Knowles2021 Book PositivePsychologyCoaching

Susanne
Knowles
Positive
Psychology
Coaching
Positive Psychology Coaching
Susanne Knowles
Positive Psychology
Coaching
Susanne Knowles
University of Queensland
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
ISBN 978-3-030-88994-4 ISBN 978-3-030-88995-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
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About the Author
Susanne Knowles is an educational, counselling and organisational psychologist

and the Chair and Founder of the Australian Institute of Professional Coaches. With
a PhD in Management and three master’s degrees in Education, Psychology and
Business Administration, she is focused on assisting individuals achieve their per-
sonal and professional goals, motivating teams to peak performance, and supporting
organisations to increase employee engagement, retain talent and improve profit-
ability. Susanne has held teaching positions at the University of Queensland
Business School, the Queensland University of Technology Business School and
Griffith University School of Applied Psychology. In addition she has held senior
executive positions in government and private sector organisations and served as a
board member on several government, not-for-profit and professional services
firms. Her executive coaching experience has been gained from 20 years as a con-
sultant to national and international organisations, focused on facilitating the strate-
gic direction of these firms. Susanne’s PhD thesis, which she completed at the
University of Queensland, investigated how organisations develop and embed a
coaching culture for competitive advantage and cultural change.
Susanne can be contacted at susanne.knowles@uq.net.au or chair@professional-
coachtraining.com.au.
v
Contents
1 Introduction�� 1
Why Coaching?�� 2
Why Positive Psychology Coaching?�� 3
The Problem�� 3
The Solution�� 4
Structure of This Book�� 4
References�� 9
2 Traditional Psychology�� 11
Theoretical Foundations�� 12
Behavioural Theories �� 12
Cognitive Theories �� 14
Developmental Theories�� 15
Humanistic Theories�� 16
Personality Theories�� 19
Social Psychology Theories �� 20
Summary of Contributions�� 21
Application to Coaching�� 22
Appendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational
Underpinnings of Coaching �� 23
References�� 27
3 Positive Psychology�� 31
Learned Helplessness�� 33
Optimism/Pessimism �� 34
Authentic Happiness�� 34
Mental Model�� 36
Mindset�� 37
Mindfulness�� 38
Philosophy of Positive Psychology Coaching �� 39
vii
viii Contents
Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching �� 40

Mental Model, Mindset, and Mindfulness Techniques�� 41
References�� 42
4 Coaching �� 45
Definition �� 46
Difference Between Coaching and Mentoring�� 47
Difference Between Coaching and Other Interventions�� 48
Coaching as a Profession �� 52
Coaching as a Discipline�� 52
Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching�� 53
Psychological Underpinnings of Coaching�� 53
Educational Underpinnings of Coaching �� 54
Management Underpinnings of Coaching �� 55
Types of Coaching �� 55
References�� 58
5 Benefits of Coaching�� 67
Benefits for Individuals�� 68
Benefits for Teams �� 70
Benefits for Organisations�� 71
Return on Investment (ROI)�� 71
References�� 75
6 Coaching Skills �� 79
Traditional Psychology Contributions �� 80
Positive Psychology Contributions�� 84
Active Listening�� 85
Reflective Listening �� 85
Open Questions�� 86
Closed Questions �� 86
Powerful Questions�� 87
Summarising�� 88
References�� 89
7 Coaching Process�� 91
Traditional Psychological Contributions�� 92
Positive Psychological Contributions�� 92
Professional Guidelines �� 95
References�� 97
Contents ix
8 Coaching Practice�� 101

Engaging a New Client�� 108
Second and Subsequent Coaching Sessions�� 113
References�� 113
9 Coaching for Self-Awareness and Insight�� 117
Reflective Practice�� 122
Mindfulness�� 123
10 Coaching for Learning and Growth�� 127
Self-Directed Learning�� 133
Disorienting Dilemmas�� 133
Meaning-Making�� 134
11 Coaching for Behavioural Change �� 139
Solution-Focus �� 146
Goal-Setting and Action-Planning �� 147
Supporting Self-Efficacy�� 148
12 Coaching for Personal Development�� 153
Potential �� 163
Self-Regulation�� 163
x Contents
13 Coaching for Professional Development�� 167

Traditional Research Contributions �� 168
Design and Delivery Principles�� 175
Personal Attributes and Skills�� 175
Coaching Applied Post-training�� 176
14 Coaching for Career Development �� 181
De-identification Strategies�� 196
Assessment and Feedback�� 196
Career Development Plan�� 196
15 Coaching in an Organisational Setting�� 201
Defining Coaching in the OD Environment�� 202
Key Stakeholders �� 204
Role of Human Resources �� 207
Application to Organisational Coaching�� 209
©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model�� 209
16 Coaching for Performance Improvement�� 221
Contracting�� 233
Data Collection�� 234
Conducting the Coaching�� 234
Evaluating the Coaching�� 235
17 Coaching for Leadership Development�� 239
Formal Scheduled Delivery�� 251
Informal Coaching �� 251
Contents xi
18 Coaching for Executive Development�� 259

Intra- and Inter-personal Effectiveness�� 271
Executive Leadership �� 272
Strategic Decision-Making�� 273
Power and Influence�� 273
19 Coaching for Organisational Learning�� 279
Role Modelling�� 284
Innovation�� 284
Change Initiatives�� 285
20 Coaching for Transformational, Cultural Change�� 289
Index�� 301
Chapter 1
Introduction
Coaching of organisational leaders, managers, and employees has grown in popu-

larity over several decades. From its early beginnings in the 1950s as a master-
apprentice relationship [1], coaching focus shifted in the 1970s when concepts from
sports coaching became integrated into Human Resource Development (HRD) [2].
Initially viewed within HRD as a means of correcting poor performance [3], coach-
ing expanded into a facilitative process designed ‘to acquire new skills, to improve
existing skills, competence and performance and to enhance … personal effective-
ness or personal development or personal growth’ [4]. Over the past two decades,
coaching has flourished as a vehicle for professional development of managers and
leaders [5]. Executive coaching delivered by external coaches has become common-
place in large organisations, and coaches also work inside organisations as line
managers or human resource (HR) professionals [6]. Today, coaching is well-
accepted among organisations in the United States, the United Kingdom, and
Europe [7, 8]. The International Coaching Federation (ICF) reports that in 2019
there were an estimated 71,000 coaching practitioners worldwide including 15,900
line managers and leaders using coaching skills, an increase of 33% on their 2015
survey results. Worldwide revenue from coaching was estimated at US$2.849 bil-
lion, a 21% increase over the 2015 estimate [9].
Recently, coaching within organisations has advanced in a new direction. Some
innovative organisations are working to embed coaching in the organisation’s cul-
ture as ‘a key aspect of how the leaders, managers and staff engage and develop all
their people and engage their stakeholders …[to] create increased individual, team
and organisational performance and shared value for all stakeholders’ [10]. Scholars
have described this new organisational phenomenon in which ‘people coach each
other all the time as a natural part of meetings, reviews and one-to-one discussions
of all kinds’ [11] as a coaching culture [10, 12].
The growth of coaching internationally has been supported by the establishment
of coaching federations including the ICF (founded in 1995) and the European
Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC) (founded in 2002). Both these
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1_1
2 1 Introduction
professional associations seek to advance coaching as a profession through the cer-

