respect to the axis of the turbo machine, unlike the radial flow turbo
machines and axial flow turbines

Expression for energy transfer in terms of flow angle (1 &  2 )

We have H p =u2 c2u - u1c1u
Since u1 = u2 = u, H p = u ( c2u − c1u ) --- (a)
Referring to the inlet and exit velocity triangles,
c
tan α1 = 1u or c1u = c1a tan α1 --- (b)
c1a
c
tan α2 = 2u or c2u = c2a tan α2 --- (c)
c2a
Substituting (b) and (c) in (a) we have,

22 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 H p =u ( c2atanα2 - c1atanα1 )
If c2a = c1a = ca H p =u ca (tanα2 - tanα1 )

Expression for energy transfer in terms of blade angle ( 1 & 2 )

We have H p = u ( c2u − c1u ) --- (a)
Referring to the inlet and exit velocity triangles in fig 24,
w
tan 1 = 1u or w1u = c1a tan 1
c1a
w
tan  2 = 2 u or w2 u = c2 a tan  2
c2 a

w1u = u - ciu = c1atan β1 or ciu =u - c1atan β1 --- (b)

w2u = u - c2u = c2atan β2 or c2u =u - c2atan β2 --- (c)

Substituting eq.(b) and eq.(c) in eq.(a) we have,

H p =u ( ( u - c2a tanβ2 ) - ( u - c1a tanβ1 ) )
or H p =u ( c1atanβ1 - c2atanβ2 )

If c2a = c1a = ca H p =u ca (tanβ1 - tanβ2 )

Expression for Degree of Reaction in terms of blade angle ( 1 & 2 )

We know that R=
H static
=
( w12 - w22 ) / 2
H Total u ca ( tanβ1 - tanβ1 )

From the inlet and exit velocity triangle w12 = c1a

2 2
+ w1u & w22 = c2a
2 2
+ w2u
Also we know w1u = c1atan β1 & w2u = c2atan β2
Therefore w12 = c1a2 + ( c1a tan β1 ) & w22 = c2a + ( c2a tan β2 )
2 2 2

Also c1a = c2a = ca

or w12 = ca2 (1+ tan 2 β1 ) & w22 = ca2 (1+ tan 2 β2 )

Therefore R=
H static
=
( w12 - w22 ) / 2
=
(
ca2 (1+tan 2 β1 ) − ca2 (1+tan 2 β2 ) )
H Total u ca ( tanβ1 - tanβ2 ) 2u ca ( tanβ1 - tanβ2 )
ca2 (1+ tan 2 β1 - 1- tan 2 β2 ) ca ( tan 2 β1 - tan 2 β2 )
R= =
2u ca ( tanβ1 - tanβ2 ) 2u ( tanβ1 - tanβ2 )

23 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 ca  tanβ1 +tan β2  ca
R=  = u tanβmean
u  2 

Some Important Coefficients for Energy Transfer Analysis

H
Head Coefficient = ψ H =
1 2
U
2
p
Pressure coefficient ψ p =
1
U 2
2
ca Axial velocity of flow
Flow coefficient  p = =
u Tangential velocity of rotor or impeller
In terms of flow coefficient we have,
H p =u 2  ( tanβ1 - tanβ2 )
H p =u 2  ( tan2 - tan1 )
R =  tan βmean

General Analysis of a Turbine

peg tube pipe

H =gh in N m/kg

HT= u1 c1u- u2c 2u

TURBINE
Generator

c22/2 = waste kinetic

energy at the rotor (runner) exit

Fig. 25 Energy flow diagram for a turbine

We know that the available energy/kg for a turbine (refer figure 26) is given by Hav = ghav
(N –m/kg) where hav represents the head in meters of water column in hydraulic
machines. In steam and gas turbines, this is equal to enthalpy content of the fluid at the
entry of the rotor. Out of this available energy, H1 = (u1c1u - u2c2u) is converted to
mechanical energy of the rotor shaft.

24 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 c22
It is seen from the energy flow diagram (refer figure 25) that an amount of energy is
2
flowing out of turbine rotor to exit. This represents a loss of energy as far as the rotor is
concerned. This is even though there are no losses over the rotor.

