B io Factsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 309

Carbon dioxide in the body

In humans, carbon dioxide is one of the end products of aerobic Q How does carbon dioxide enter the red blood cells from the cells
respiration. It is produced by breaking down carbohydrate, fats and in the tissues?
amino acids in the presence of oxygen. Carbon dioxide travels in the
blood from the tissues to the lungs from where it is exhaled. An adult A The process involved here is diffusion. There is a higher
human produces approximately 1 kg of carbon dioxide per day. concentration of carbon dioxide in respiring cells because that is
In this fact sheet we will look at: where it is being produced.
• the ways in which carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs
• the effect of carbon dioxide on the transport of oxygen Some reactions such as this one are reversible and able to go in either
• the role of carbon dioxide in controlling breathing direction. Forward and reverse reactions occur at the same time.
When the rate of the forward reaction is equal to that of the reverse
The ways in which carbon dioxide is transported to the reaction, the reaction is said to be at equilibrium.
lungs
Q Catalysts do not affect the position of the equilibrium. They
Carbon dioxide is carried in blood in three different ways.
simply reduce the time for equilibrium to be reached. There is
• It is soluble in water and 5% – 10% is dissolved in the plasma.
a higher concentration of hydrogencarbonate ions in a red blood
• Most of the carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic
cell than there are in the plasma. Explain why.
acid. Carbonic acid rapidly ionises in solution to form positive
hydrogen ions and negative hydrogencarbonate ions.
A Red blood cells contain the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
• This reaction can be summarised in the chemical equation.
It is a catalyst. As the enzyme reduces the amount of time for
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3 ¯
equilibrium to be reached, the rate of reaction will be faster and
more hydrogen carbonate ions will be produced in a short time.
The first step in this reaction, the formation of carbonic acid from
carbon dioxide and water is relatively slow. However, an enzyme
Q The H+ ions formed in this reaction are removed by haemoglobin
called carbonic anhydrase is present inside red blood cells. This
acting as a buffer. Use your knowledge of chemical equilibria to
increases the rate of reaction and, therefore, the rate of formation of
explain how this affects the reaction between carbon dioxide and
hydrogencarbonate ions.
water.
Q1 Small mammals have higher concentrations of carbonic anhydrase
A When H+ ions are removed from the mixture the reaction will
in their red blood cells than larger mammals. Suggest an advantage
move to the right replacing the lost H+ ions and restoring the
of a high concentration of carbonic anhydrase to a small mammal
equilibrium. To do this, more carbon dioxide is used up, lowering
its concentration in the cell and causing more to diffuse in.
A1 Small mammals have higher metabolic rates therefore produce
relatively more carbon dioxide;
You should be able to see from this that, as there will be a higher
Increases efficiency of transport;
concentration of HCO3¯ ions inside the red blood cell, they will
Fig. 1 The formation of hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse out into the plasma (step 2) Hydrogencarbonate ions have a
negative charge. The movement of these ions out of the red blood
Respiring cells cell would upset the cell’s ionic balance. Plasma, however, contains
Plasma Red blood cell
a high concentration of Cl¯ ions and diffusion of these ions into the
1 cytoplasm of the red blood cells restores the ionic equilibrium (step 3).
CO2 + H2O
Q Use step 4 to explain how carbon dioxide helps haemoglobin to


Cl-
H2CO3 supply oxygen to the tissues.


3 A Haemoglobin is a buffer. It takes up some of the hydrogen ions

produced when carbonic acid ionises. This causes the haemoglobin
Cl- HbO2 + H+ HHb + O2 to release the oxygen that it is transporting.
4
CO2+ H2O • Although haemoglobin carries oxygen, it also transports carbon
2


H2CO3 dioxide combined as a carbamino compound. However, carbon

dioxide does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it


HCO3- + H+ combines with the terminal NH2 groups on the globin chains.
Now look at Figure 1. We will use it to explain how hydrogencarbonate
ions are transported by the blood