tification and credentialing of coaches, definition of quality assessment and stan-
dards, provision of continuing professional development activities, and oversight of
governance and regulatory affairs [13].
Why Coaching?
Coaching presents an important topic for discussion for several reasons. First, the rise in
coaching prevalence has been attributed, in part, to a breakdown in physical social net-
works [14] and an increasing desire of individuals, particularly millennials, for personal
services to keep them connected with the wider world and assist them transition through
volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments [15]. Second, the
world of work is changing. Employment options such as part-time work, job sharing,
contract work, and working from home necessitate a new way of leading and managing
employees. Third, the need to recognise and acknowledge diversity and inclusive work
practices challenges the traditional management style, requiring respect for all workers,
and opportunities for all employees to utilise and be recognised for their strengths and
what they can contribute to the team. In consequence to changing employment and work
practices, managers are being encouraged to adopt a coaching leadership style. Fourth,
individual agency is replacing employment for life. Hence, individuals need to manage
their own career and are increasingly choosing the organisations they would like to work
for rather than the reverse, based on the alignment of their personal values with organ-
isational values. Fifth, the growth in coaching worldwide can be attributed to the expan-
sion in recent years of professional associations such as the ICF and EMCC. Finally,
with the growing awareness of coaching worldwide, there are calls within the academic
community for coaching to become a discipline in its own right. However, even though
there is a growing body of research evidence to support this call, there are still few read-
ily recognisable theoretical foundations for coaching separate from the disciplines of
psychology and education [16–18].
The emergence of coaching as a valid developmental intervention for individuals
in community and organisational settings is explored in this book under three
main themes:
1. The traditional and positive psychology research evidence for coaching as a
dynamic, relational, and social process, and the philosophy and principles of
positive psychology which underpin contemporary positive psychology coach-
ing practice.
2. The introduction of a new model of coaching called ©AIPC COACH which is
based on the psychological and educational foundations for coaching. This
model extends the well-known GROW model of coaching [19] by placing two
important steps upfront, and enhancing the final two steps of commitment and
accountability.
The Problem 3
3. The three fundamental purposes for every coaching session—to stimulate self-
awareness and insight, learning and growth, leading to behavioural change—plus
the eight purposes for which individual coaching is conducted in community or
organisational settings based on how coaching is conceptualised, the motivations
for coaching, who delivers the coaching, and how the coaching is delivered for
personal, professional, career, leadership and executive development, performance
improvement, organisational learning, and transformational cultural change.
Why Positive Psychology Coaching?
Since the dawn of scientific research into individual behaviour and mental function-
ing, therapies have focused on individuals who display mental difficulties and how
to ameliorate these disorders. It wasn’t until the late 1970s that any attempt was
made to investigate wellbeing and happiness in non-clinical populations by devel-
oping and testing a ‘happiness’ intervention [20]. In 2000, a new field of research
called positive psychology emerged as a valid field for psychological investigation
[21]. The positive psychotherapy paradigm is the opposite of the therapeutic model,
focusing on how the promotion of happiness and wellbeing can relieve or eliminate
feelings of helplessness and depression. Positive psychological research investi-
gates the conditions and processes that promote happiness and contribute to optimal
functioning of individuals, groups, and institutions [22].
In a seminal experiment, participants were randomly assigned to one of six
experimental conditions including a control group [23]. Results showed that in the
most powerful interventions, participants used their signature strengths in a new or
novel way, wrote down three positive things every night, and expressed gratitude for
people or things in their life each week. Subsequently, other researchers suggested
that a lack of positive emotion, meaning in life, engagement, and optimism may be
the cause of depression, whereas engaging in daily positive-oriented activities may
be the way to increase an individual’s level of happiness and wellbeing [24].
Happiness promotes longevity, random acts of kindness, altruistic behaviour, and
contributions to the community [25]. Happiness research is part of contemporary
psychological practice which recognises that the benefits of psychology can be
applied more broadly into non-clinical populations. These research findings signifi-
cantly influenced the emergence of positive psychology coaching as a developmen-
tal process to increase happiness, positive emotion, and optimism in life and at work.
The Problem
In the past, therapeutic psychological interventions have been used to treat individu-
als with diagnosed mental health issues. These interventions were based on tradi-
tional psychology research which was typically focused on investigating deviance,
4 1 Introduction
abnormality, and human dysfunction—the things that are going wrong in a person’s
life—rather than on the factors that promote wellbeing. There was no consideration
given in traditional psychology to the majority of the population who were function-
ing ‘normally’ but, for the most part, living unhappy lives.
The Solution
Positive psychological practice was found to be significant in addressing the issues

that cause functional, non-clinical populations to become stressed and less effective
at home and work. Consequently, concepts from positive psychology research
began to be incorporated into emerging coaching research to become the founda-
tional evidence for contemporary coaching practice. The focus of positive psychol-
ogy coaching is on how to bring joy, happiness, and success into a client’s life by
minimising assumptions, beliefs, or barriers that are holding them back from being
the person they want to be. Contemporary coaches assist clients identify what’s
going right in their life and focus on strengths maximisation. Of course, negative
thoughts, feelings, and emotions may be serving the client well if there is risk of
physical or mental danger in their environment, and these are not discounted. Clients
with major psychological concerns are immediately referred to their local general
practitioner, a psychologist or trusted counselling professional to undertake in-
depth therapy with them to resolve the issue.
This book explicates the evidence for coaching from both traditional and positive
psychology foundations and addresses the intersection of these approaches with
coaching research to inform contemporary coaching practice. It outlines the benefits
of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations, including how to calculate the
return on investment (ROI) from delivering a coaching program. Evidence for
coaching as a dynamic, relational, and social process is provided from research find-
ings. The triadic nature of coaching in organisations is distinguished from the dyadic
relationship between a coach and client in community settings. In addition, this
book extends readers’ understanding of how coaching can be used for specific pur-
poses such as to develop increased self-awareness and insight, learning and growth,
behavioural change, personal, professional, career, leadership and executive devel-
opment, performance improvement, organisational learning, and transformational
cultural change.
Structure of This Book
This book is focused on how individuals are coached in community and organisa-
tional settings. Group and team coaching may be referred to in some chapters but
are not explored as these types of coaching have additional theoretical bases and
research findings, and different yet related practical application methods.
Structure of This Book 5
Understandings of how group and team coaching are delivered are explained exten-
sively in other texts.
Individuals are the focus of this book because there are so many ways that the
happiness they experience in life and work can be improved by coaching. For the
purpose of this book, individuals who are coached in community settings and who
pay for their own coaching are referred to as clients. Individuals who are coached in
organisational settings, when the organisation pays for their coaching, are referred
to as coachees1. In all settings, coaching is conducted to develop the individual’s
self-awareness and insight to stimulate learning, growth, and behavioural change.
Coaching may also be conducted for personal, professional, and career develop-
ment in either setting. Coaching in organisational settings is typically conducted for
performance improvement, leadership and executive development, organisational
learning, or transformational cultural change.
This chapter has introduced the reader to coaching and, in particular, to positive
psychology coaching. It has explained that the reason for the development of a new
field of traditional psychology was to undertake research which would benefit non-
clinical, non-therapeutic populations to lead a happier and more fulfilling life.
Traditional psychology research has focused on what is going wrong in a person’s
life. Positive psychology attempts to address this imbalance by focusing on what is
going right.
Chapter 2 details the theoretical research evidence for coaching from traditional
behavioural, cognitive, developmental, humanistic, personality, and social psychol-
ogy perspectives and addresses how the findings are applied to contemporary coach-
ing practice. Psychology is the study of human behaviour and motivation. Traditional
psychologists research factors that influence human thinking and behaviour such as
perception, cognition, attention, mental processing, intelligence, personality, emo-
tions, and motivation.
Chapter 3 explains how research findings from the newly emerged field of posi-
tive psychology contribute to contemporary coaching practice. Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi and Martin Seligman are the founder and father of the positive
psychology movement, and their research has had a monumental influence on how
positive psychology coaching is conducted today. In contrast to the goal of tradi-
tional psychological research which is to understand human thinking and behaviour
in relation to clinical populations, the goal of positive psychological research is to
understand how to bring greater happiness, joy, meaning, and fulfilment to the lives
of non-clinical populations.
Chapter 4 focuses on how coaching is conceptualised, and the motivations for
coaching as it is delivered to individuals in community and organisational settings
using findings from both traditional and positive psychology research. The
differences among coaching and other interventions such as mentoring, counselling,
supervision, and training are explained. The theoretical evidence for coaching from
the disciplines of psychology and education, as well as from management research,
As explained in Chap. 15.