Turbine rotor (runner)

C1
C1
blade

C2 C2

gude vanes
Draft tube for increasing
the pressure

Fig. 26 Flow in a turbine

Thus, even for the ideal flow condition, not all available energy is converted to mechanical
work output. This condition is represented by the factor called Utilization factor, denoted
by ‘ε’.

Definition of Utilization Factor (ε):

It is defined as – “The ratio of the useful output energy by the rotor (runner) to the
available energy at the inlet to the rotor”.

 HT 
Utilization factor,  = 
 Hav 
 u c −u c 
=  1 1u 2 2 u 
 gh 
In another form,
 c12 - c22   u12 - u22   w22 - w12 
 + + 
ε=  2   2   2 
gh
We have, from energy flow diagram,
c2
gh = HT + 2
2

25 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 HT
ε=
c22
HT +
2
c22
It is clear from the above expression that to maximize ε , we should minimize , i.e. the
2
exit absolute velocity c2 should be as small as possible. When c2 is turned into either radial
direction (i.e. c2 = c2m as in radial flow turbines) or axial direction (i.e. c2 = c2a as in axial
flow turbine).

Expression for utilization factor, ‘ε’ in terms of absolute inlet and exit velocity and
degree of reaction:
 H  H  HT
 = T =  T  = 2
--- (A)
 Hav   gh  H + c2
T
2
We know that, the ideal head developed by the turbine is given by
 c2 − c2   u2 − u2   w2 − w12 
HT =  1 2  +  1 2  +  2  --- (B)
 2   2   2 
Substitute (B) into (A), we have,
  c12 − c22   u12 − u22   w22 − w12  
  + +  
=   2   2   2  
  c12 − c22   u12 − u22   w22 − w12  c22 
 + + + 
 2   2   2  2 
 ( c12 − c22 ) + (u12 − u22 ) + (w22 − w12 ) 
 = 
 c1 + (u1 − u2 ) + (w2 − w1 ) 
2 2 2 2 2

Now,
Let ( u12 − u22 ) + (w22 − w12 ) = X (say)
 ( c12 − c22 ) + X 
Therefore  =  --- (C)
 c1 + X 
2

We have,
  u12 − u22   w22 − w12  
  +  
 Hst    2   2  
R=  = 2 2 2 
 T   c1 − c2  +  u1 − u2  +  w2 − w1 
2 2 2
H
     
 2   2   2  
 X 
Therefore R=  2 2 
 ( c1 − c2 ) + X 
Solving for X, we have

26 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 R ( c12 − c22 ) + RX = X
 R  2 2
Therefore X =  ( c1 − c2 ) --- (D)
1−R 
Now, substitute for X from (D) in (C), we have
 2 2  R 
 ( c1 − c2 )  1 + 1 − R  
 =  
 c2 +  R  c2 − c2 
 1  1 − R  ( 1 2 ) 
 c2 − c2 
=  21 22 
 c1 − Rc2 
 c12 − c22 
Therefore,  = 2
 c1 − Rc2 
2

1. It is seen from the above equation that, for whatever degree of reaction R, ε will
attain the ideal maximum possible value of 1.0 when c2 = 0, which is practically
difficult to achieve. But it is possible to reduce c2 to a minimum. i.e. make c2
velocity either radial (c2 = c2m) or axial (c2 = c2a) to achieve this. This will make ε =
εmax, i.e. maximum utilization condition is obtained when the flow is radially or
axially directed at the exit of the runner or rotor.
2. it looks apparently that for 100% reaction, i.e. R = 1.0 we get ε = εmax = 1.0, from
the above expression,
 c2 − c2 
i.e.  =  2 1 2 2  = 1.0
 c1 − (1)c2 
A mathematical identity is obtained which gives ε = 1.0. However we already know
that for 100% R (i.e. R = 1) the required flow condition is c2 = c1 and it was stated
earlier that such a design possibly is non-existing i.e. it is physically unrealistic
c2 c2 c2
design as the entire kinetic energy, 1 at the inlet is wasted as 2 = 1 at the exit,
2 2 2
for such a design. Therefore ε = εmax = 0/0 = 1 is an indeterminate.
Maximum utilization condition: (εmax)

c2 w1
w2 2 c1
2 1 1
u2 u1
Fig. 27 Velocity triangles drawn to a common apex

27 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Referring to the inlet velocity triangle (figure 27), It is usual to make radial (or axial)
component same at inlet and exit, to avoid either radial thrust or axial thrust as the case
may be. In the exit velocity triangle, for maximum utilization ( εmax condition),
c2 =cm (or ca ) & α2 =900