1
309 Carbon dioxide in the body Bio Factsheet
www.curriculum-press.co.uk

Fig. 2 shows the effect of temperature on the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide and the pH of the blood of a toad. In case you are
unfamiliar with the term partial pressure is a measure of the amount
of a particular gas that is present in a mixture. More specifically, in a
mixture of gases, the partial pressure of a particular gas is the pressure
of that gas if it alone occupied the volume of the mixture.
Fig. 2 The effect of temperature on the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide and the pH of the blood of a toad
3.0 pH of blood
Partial
pressure
of CO2
/kPa
2.0
Partial pressure
of CO2
1.0
10 20 30 40
Environmental temperature /oC
Q2 Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration. Explain the
relationship between the environmental temperature and the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide.
A2 A toad’s body temperature depends on that of the environment;
The higher the body temperature the greater the rate of respiration
and, therefore, the higher the partial pressure of carbon dioxide;
Q3 Explain the relationship between the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide and the pH of the toad’s blood.
A3 Carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid which
ionises to give HCO3¯ and H+ ions;
Not all of these H+ ions are taken up by buffers;
The more H+ ions that are present, the lower the pH;
The effect of carbon dioxide on the transport of oxygen
In order to understand how carbon dioxide affects the transport of
oxygen by haemoglobin, you need to take a detailed look at the graph
in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 The effect of carbon dioxide on dissociation curves for
human haemoglobin
• In the lungs, there is a high partial pressure of oxygen. There is
also a low partial pressure of carbon dioxide because this is where
it is being removed. This puts us on curve A. You can see from the
graph that at the high partial pressures of oxygen and low partial
pressures of carbon dioxide found in the lungs, haemoglobin is
almost totally saturated with oxygen.
• In the tissues, there is a lower partial pressure of oxygen because
it is being used up in respiration. There is a high concentration of
carbon dioxide because this is where it is being produced. We are
now on curve B. Under these conditions, haemoglobin gives up a
8.0 lot of the oxygen that it is carrying.
Q4 When a person’s rate of respiration increases, more oxygen is
pH of required. Give two ways shown in figure 3 in which haemoglobin
blood
helps to meet this need by releasing more of the oxygen it is
carrying.
7.8
A4 More oxygen is used up so the partial pressure of oxygen falls.
Haemoglobin can carry less oxygen at lower partial pressures of
oxygen;
More carbon dioxide is produced so its partial pressure is higher.
Haemoglobin can carry less oxygen at higher partial pressures of
carbon dioxide;
7.6
The role of carbon dioxide in controlling breathing
Imagine you are sitting down. You stand and walk about a bit. You
then walk a little faster. This increase in activity requires an increase
in respiration. More oxygen is required by the body and this in turn
necessitates an increase in breathing rate. In this section we will look
at the role of carbon dioxide in controlling breathing.
Fig. 4 Controlling the rate of breathing
Increase in Decrease in pH
concentration of CO2
Chemoreceptors in Chemoreceptors in
the aorta and the a region of the brain
common carotid artery called the medulla
Respiratory centre
Sensory neurone In the medulla
Motor neurone

Curve A
Low partial
Pressure of CO2 Diaphragm and
100
intercostal muscles
Curve B
80 High partial
Pressure of CO2
% saturation
with O2 60
Increased
40 ventilation

20
Figure 4 shows how the rate of breathing is controlled by the
respiratory centre located in the medulla, part of the hindbrain.
0 Respiring tissues Lungs
Partial pressure of O2
2
309 Carbon dioxide in the body Bio Factsheet
www.curriculum-press.co.uk

• Exercise causes the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood to increase and the pH of the blood to decrease.
• These changes are detected by chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptors in the aorta and in the common carotid artery detect the increase in
carbon dioxide; those in the medulla detect the fall in pH.
• Sensory nerves convey impulses from the receptors in the blood vessels to the medulla.
• Motor neurones take impulses from the medulla to the muscles involved in breathing, the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles.
• Breathing rate increases and more oxygen is made available to the exercising muscles.

Practice question
Figure 4 shows how the rate of breathing is controlled as the level of exercise increases
(a) Explain how an increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodplasma produces a decrease in pH. (3 marks)
(b) Explain how the control of breathing shown in the diagram is an example of negative feedback. (2 marks)
(c) Progesterone secreted during pregnancy increases the sensitivity of chemoreceptors to carbon dioxide.
(i) Explain how this reduces the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the mother’s blood. (2 marks)
(ii) Explain how the reduction in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the mother’s blood is an advantage to the fetus. (2 marks)

By providing a greater concentration difference;

In placenta;
(ii) Increases rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide from fetus to mother;
Removing more carbon dioxide from the mother’s blood (and reducing partial pressure);
(c) (i) Will result in increase in breathing rate;
exchange, it is really quite simple. Don’t be put off.
understanding of more than one aspect. Although this question requires an understanding of the reproductive system as well as gas
3. It is impossible to look at the human body’s different systems in isolation and A-level questions frequently require knowledge and

the blood / a fall in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide;

increase in the rate of breathing leading to carbon dioxide being removed from
In this case an increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide causes an
lead to a return to the set level;
(b) Negative feedback is when a departure from a set level produces changes that
2. Negative feedback is an important aspect of control. Make sure that you can explain examples such as this in terms of negative feedback

An increase in H+ ions produces a decrease in pH;

Carbonic acid ionises to produce H+ (and HCO3¯) ions;
(a) Carbon dioxide combines with water to produce carbonic acid;
marks should also give you an idea that only limited detail is required.
1. This part of the question relates to the blood plasma so no details are required of the events that take place within the red blood cells. Three
Mark scheme

Acknowledgements:
This Factsheet was researched and written by Bill Indge.
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