1
6 1 Introduction
is summarised. Coaching in contemporary practice is goal-oriented and solution-

focused. Developmental, humanistic, and positive psychology techniques are used
to address the client’s needs and promote their mental and emotional wellbeing.
Chapter 5 outlines the tangible and intangible benefits of coaching for individu-
als, teams, and organisations which make coaching such a powerful intervention for
personal and professional growth. Tangible benefits are immediately observable
such as improvements in behaviour, relationships, or work performance. Intangible
benefits are internal to the individual, and these benefits are only obvious when the
client expresses learnings as Aha! moments. Some benefits are observed immedi-
ately, but others may take longer to display especially if other people are involved.
Chapter 6 introduces the skills that coaches use to bring about successful change
outcomes in clients. The coaching skills have been derived from the strategies that
psychologists and therapists use to build rapid rapport and trusting relationships
with clients. Process-oriented coaching skills include active and reflective listening,
open and closed questioning, and summarising. However, it is by asking powerful
questions which challenge underlying assumptions and beliefs, and reveal biases
and judgements, that the client gains increased self-awareness and surfaces deeply
hidden insights.
Chapter 7 focuses on coaching as a dynamic, relational, and social process which
helps clients increase their personal and professional effectiveness. Coaches partner
with clients in a trusting, working relationship to help them find solutions to their
problems and facilitate behavioural change to achieve their goals. As a developmen-
tal intervention, the coaching process helps clients identify the specific problem to
be addressed and the opportunities available to them when their situation is resolved.
Chapter 8 introduces the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching which assists indi-
vidual clients identify the critical issue facing them at that time and the opportuni-
ties available to them to achieve a positive outcome. The specific goal they wish to
achieve and the actions they need to take are clarified, and the client agrees to com-
mit to being responsible and accountable for taking these actions. Coaches use the
©AIPC COACH model of coaching with individual clients in community settings
and coachees in organisational settings who seek to transform their life and work. In
organisational settings, individual and team coaching may be conducted as part of a
comprehensive transformational cultural change process.
Chapter 9 introduces the first, fundamental purpose for individual coaching in
community and organisational settings—to increase self-awareness and insight.
Self-awareness can be revelatory when insights result from Aha! moments that sur-
face from the client’s subconscious during coaching. Reflective practice, in which
the coach uses personal sharing to develop rapport and a trusting, working relation-
ship with the client, incorporates relational depth to surface insights leading to per-
sonal change. Clients who are more self-aware and insightful are more confident
and have greater ability to grow and develop personally and professionally.
Chapter 10 introduces the second, fundamental purpose for individual coaching
in community and organisational settings—to facilitate the client’s learning and
growth. All coaching is an opportunity for learning. Educational research has identi-
fied that adults learn through a cycle of experiential learning, reflecting, and
Structure of This Book 7
theorising to refine actions. Adult learning principles inform the learning process.
Research has identified that coaching is a highly bespoke form of adult development
that places the learner at the centre of the learning experience. It is a developmental
process grounded in critical self-reflection and personal transformation.
Contemporary coaching focuses on the use of reflective practice to raise disorient-
ing dilemmas which provoke breakthroughs in thinking. As clients engage in deep-
structure learning, they make new meanings which may be transformative.
Chapter 11 introduces the third, fundamental purpose for coaching in commu-
nity and organisational settings—to effect behavioural change. It explores how tra-
ditional psychology research identified that behaviour is shaped by reward and
punishment, internal cognitions in response to social situations, and social norms
that apply in certain circumstances. Developmental psychology found that clients
who are ready for change, motivated to change and have self-efficacy, behave in
ways which acknowledge that their behaviour is not fixed but can be moulded and
reinforced to achieve a better outcome. Positive psychology research focuses on
finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems. Coaches use goal-oriented and
solution-focused techniques aligned with the client’s core values and beliefs to
motivate and support self-efficacy to achieve their behavioural goals.
Chapter 12 focuses on coaching for personal development. Traditional personal-
ity psychology research identified traits and behaviours that were combined into
personality types which could be profiled. Individual psychology informs how indi-
vidual needs and wants drive client behaviour and interpersonal effectiveness.
Positive psychology coaching utilises the client’s strengths to maximise their poten-
tial, boost self-esteem, and build resilience. The coach encourages self-regulation of
emotions and tensions relating to stressful or conflictual situations.
Chapter 13 addresses coaching for professional development. Professional
development research investigates how individuals acquire and develop new knowl-
edge and skills to become more effective in their current role, reach their potential,
and prepare for future job roles. Content-oriented professional development activi-
ties successfully transfer learnings back into the workplace when they are designed
according to adult learning principles which incorporate cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor dimensions. When coaching is conducted following the professional
development activity, it significantly increases the transfer of learning rate.
Chapter 14 explores how coaching supports career development over life and
career stages. It distinguishes among the various theoretical approaches to a career:
boundaryless, protean, intelligent, kaleidoscope, chaos, customised, and portfolio.
Career development is the process by which individuals develop their strengths and
apply them to their career decision-making or job at work. Positive psychology
research investigates individual strengths which improve personal, professional,
and psychological health and wellbeing and maximise capabilities and performance
at work. Coaching assists individuals in transition overcome career ambiguity, con-
struct a new career identity, and successfully settle into a new career.
Chapter 15 addresses how positive psychology coaching is delivered in an organ-
isational setting. It is driven by dual motivations (personal and organisational), con-
ducted across multiple levels, and involves multiple stakeholders. The coaching
8 1 Introduction
relationship is triadic rather than dyadic. Reporting relationships are to the client
and sponsor as well as to the coachee2. The roles played by key stakeholders
(coachee, client, and sponsor) are explained, as is the role of HR professionals in
arranging the ‘chemistry’ match between coach and coachee. The stages in the
©AIPC Organisational COACHing model are presented: contracting and prepara-
tion, assessment and feedback, conducting the coaching session using the ©AIPC
COACH model, and evaluating the coaching.
Chapter 16 focuses on how coaching is delivered for performance improvement.
It examines motivations for employee performance, the work, job and organisa-
tional factors that may hinder performance, and ways to reduce barriers causing job
dissatisfaction and stress at work. Performance coaching assists reasonably well-
functioning yet mediocre performing employees reach their potential and become
valued team members, retain talented individuals within the succession plan, and
bring increased productivity benefits to the organisation. The leader’s role is to cre-
ate a positive work environment which supports individual strengths and values indi-
vidual differences and diversity. Concepts of psychological capital, positive
organisational behaviour, and positive scholarship have been derived from the
positive psychology movement.
Chapter 17 addresses how coaching for leadership development has evolved
from traditional models of management which relied on reward and punishment
techniques and command-and-control practices, to be based on transformational
models of leadership. To assist managers develop contemporary leadership prac-
tices, Manager as Coach programs are increasingly being conducted to assist them
change their traditional management style into a coaching leadership style. Coaching
may be delivered either formally by HR professionals or leaders who have trained
to become a fully qualified coach, or informally by managers who use coaching
skills to conduct coaching, feedback, or corridor conversations with their direct
reports.
Chapter 18 focuses on coaching at the most senior levels of an organisation for
executive development. Coaching at senior levels is usually conducted by executive
coaches external to the organisation to improve executive performance, resolve per-
sonal issues that may be affecting their ability to achieve business targets, improve
intra- and interpersonal effectiveness, and align personal aspirations with organisa-
tional expectations. Executive coaching traditionally addresses issues of power,
influence, and decision-making. Contemporary coaching practice also addresses the
responsibilities of executives and the competencies they require to function effec-
tively in a volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous environment.
Chapter 19 explains how the learnings from individual coaching can be har-
nessed at the collective, systemic level to inform and support organisational learn-
ing. Organisational learning enables organisations to adapt and transform in
response to, or in anticipation of, change. Early explanations of how organisations
2
In an organisational setting, the client is referred to as the coachee, as the ‘client’ has a different
meaning in this setting—see Chap. 15.
References 9
learn were based on individual learning principles. Later conceptualisations high-

lighted systemic ways of thinking and doing that were transformative beyond indi-
vidual learning and resulted in organisational learning. Collective learning is
captured by the enculturation of individual learnings through shared behaviours,
rituals, systems, and procedures which become entrenched in the organisation.
Chapter 20 introduces coaching as a vehicle for transformational, cultural cul-
ture. It reviews research into organisational culture and details ways that coaching,
when applied consistently throughout the organisation, can be used to communi-
cate, operationalise, and monitor transformations which change the culture of the
entire organisation. Organisational culture informally coordinates and controls
behaviours, actions, and decision-making across the organisation. Organisations
which invest resources into making coaching a strategic priority during a transfor-
mation and cultural change program reap the benefits by transitioning more
smoothly and quickly to their desired future.
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10 1 Introduction
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19. Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for performance: GROWing people, performance and purpose
(3rd ed.). Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
20. Fordyce, M. (1977). Development of a program to increase personal happiness. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 24, 511–520.
21. Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction.