From the velocity triangles, we have,

c1 sin1 = c2
 c12 − c22   c12 − c12 sin2 1 
Therefore  = 2 2 
= 2 
 c1 − Rc2   c1 − Rc1 sin 1 
2 2

 cos2 1 
 =  max =  
 1 − R sin 1 
2

Note: From the above expression we find that, for whatever value of R, if α1 = 0, we get ε
= εmax, i.e. ideal maximum possible value of utilization. This means that the fluid should
enter the turbine rotor with an absolute velocity c1 in the tangential direction (i.e. α1 = 0).
This leads to an idealized turbine concept called the zero angle turbine.

c = u + w as
1 1 1
1= 
u 1w 1

c = u + w as
1 1 1
1= 
u=u=u 1 2 u=u=u
1 2
u 1w 1
inlet

u2 w2
c 2=0 w2 = w1 u 2

(a) w 2
c exit
2

(b)
Fig 28 bucket design for a Pelton wheel, a) Design not favorable, b) design which is
favorable

Bucket blade

Output shaft

Pelton wheel
rm

splitter

exit exit

Nozzle or jet flow normal

to the bucket

Figure 28c Flow on to the bucket of a Pelton turbine

28 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Zero angle turbine is an ideal concept, but practically difficult to design, because the fluid
exiting from the bucket is directed against the back of the succeeding bucket thereby
retarding the torque produced. Hence energy gets reduced. The nearest practice
implementation of zero angle turbines is the Pelton wheel.

Here the flow from the exit of the turbine is such that it is deflected away from the
tangential direction, through a cut-way on the bucket as shown in the figure 28b. This
deflection angle is about 1500 to 1650 in Pelton turbine (figure 29).

Hence a simple design prescription for the inlet flow angle α1, for maximum utilization
condition is that it should be as small as possible. Generally α 1 will vary from zero
(tangential flow turbine) to 250.

General analysis of an axial flow turbine

c 1a Turbine blade c 2a
c1u c2u

rm
dm

Fig. 29 flow in an axial turbine

Referring to figure 29 the components c1a and c2a are the axial components and c1u and
c2u are the tangential components (perpendicular to the plane of paper). Generally to
avoid axial thrust, c1a = c2a = ca. Hence, a flow particle enters the turbine at a mean radius
rm and leaves at the same radius,
 D N 
um = u1 = u2 =  m  , where Dm = Mean diameter
 60 
We have,
 c2 − c2   u2 − u2   w2 − w12 
HT =  1 2  +  1 2  +  2 
 2   2   2 
For axial flow turbines, u1 = u2 = um.
Therefore,
 c2 − c2   w2 − w12 
HT =  1 2  +  2 
 2   2 
Also, HT = u1c1u – u2c2u,

29 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 HT = um ( c1u − c2u )
Now, degree of reaction R, for an axial flow turbine is given by
H 
R =  st 
 HT 
 u2 − u2   w2 − w12 
Now, Hst =  1 2  +  2 
 2   2 
 u12 − u22 
But,   = 0, for axial flow turbine.
 2 

Therefore R=
(w − w )
2
2
2
1

( c − c ) + (w − w )
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1

Velocity triangles for different degrees of reaction R

Figure 29 shows velocity triangles for different values of degress of reaction R.

w2 c1 w2 c1
c2 w1 c2 w1
um um um um
Case 1: When R is negative Case 2: When R is zero
w2 < w1 w2 = w1

w1 = c2 c1 w2
w2 c2 c2 c1
w1 w1
um um
um um
Case 4: When R is 1.0
Case 3: When R is 0.5 c1= c 2
w2 = c1
Fig. 29 Velocity triangle for different degrees of freedom R