American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14.
22. Gable, S., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Review of General
Psychology, 9, 103–110.
23. Seligman, M., et al. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interven-
tions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421.
24. Seligman, M., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. (2006). Positive psychotherapy. American Psychologist,
61, 774–788.
25. Peterson, C., Park, N., & Sweeney, P. (2008). Group well-being: Morale from a positive psy-
chology perspective. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 19–36.
Chapter 2
Traditional Psychology
This chapter details the theoretical research evidence for coaching from traditional
behavioural, cognitive, developmental, humanistic, personality, and social psychol-
ogy, and how the findings are applied to contemporary coaching practice. Psychology
is the study of human behaviour and motivation. The word psychology is derived
from the Greek word psyche, meaning ‘soul’ or ‘mind’. Psychologists research fac-
tors that influence human thinking and behaviour such as perception, cognition,
attention, mental processing, intelligence, personality, emotions, and motivation.
They attempt to understand the mental processes by which individuals take in infor-
mation from the external environment, integrate that information with what they
already know to make sense of it, and consequently react or respond. This is the
process by which people learn, function, and respond to various situations that
occur in their lives.

12 2 Traditional Psychology
Psychology is both an academic field of study and an applied discipline. As a

meta-skillset, it can be applied to various occupations and organisations, for
example:
• Clinical settings, such as medical and hospital facilities
• Educational settings, such as schools and universities
• Counselling settings, such as the Family Relations Centres
• Community settings, such as self-help and life-enhancing groups
• Organisational settings, such as corporates and institutions
The field and study of psychology began when Wilhelm Wundt established the
first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 [1]. Wundt’s research utilised a
school of thought known as structuralism which involved describing the structures
that compose the mind. This perspective relied heavily on the analysis of sensations
and feelings through the use of introspection, a highly subjective process. Wundt
believed that properly trained individuals would be able to accurately identify the
mental processes that accompany feelings, sensations, and thoughts. In the years
that followed, a number of different schools of thought emerged with different
explanations of human motivation and behaviour. Each proposed a different way of
understanding human behaviour which was considered the dominant approach at
that time, contributing in its own way to our current understanding of traditional
psychology. Today, psychologists use a range of scientific methods including sur-
veys, experiments, correlational studies, longitudinal studies, and other means, to
test, explain, and predict behaviour.
Theoretical Foundations
Psychologists research and apply findings from behavioural, cognitive, develop-

mental, humanistic, personality, and social psychology theories into community and
organisational practice (Fig. 2.1). These theories have significantly contributed to
our understanding of human thought and behaviour. By learning more about these
theories, coaches gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology’s past, pres-
ent, and future. In this chapter, the influence of traditional psychological fields of
research on foundational coaching practice is outlined.
Behavioural Theories
Early traditional behavioural theories were influenced by the work of three noted
psychologists: Ivan Pavlov [2], John Watson [3], and B.F. Skinner [4]. Pavlov is
renowned for his stimulus-response work with dogs wherein he identified that dogs
respond to food by salivating. This he called an unconditioned response. When he
paired the presentation of food with a bell ringing, the dogs later salivated just by
Theoretical Foundations 13
Fig. 2.1 Traditional psychology fields of research which inform coaching
the bell ringing alone (a conditioned response). This research was extended by
Watson to show how people are conditioned to behave or react under certain cir-
cumstances. Rather than look to the internal, mental state of people, Watson put the
emphasis on their external, observable behaviour and their reactions to certain situ-
ations. In his opinion, analysis of behaviours and subsequent reactions was the only
objective method to gain insight into the human condition. He believed that he could
train healthy infants to become any type of specialist regardless of their talents,
abilities, preferences, or race. Watson argued for the nurture side of the nature-
nurture debate. He proposed two major types of conditioning—classical and
operant:
• Classical Conditioning is a technique used in behavioural training in which a
naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral
stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previ-
ously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the
naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the condi-
tioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Watson’s Little Albert experiments
demonstrated how an infant came to fear a rat and white rabbit when they were
conditioned to do so. He therefore concluded that parents can shape a child’s
behaviour and development simply by taking control of their stimulus-response
associations.
• Operant Conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a
method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between behaviour and the
consequence of that behaviour. For example, we hear a sound—we look towards
the source. We touch a hot stove—we only do this once. In the work environ-
ment: We go to work every day–we get paid. We do an extraordinary job—we
may receive recognition at the next staff meeting, a ticket to the movies, or be
allowed to leave work early.
Skinner [4] is renowned for inventing the operant conditioning chamber also
known as the Skinner Box. The box had a lever and a food tray, and a hungry rat
would press the lever to get food delivered to the tray. Skinner observed that when
a rat was put in the box, it would wander around sniffing and exploring, and would
usually press the bar by accident, at which point a food pellet would drop into the
tray. After that happened, the rate of bar-pressing would increase dramatically and
remain high until the rat was no longer hungry. Skinner was a firm believer in the
idea that human freewill was actually an illusion and any human action was the
result of the consequences of a certain action. If the consequences were negative,
there was a high chance that the action would not be repeated. However, if the con-
sequences were positive, the actions led to the behaviour being repeated. He called
this the principle of reinforcement. We use this principle to reward or punish all
kinds of behaviours particularly those associated with child rearing.
In summary, findings from behavioural theories influence coaching practice by
facilitating the coach’s understanding of how behaviour is created in response to
natural or constructed events, resulting in responses that become automated and
routine over time. They also explain how behaviours that are positively reinforced
persist whilst those that are negatively reinforced are not generally repeated.
Understanding this, the coach reinforces the client’s positive experiences and assists
them find ways to translate their learnings into future positive aspirations.
Cognitive Theories
Until the 1950s, behavioural theories were the dominant school of thought in psy-
chology. However between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift against behav-
ioural psychology to focus on topics such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.
Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable
interest in cognitive research methods and processing models, and resulted in the
first use of the term cognitive psychology [5]. Cognitive psychology is the branch of
psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive,
remember, and learn. Unlike behavioural psychology which focuses on external,
visibly observable behaviours, cognitive psychology is focused on invisible, inter-
nal states such as motivation and satisfaction. The purpose of cognitive therapy is to
focus on how people acquire, process, and store information. There are numerous
practical applications for cognitive research such as ways to improve memory,
increase decision-making accuracy, and design educational curricula to enhance
learning. The original definition of cognition was subsequently expanded to include
all processes, both conscious and imaginary (e.g. hallucinations) by which sensory
input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. From this
definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being
might possibly do. Hence every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive
phenomenon.
Two main influences served to shape and inspire cognitive psychology as a for-
mal school of thought: the development of new warfare technology during World
War II which brought about the need for a greater understanding of human perfor-
mance (e.g. how to best train soldiers to use new technology), and developments in
computer science which led to parallels being drawn between human thought and
the computational functionality of computers (the concept of artificial intelligence).
By the early 1980s, the cognitive approach had become the dominant research line
of inquiry in most psychology research fields. Subsequently, much of the work
derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern
disciplines of psychological study including social, personality, abnormal, develop-
mental, and educational psychology. Within these disciplines, coaches use cognitive
psychology to identify beliefs that are holding clients back from what they desire,
and reframe these beliefs into positive approaches to achieve behavioural change.
An adjunct of cognitive-behaviour therapy is rational emotive behaviour therapy
[6] which proposes that emotions are not directly determined by life events but
rather by how these events are cognitively evaluated by the individual experiencing
the event [7]. Research was based on the premise that emotions are primed by spe-
cific beliefs which in turn cause either a rational or irrational emotional response.
Irrational beliefs are built on cognitions which do not have logical, pragmatic, or
empirical support [8]. They have been empirically linked with several negatively
dysfunctional affective outcomes or maladaptive behaviours [9]. On the contrary,
rational beliefs have been associated with positive emotional and behavioural out-
comes, and empirically linked with positive life outcomes [10, 11]. In a recent
study, the rational emotive behaviour therapy model of psychological health has
been found to explain 33% of the variance in levels of happiness and 40% of the
variance in levels of optimism [12].
In summary, findings from cognitive theories influence coaching practice by
facilitating the coach’s understanding of how cognitions influence behaviour espe-
cially as a result of intense experiences with an emotive content. Mental models
which the client has constructed as a result of past experiences influence their future
behaviour in either positive or negative ways depending on the person and situation.
The significance of understanding cognitive-behavioural and rational-emotive theo-
ries is so that the coach addresses the invisible constructs within the client’s mind—
their attention, perception, memories, etc.—by developing deeper rapport with
them to uncover the assumptions and beliefs, judgements, and biases that are hold-
ing them back from being the person they want to be.
Developmental Theories
There are a number of different views about the way in which psychological and
physical development proceeds throughout the life span. The main controversy in
developmental psychology centres round whether development is continuous or dis-
continuous. Scientists are still divided in their opinion. Stage theories of
development rest on the assumption that development is a discontinuous process

involving distinct stages which are characterised by qualitative differences in behav-
iour. This suggests that the development of certain abilities in each stage, such as
specific emotions or ways of thinking, has a definite starting and ending point. There
are many stage (discontinuous) theories in developmental psychology including the
well-known Jean Piaget’s [13] theory of cognitive development which describes
how children represent and reason about the world. Whilst some of these theories
focus primarily on the healthy development of children, others propose stages that
are characterised by a maturity rarely reached before old age.
Stage theories can be contrasted with continuous theories which posit that devel-
opment is an incremental process. Psychologists who support the continuous view
of development suggest that growth involves gradual and ongoing changes through-
out the life span, with behaviour in early life providing the basis for the develop-
ment of skills and abilities required for later life. Continuous theories of development
propose that, whilst some types of thinking, feeling, or behaving may seem to sud-
denly appear, there is no exact time at which the ability was developed. Rather, they
suggest that it is more likely that these qualities and skills have been developing
gradually for some time.
In summary, findings from developmental theories influence coaching practice
by facilitating the coach’s understanding of the way clients learn. Learning doesn’t
have to be slow, as in growth stages that occur in certain periods of a client’s life. In
fact, learning can be instantaneous—like a thunderbolt—when the client embraces
the supportive coaching environment and trusts it to surface their innermost con-
cerns. The coaching process can trigger Aha! moments of clarity from a quiet space
of self-reflection, or in response to gentle yet challenging questioning by the coach.
Humanistic Theories
Humanistic psychology theories developed as a reaction to psychoanalysis and

behaviourism which dominated psychology in the early years of its development as
a discrete discipline. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious
motivations that drive behaviour whilst behaviourism studied the conditioning pro-
cesses that produce observable behaviour. Humanist thinkers felt that both psycho-
analysis and behaviourism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic
of emotions or failing to take the role of personal choice into account. Humanistic
psychology instead focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the impor-
tance of growth and self-actualisation. The fundamental belief of humanistic psy-
chologists is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems are
simply the result of deviations from this natural tendency. Whilst Carl Rogers [14–
16] is the acknowledged founder of humanistic psychology, his work was based on
the earlier research of Carl Jung [17, 18] and Abraham Maslow [19, 20]. Carl Jung
[17] is the founder of analytical psychology which introduced the concepts of indi-
viduation and the collective unconscious. He proposed that the introverted and
extraverted aspects of personality are integrated by the process of individuation

whilst still maintaining their relative autonomy. Jung considered individuation to be
the central process of human development. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI) [21, 22], a popular psychometric assessment instrument, was developed
from Jung’s theories.
Humanistic psychology was described by Abraham Maslow [23] as the ‘third
force’ in psychology, the first and second forces being psychoanalysis and behav-
iourism, respectively. He proposed a Hierarchy of Needs (Fig. 2.2) with different
motivations for behaviour at different levels of the hierarchy which presents a
framework for understanding human motivation and striving to be a better person.
First, people are motivated to fulfil basic biological needs for food and shelter as
well as those of safety, love, and belonging. Once the lower level needs have been
met, the primary motivator becomes the need for self-actualisation, or the desire to
fulfil one’s higher potential. Humanistic theory argues that everyone strives to reach
their potential unless obstacles are placed in their way. These obstacles include any-
thing that takes their focus away from their need for physical and psychological
growth. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs remains as valid today as when it was first
formulated and applies to every person in every walk of life. Within the home envi-
ronment, it explains why we all need food on the table and a warm place to sleep at
night, secure in the knowledge that we won’t be harmed or our belongings taken
away from us. Within an organisational setting, it highlights the responsibility of
employers to provide a safe work environment which encourages and enables
employees to fulfil their unique potential (self-actualisation).
According to Maslow, people at the self-actualising level are comfortable with
themselves and aware of their own objective and subjective judgements. They see
problems as challenges and situations as requiring solutions, rather than as personal
attacks and opportunities to lay blame. They are not susceptible to social pressures,
relying on their own experiences to form opinions. They are fair, democratic, and
non-discriminating, embracing all cultures, races, and individual styles. Socially
compassionate, they possess humility and have only a few close friends. They are
Fig. 2.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

spontaneous and natural, creative and original, and seek out peak experiences that
leave a lasting impression.
Carl Rogers’s [24] client-centred approach (also known as person-centred) is a
unique way of understanding personality and human relationships. It has found
wide application in various domains such as psychotherapy and counselling, group
and organisational dynamics. Rogers is known for developing the concept of uncon-
ditional positive regard which is based on the premise that a person accepts another
as they are no matter what faults or flaws they may have—no judgement, just accep-
tance of the person’s basic worth. The concept of self is also fundamental to Rogers’
approach. The self is constructed from infancy as the person grows and interacts
with their environment. The infant and child evaluate the outcomes of encounters
with others, developing their own values, perceptions, and beliefs about self and
others. As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either (a) symbol-
ised, perceived, and organised into some relation to the self; (b) ignored because
there is no perceived relationship to the self; or (c) denied symbolisation or given
distorted symbolisation because the experience is inconsistent with the structure of
the self. The values they attach to experiences are either their own values that they
have developed over time, or the values of others that they have adopted as their own
but through their own perceptual filters.
Unconditional positive regard is the total acceptance of a person just as they are.
They have strengths and weaknesses. They make mistakes. They act positively and
at times, negatively. A coach who has unconditional positive regard for a client
respects the individual but not their inappropriate behaviour. The coach works with
these identified behaviours to help the client change them and behave more appro-
priately in the future. In the development of the self-concept, Rogers saw condi-
tional and unconditional positive regard as key. Children raised in an environment
of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualise themselves.
Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard feel worthy only if
they match conditions (which Rogers describes as conditions of worth) that have
been laid down for them by others. In these instances, conditions put on them by
those around them make it necessary for them to forego their genuine, authentic
selves to meet with the approval of others. They live lives that are not true to them-
selves, to who they are on the inside.
This incongruent individual, who is always on the defensive and cannot be open
to all experiences, is not functioning ideally and may even become dysfunctional.
They have to work hard to maintain/protect their self-concept. Because their lives
are not authentic, this is a difficult task and they are under constant threat. They
deploy defence mechanisms to achieve this. Rogers describes two mechanisms: dis-
tortion and denial. Distortion occurs when the individual perceives a threat to their
self-concept. They distort the perception until it fits their version of self. This defen-
sive behaviour reduces the consciousness of the threat but not the threat itself. And
so, as the threat mounts, the work of protecting the self-concept becomes more dif-
ficult, and the individual becomes more defensive and rigid in their self-structure. If
the incongruence becomes extreme, this process may lead the individual to a state
that would typically be described as neurotic. If the situation worsens, it is possible
that their defences may cease to function altogether. If this occurs, therapy needs to
be conducted.
In summary, findings from humanistic theories influence coaching practice by
facilitating the coach’s understanding of individual needs and the drivers that moti-
vate clients to behave as they do. A need is sometimes confused with a want, and it’s
the coach’s role to make the client aware of this distinction. Clarification is impor-
tant as it leads to goal-setting in relation to the client’s actual coaching needs. At the
highest level, clients seek self-actualisation, and the coach facilitates their forward
movement by providing unconditional positive regard for them and the efforts they
make to realise their potential.
Personality Theories
Personality is comprised of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviours that make a person unique. Almost every day, we describe and assess the
personalities of the people around us. Whether we realise it or not, these daily mus-
ings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psy-
chologists do. Some of the best-known theories in psychology are devoted to the
subject of personality—how it is formed, and types of personalities. Whilst our
informal assessments of personality tend to focus more on individuals, personality
psychologists assess human behaviour using constructs of personality that can apply
to everyone. Personality research has led to the development of a number of theories
that help to explain how and why certain personality traits develop. Whilst there are
many different theories of personality, the first step is to understand exactly what is
meant by the term ‘personality’. Some of the fundamental characteristics of person-
ality include:
• Consistency—There is generally a recognisable order and regularity to behav-
iours. Essentially, people act in the same way or similar ways in a variety of
situations.
• Psychological and physiological—Personality is a psychological construct, but
research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
• Impact behaviours and actions—Personality does not just influence how we
move and respond in our environment. It also causes us to act in certain ways.
• Multiple expressions—Personality is displayed in more than just individual
behaviour. It can also be deduced from expressed thoughts and feelings, and
observations of close relationships and interactions in social interactions.
There are a number of theories about how personality develops. Different schools
of thought in psychology influence many of these theories:
• Trait theories view personality as the result of internal characteristics that are
genetically based, e.g. height, intelligence, or disposition.
• Type theories provided the earliest perspectives on personality. These theories