30 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

Case (i) (R < 0):

No turbo machine is designed for negative reaction by choice.

c1
Negative reaction usually occurs due to the flow losses as in the
w1  1 1
case of impulse turbine where the flow losses occur due to the um
continuous erosion of bucket surface. In this case the relative w2< w 2
velocity w2 is slightly less than w1. Therefore negative reaction is
associated with flow losses.
w2
Case (ii) (R = 0) 2 2 c2
um
Here, the turbine is designed such that it operates using only the
 c2 − c2 
kinetic head i.e.  1 2  as in the case of Pelton turbine. Thus the reaction head
 2 
 w22 − w12 
  is zero, which implies that w2 = w1. This requires that the blade flow passage
 2 
should be unconstrained or open. Otherwise the flow passage should be of constant
width from inlet to exit so that w2 = w1.

Figure 30 shows the Velocity triangles for maximum utilization

factor with zero reaction.
: c1
w1  1 1
For R = 0, w1 = w2 and u1 = u2 = um, we have
 c12 − c22  um
 = 2
, where R = 0
 c1 − Rc2 
2

w1 = w2
 c2 − c2 
i.e.  = 1 2 2 
 c1 
For maximum utilization, we see from the velocity triangle (fig.30)
that c2 = c1sinα1, w2
2 2 c2
Therefore  =  max = 1 − sin 1 
2
um
 = max (R=0) = cos 1
2

Also, HI = u1c1u − u2c2u (I → Impulse turbine), u1 = u2 = um,

i.e. HI = um c1 cos1 − c2 cos2  , but c2 cos α2 = 0
Therefore HI = umc1 cos1

31 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 P

c2 w1
w2  2 =
2
1 1 c1
Q u2 R S u1 T
Fig. 30 Velocity triangles for max utilization factor

Now, referring to the Velocity triangles (figure 30),

c1 cos1 = RT= RS + ST = um + um = 2um.

Therefore HI = um 2um 
= 2um2
Let um = UI, then HI = 2uI2 (where I represents impulse action)
Let us define a parameter which is very important in the design of a turbine called Blade
Speed Ratio, i.e. φ. It is defined as the ratio of the peripheral velocity of the rotor to the
absolute velocity of the fluid at the inlet.
u 
i.e.  = 1 
 c1 
We have, u = UI,
Also, c1 cos1 = 2UI
 2uI 
Therefore c1 =  
 cos1 
uI cos  1
Therefore R =0 = =
 2UI  2
 
 cos 1 

Case (iii.): 50 % Reaction turbine (R = 0.5)

It can be seen in figure 32 that for 50 % R, the velocity triangles are symmetrical or in
other words w1 = c2 and w2 = c1.

c12 − c22
We have = , where R = 0.5
c12 − Rc22
c12 − c12 sin2 1
Therefore  =  max =
1
c12 − c12 sin2 1
2

32 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal

 2cos2 1 2cos2 1 2cos2 1
= = =
2 − sin2 1 1 + (1 − sin2 1 ) 1 + cos2 1
2cos2 1
Therefore,  max =
1 + cos2 1
HR =0.5 = u1c1u − u2c2u

w2 c2 w1 c1 w2 c2 w1 c1
um um um um

w1  =  c1
1 1
w1 c1 um
1 1
um

w2 w2 c2
2 2 c2 2 2 = 
um um
(a) (b)

Fig. 31 Velocity triangle for R = 0.5 turbine – a) General case, b) Maximum utilization
condition
Hence for axial flow machines u1 = u2 = uR (say)
Therefore HR=0.5 = uR c1 cos1 − c2 cos2  , where c2 cos2 = 0
From velocity triangle, c1 cos1 = um = uR
Therefore HR = uR2
Also, blade speed ratio,
u  uR
 = 1 = = cos1
c
 1  u R

 cos 
 1 

33 - Dr. K. V. Karanth, MIT Manipal