suggested that there are a number of traits related to biological influences which
can be combined into personality types, e.g. as categorised by the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator.
• Psychodynamic theories of personality were heavily influenced by the work of
Sigmund Freud and emphasise the influence of the unconscious on personality.
They include Freud’s psychosexual stage theory [25] and Erik Erikson’s [26]
stages of psychosocial development.
• Behavioural theories propose that personality is a result of interaction between
the individual and the environment. Behaviourists study observable and measur-
able behaviours, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into
account.
• Humanist theories emphasise the importance of freewill and individual experi-
ence in the development of personality.
In summary, findings from personality theories influence coaching practice by
facilitating the coach’s understanding of how personality is developed over
time from the characteristic patterns of thoughts and behaviours of clients as
they navigate and respond to stimuli in their external environment. Characteristic
traits were thought to develop into personality types with predictable responses to
certain situations and events. Evoking the notion of freewill, the coach’s role is to
bring behavioural flexibility into the client’s life so they realise that their behaviour
is not fixed but can be moulded to offer a more appropriate behavioural response to
difficult situations.
Social Psychology Theories
Social psychology is focused on understanding and explaining behaviour in social

situations. Social theories are generally centred on specific social phenomena
including group behaviour, pro-social behaviour, social influence, social attraction,
and acceptance. According to psychologist Gordon Allport [27], social psychology
is a discipline that uses scientific methods to understand and explain how thoughts,
feelings, and the behaviour of individuals are influenced by events either real, imag-
ined, or implied by other human beings. Social psychology looks at a wide range of
social topics including group behaviour, social perception, non-verbal behaviour,
conformity, aggression, and prejudice. It is important to note that social psychology
is not just about examining social influences. Social perception and social interac-
tion are also vital to understanding social behaviour. Although concepts such as
social loafing and social facilitation were introduced in the late 1800s, it wasn’t
until after World War II that research on social psychology began in earnest. The
horrors of war led researchers to study the effects of social influence, conformity,
and obedience. The social psychology movement continued to grow throughout the
twentieth century, inspiring research that has contributed to our current understand-
ing of social experience and behaviour.
Social psychology is often confused with personality psychology and sociology.

What makes social psychology different from personality psychology is that per-
sonality psychology focuses on individual traits, characteristics, and thoughts whilst
social psychology focuses on situations. Unlike folk wisdom which relies on anec-
dotal observations and subjective interpretation, social psychology employs scien-
tific methods to empirically study social phenomena. Social psychologists are
interested in the impact that the social environment and group interactions have on
attitudes and behaviours. Personality psychologists instead focus on situational
variables that affect individual behaviour in social environments. Social psychology
is also different from sociology in that, whilst there are many similarities between
the two, sociology tends to look at social behaviour and influences at a very broad-
based level. Sociologists are interested in the institutions and culture that influence
social psychology. So, whilst psychology and sociology both study similar topics,
they are looking at these topics from different perspectives.
In summary, findings from social psychology theories influence coaching prac-
tice by facilitating the coach’s understanding that learning occurs in social situa-
tions. New behaviours may be practised within the coaching environment, but it is
not until they are enacted in the client’s regular social settings that they will be
either reinforced or rejected. The coach’s role is to provide opportunities for the cli-
ent to role-play the new behaviours in their most likely social situations within the
safety of the coaching space, so they can predict, in part, what the various reactions
might be and be prepared to counter the negatives with positive responses.
Summary of Contributions
Table 2.1 summarises the key traditional psychological constructs and their applica-
bility to coaching.
Appendix 1 summarises the major traditional psychology and educational
researchers whose work has underpinned these constructs.
Table 2.1 Summary of traditional psychology constructs underpinning coaching

Behavioural Humanistic
• Visible, observable behaviours • Needs/wants
• Stimulus-response • Unconditional positive regard
• Extrinsic/intrinsic rewards • Non-judgemental
Cognitive Personality
• Mental mindset • Individual differences
• Limiting beliefs • Personality preferences
• Reframing perspectives • Stress and burnout
Developmental Social
• Learning • Self-efficacy
• Growth and development • Social referencing
• Achieving potential • Group behaviour
Application to Coaching
The evidence for coaching from traditional psychology research relates to the devel-
opmental nature of coaching and the effectiveness of the relational, social, and
reflective coaching process. Each branch of traditional psychological theory con-
tributes to our understandings of coaching as it is delivered in practice today.
From a coaching perspective, behavioural theories of psychology demonstrate
how conditioning can be used to change behaviour as a result of learning new infor-
mation, ‘trying out’ new behaviours, and reinforcing successful behaviours.
Behavioural psychologists are concerned with observing and recording visible
behaviours to look for behavioural change. From a coaching perspective, clients are
assisted to change their behaviour in ways that will help them solve their own prob-
lems and achieve their goals. Actions that the client decides to take as a result of
coaching are indicators of their willingness to change.
Cognitive theories of psychology allow the coach to understand the client’s inter-
nal states such as attention, perception, memory, motivation, problem-solving,
decision-making, thinking, and learning, as well as how they acquire, process, and
store information. Cognitive-behavioural therapy, as applied in a modified form to
coaching, helps the client restructure their mental representation through cognitive
trial-and-error to discover different perspectives and mindsets that support, encour-
age, or hold-back, the acquisition of their desired goals. Coaches work with clients
to identify their limiting beliefs, reframe negative thoughts into positive aspirations,
and change their mental models into more optimistic ways of behaving. Rational
emotive behavioural theory informs the coach’s understanding of how emotions
influence cognition and behaviour.
Developmental theories of psychology explain how people learn, grow, and
develop. Research has focused on individuals and groups in educational institutions
and organisations which promote individual growth and development. Coaches ben-
efit from this research which has shown that people who believe their ability to be
fixed will behave in ways different from those who believe that they have some
control over their ability to learn, change, and improve. Adopting a mindset which
believes in growing the potential of all clients, coaches are able to help them find
optimum solutions to the situations or issues they face.
Humanistic theories of psychology inform the coaching relationship and how the
coach conducts the coaching practice. The focus is on maximising an individual’s
potential, stressing the importance of firstly security, love and belonging, then goal
achievement, and ultimately self-actualisation. Applying unconditional positive
regard to the coaching relationship, the fundamental belief of coaches with a
humanistic mindset is that people are innately good and that mental and social prob-
lems are simply the result of deviations from this natural tendency.
Personality theories of psychology seek to uncover the characteristic patterns of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that make a person unique. Personality research
helps to explain how and why personality develops, based on an understanding of
individual traits and how these may be aggregated into types of personalities.
Knowledge of personality behaviours, motivations, and types helps the coach
understand client preferences, tendencies, and possible intentions. There are a
Appendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational Underpinnings of Coaching 23
number of commercially available personality profiles and assessment instruments

that the coach can use to assist clients discover more about themselves.
Social theories of psychology have focused on the impact that the social environ-
ment and group interactions have on individual attitudes and behaviours. Research
findings inform understandings of how individual thoughts, feelings, and behav-
iours are influenced by group and social events, either real, imagined, or implied by
other human beings. Findings help the coach understand the impact on the client of
phenomena such as group behaviour, social perception, conformity, aggression, and
prejudice, and support client behavioural change actions back in their real world.
In summary, when clients identify goals that they have not previously been able
to achieve, coaches work with them using behavioural and cognitive techniques
within humanistic and social frameworks.
• Behavioural coaching proposes that difficulties are caused by repetitive behav-
iour and behaviour patterns. The coach assists the client identify these unhelpful
patterns of behaviour.
• Cognitive coaching challenges unhelpful thoughts associated with behaviour and
patterns and assists clients substitute more appropriate ways of thinking and
interacting with others. Coaches assist clients reframe limiting beliefs into posi-
tive, empowering beliefs which help them solve their own problems. During
coaching, the coach may use a combination of cognitive-behavioural and
rational-emotive behavioural approaches to inform coaching practice.
• During coaching, the coach offers unconditional positive regard, holds the client
accountable without judgement, and believes that they have the solutions within.
It is the coach’s role to surface these solutions and for the client to test them in
the real world—their workplace or family setting—via the use of structured
scenarios.
• Finally, the coach uses scenario coaching to demonstrate the importance of the
social environment in either supporting or thwarting the client’s attempts to
change. The aim is always for the client to self-adjust towards goal attainment,
using resilience and motivation strategies coupled with emotional intelligence.
Clients learn how to look inwards to resolve their issues rather than blaming oth-
ers for the situation in which they find themselves.
ppendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational

A
Underpinnings of Coaching
Theory and exponents Description

Behavioural theories
Law of effect [28] Thorndike found that when a stimulus results in a satisfying response,
the stimulus is likely to be repeated.
Classical conditioning Pavlov’s research on conditioned reflexes influenced the rise of
(stimulus-response) behaviourism in psychology. His experimental methods helped move
theory [2] psychology away from introspection and subjective assessments to
objective measurement of behaviour.

Observation of human Watson is often referred to as the father of behaviourism. His focus on
behaviours Watson observable behaviours and objectivity had a strong influence on
[3] psychology. The behavioural perspective dominated the field during the
first half of the twentieth century.
Operant conditioning Skinner discovered that one reinforcement of an arbitrary response is
[4] enough to develop a conditioned response. Intermittent reinforcement
continues to shape the behaviour. His behaviour modification and
intervention techniques are used to change problem behaviours or
reinforce new ones.
Cognitive theories
Cognitive based Cognitive based therapy (CBT) is short-term and focused on helping the
therapy [29, 30] client identify limiting beliefs which are holding them back from
achieving their goals.
Rational emotive Rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT) is an action-oriented
behavioural therapy approach to addressing thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that are
[6, 31] unhelpful to the client and can create self-sabotaging routines.
Goal-setting theory Goals which are specific, measurable, time-bound, and relevant are more
[32–34] likely to be achieved than those which are not. Self-efficacy is a
supportive precursor to achieving difficult goals.
Goal-oriented, Goal-oriented coaching uses cognitive reframing to convert negative
solution-focused thoughts into positive goals to be achieved.
coaching [35, 36] Solution-focused coaching aims to accurately identify the problem and
quickly conceive of possible solutions to it. It is a collaborative,
future-focused approach to return the client into taking control of their
life.
Developmental theories
Education [37] Dewey’s emphasis on progressive education has greatly contributed to
the use of experimentation rather than an authoritarian approach to
learning. His theory links the mind and body via primary and secondary
experiential learning.
Cognitive Piaget was one of the first researchers to suggest that children think
development theory differently from adults, a concept that was considered revolutionary at
[13] the time. He believed that development of the structures of the brain is
key to the ability to accomplish tasks.
Psychosocial Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development helped
development [26] generate interest and inspire research on human development through
the lifespan including events of childhood, adulthood, and old age,
reinforcing the influence of parents, family, social institutions, and a
particular culture.
Experiential learning Adults learn by a four-stage, experiential process of doing, reflecting,
[38] theorising, and refining actions. Kolb described four distinct learning
styles, based on the four-stage learning cycle.
Adult learning theory Core andragogical principles include the learner’s need to know,
[39–41] self-directed learning, prior experiences of the learner, readiness to
learn, orientation to learning and problem-solving, and motivation to
learn.
Transformative theory Critical self-reflection stimulates shifts in thinking which prompt action.
of adult learning Transformative learning changes perspectives to make them more open,
[42–44] inclusive, and discriminating.
Appendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational Underpinnings of Coaching 25

Motivation [45], Variations in students’ engagement, persistence, and achievement can be
self-theory [46], attributed to whether they view their intelligence (ability) to be fixed or
implicit person theory malleable.
[47], and mindset A positive mental mindset influences what people believe they can do
theory [48] rather than what they cannot do.
Motivational theories
Need hierarchy theoryMaslow is best known as the founder of humanistic psychology. His
[19, 20] Hierarchy of Needs and concepts of self-actualisation and peak
experiences remain influential to this day, especially in the field of
positive psychology.
Human motivation McClelland proposed that every person is primarily motivated by one of
theory [49] three drivers: n-ach (achievement), n-affil (affiliation), or n-pow
(power). McClelland believed that most people possess and exhibit a
combination of these characteristics.
Two-factor theory Hertzberg identified two major factors affecting job satisfaction and
[50] dissatisfaction which he called hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security,
salary, and fringe benefits—which do not contribute to employee
satisfaction at work); and motivator factors (e.g. challenging work,
recognition, responsibility—which lead to positive satisfaction with
work).
Theory X & Y [51] McGregor proposed that managers relate and behave in different ways
to their employees depending on whether they believe the employee
dislikes work and won’t accept responsibility (Theory X) or is
self-motivated, likes work, and assumes responsibility for their work
(Theory Y).
ERG need theory [52] Alderfer proposed a threefold conceptualisation of human needs—
existence, relatedness, and growth (E.R.G.)—which, contrary to
Maslow’s hierarchy, does not assume satisfaction of lower-order needs
before achieving self-actualisation.
Expectancy theory There are three components of this theory: valence, the value a person
[53] places on achieving a specific outcome (positive or negative);
expectancy, a person’s subjective, bipolar probability estimate that their
action will, or will not, be followed by an outcome; and instrumentality,
the person’s perception of the probability that their performance will
lead to a specific outcome if they behave in a certain way.
Equity theory [54] Adams proposed that people attempt to maintain fairness by comparing
their inputs and outputs with that of others performing the same action.
As long as the ratio between their inputs and outputs is equal to that of
others, individuals will perceive the situation to be fair.
Personality theories
Personality theory Jung developed a typology of personality functions or attitudes which
[18] was later adapted to construct the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
[22].
Personality Allport was one of the founding figures of personality psychology. He
psychology [55] developed a trait theory of personality that described three broad
categories of personality traits.
Personality factors Cattell is best known for his use of multivariate analysis and his
[56] 16-factor questionnaire which has been widely used in career coaching.

Humanistic theories
Analytical Jung broke away from Freudian psychology to develop the concepts of
psychology [17] individuation, archetypes, and the collective unconscious.
Self-psychology [57] Karen Horney was a prominent psychoanalyst best-known for her
theories on neurosis, feminism, and self-psychology which includes
concepts of self-confidence and personal assets (autonomous
convictions, self-reliance, realistic appraisal of and assuming
responsibility for self, having strength and capacity for feelings, and
establishing good human relationships).
Individual psychology Adler’s research investigated areas such as the creative self, lifestyle,
[58] family constellation, and social and community interest. His concepts
included horizontal interpersonal communication, reasonable
cooperation, unconditional respect for the individual as a member of a
democratic society, and social equality.
Client-centred theory Rogers was one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth
[15, 16] century. He developed the non-directive, client-centred approach to
counselling and therapy in non-medical settings, and founded the
professional counselling movement.
Social theories
Sociocultural theory Vygotsky is the founder of sociocultural theory. He researched the
[59, 60] relationship between learning and development in general, and special
education populations. He studied the interaction of the natural,
individual, and social forces leading to mind consciousness and how
humans make meaning from their environment. His concepts of the zone
of proximal development and guided practice continue to be highly
influential in educational settings.
Social psychology Kurt Lewin is often referred to as the father of modern social
[61–63] psychology. His pioneering theories argued that behaviour is caused by
both personal characteristics and the environment. Lewin’s emphasis on
scientific methodology and systematic in-depth study of concrete
examples had an enormous impact on future research in social
psychology.
Social pressure Asch’s conformity experiments demonstrated that people will claim that
[64–66] something is correct when it obviously is not due to social pressure from
peers. Asch also had an important influence on psychologist Stanley
Milgram, whose obedience experiments were inspired by Asch’s work.
Social comparison Festinger was an influential social psychologist who is well-known for
theory [67] his Social Comparison theory as well as his theory of Cognitive
Cognitive dissonance Dissonance. Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person simultaneously
theory [68, 69] holds two or more elements of knowledge that are relevant to each other
but inconsistent. Indecision results.
Psychological Social Learning theory posits that all learning takes place in a social
modelling [70], social setting, e.g. school, work, or family environment. Learning takes place
learning theory [71], by inspection of the situation and observation of models. Bandura is a
self-efficacy [72, 73] known for his famous ‘Bobo doll’ experiment in which children were
exposed to violent role models whose behaviour they emulated,
especially when it was modelled by a same-sex adult. He introduced the
concept of self-efficacy to describe the inner belief in oneself that one
could perform a task, especially a difficult task, to achieve a specific
goal.
References 27

Social cognitive Bandura’s work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in
theory [74–77] psychology that began in the late 1960s. His theories have had
tremendous impact on personality psychology, cognitive psychology,
education, and therapy. Dweck’s theory applies to motivation and
personality as precursors of goal achievement. Mizokawa and Koyasu
investigated social relationships and emotional competence from a
social cognitive perspective.
Social modelling [78] Zimbardo conducted a famous experiment during the early 1970s known
as the Stanford Prison Experiment. He is also widely recognised for his
research on shyness, cult behaviour, and heroism.
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Chapter 3
Positive Psychology
This chapter explains how research findings from the newly emerged field of posi-
tive psychology contribute to contemporary coaching practice. Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi and Martin Seligman are the founder and father of the positive
psychology movement, and their research has had a monumental influence on how
positive psychology coaching is conducted today. In contrast to the goal of tradi-
tional psychological research which is to understand human thinking and behaviour
in relation to clinical populations, the goal of positive psychological research is to
understand how to bring greater happiness, joy, meaning, and fulfilment into the
lives of non-clinical populations, which ultimately benefits society as a whole.
Positive psychology has been defined as the scientific study of what makes life most
worth living [1]. It focuses on the science of three essential elements: positive sub-
jective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions. The field of
positive psychology is intended to complement, not replace, traditional psychology.
It does not seek to deny the importance of studying how things go wrong, but rather
to emphasise the importance of determining how things go right.
Seligman explains:
Research findings from positive psychology are intended to supplement, not remotely to
replace, what is known about human suffering, weakness, and disorder. The intent is to have
a more complete and balanced scientific understanding of the human experience—the
peaks, the valleys, and everything in between. We believe that a complete science and a
complete practice of psychology should include an understanding of suffering and happi-
ness as well as their interaction, and validated interventions that both relieve suffering and
increase happiness—two separable endeavours. [2]
Positive psychologists study what brings greater happiness and fulfilment in life.
They aim to find and nurture genius and talent, and help those people leading nor-
mal, everyday lives do even better. Their concern is with wellness rather than

32 3 Positive Psychology
illness. Hence, positive psychology focuses on what’s going right in a person’s life
and building on that to achieve greater happiness. It is concerned with enabling:
• Positive experiences that bring joy, love, and inspiration to people’s lives,
• Positive states and traits such as gratitude, resilience, compassion, and cre-
ativity, and
• Positive work environments which apply positive principles within entire organ-
isations and institutions.
In the late 1900s, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi began researching in areas that were
outside the fields of traditional psychology, studying happiness and creativity, opti-
mal experience [3], and the evolving self [4]. Most notable is Csikszentmihalyi’s
concept of flow [5, 6]. He noticed that artists fell into a particular state of mind
whilst they were working, characterised by an intense focus and great concentration
on the task at hand to the point of losing track of time for hours on end. As he gath-
ered more descriptions of this phenomenon, he observed six factors that character-
ise a flow experience:
1. Being present ‘in the moment’,
2. The merging of action and awareness—being fully present in the task at hand,
3. A lack of attention to the self, e.g. food, sleep,
4. A sense of personal control in the situation,
5. A distorted sense of time passing, and
6. Experiencing the activity or situation as intrinsically rewarding.
The term positive psychology was coined by Albert Maslow in his 1954 publica-
tion Motivation and Personality [7]. After more than four decades, it was revived by
Martin Seligman when it became the theme of his Presidential address to the
American Psychological Association (APA) in 1998. The focus of traditional psy-
chology at that time was on pathology and illness [8]. Seligman grew frustrated with
so much attention being paid to mental illness, abnormal psychology, trauma, suf-
fering, and pain, and relatively little to happiness, wellbeing, exceptionalism,
strengths, and flourishing. He believed that not enough emphasis was placed on the
strengths and positive characteristics of people, groups, and society [9]. As President
of the APA, Seligman welcomed the opportunity to alter the direction of the field
from such an influential position. He proposed a new branch of psychology with a
focus on what is life-giving rather than life-taking. This alternate focus on positivity
and happiness opened a whole new avenue of research and applications well beyond
the discipline of traditional psychology. Positive psychology researchers analyse
concepts such as states of pleasure, values, virtues, and talents, as well as the ways
that they can be promoted across society. Csikszentmihalyi later collaborated with
Seligman to write the first introductory text on positive psychology [1].
Seligman’s seminal works spawned a whole new era in thinking about how cog-
nitions influence behaviour. They address key areas such as:
• Authentic happiness [10] which he described using the acronym PERMA which
stands for Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning,
Achievement [11].
• Pessimism versus optimism [12] which is based on the dimensions of perma-
nence, pervasiveness, and personalisation relating to an event.
• Learned helplessness [13, 14]—a state in which an individual fails to act because
of prior negative experiences—which can be related to situations today such as
exam anxiety, or reluctance to apply for promotion after unsuccessful attempts.
Learned Helplessness
Seligman developed his theories as an extension of psychological conditioning the-

ory in which a person or an animal has learned to act or behave helplessly—usually
after experiencing some inability to avoid an adverse situation—even when it actu-
ally has the power to change its unpleasant or even harmful circumstance. Seligman
saw a similarity with severely depressed patients and argued that clinical depression
and related mental illness result in part from a perceived, rather than actual, absence
of control over the outcome of a situation. According to Seligman, helplessness is
the state of affairs in which nothing individuals do affects what happens to them. He
uses the analogy of a newborn baby to explain the concept. Life begins in utter
helplessness (as a newborn baby). The period between infancy and later life is a
process of emerging from helplessness into gaining personal control, i.e. having the
ability to change things by one’s voluntary actions. What people think about life
diminishes or enlarges the control they have over it. Cognitions control actions
which determine the future. Coaches work with clients to help them understand that
‘we are what we believe’ and because we choose what we think, we don’t have to
choose to be a victim.
In Seligman’s renowned learned helplessness experiment, an animal was repeat-
edly hurt by an adverse stimulus which it could not escape. Eventually the animal
stopped trying to avoid the pain and behaved as if it was utterly helpless. Finally,
when the opportunity to escape was presented, the learned helplessness prevented it
from taking any action. The only coping mechanism the animal used was to be stoic
and put up with the discomfort, not expending energy getting distressed about their
adverse situation. This and subsequent experiments emphasised the importance of
people having some control over their life. Those who believe they have no control
choose to stay with the pain and do not try to escape when the opportunity presents
itself. They suffer physically, mentally, and emotionally until they become a
‘shadow’ of themselves. Seligman’s theory of learned helplessness [13] can be
applied to people in numerous situations. For example, a child who is always told
they are ‘no good’ or that everything they do is ‘not good enough’ tends to give up
on gaining the approval, love, and support they seek. A person ‘imprisoned’ within
their own walls of doubt and under-confidence is reluctant to give up this situation
which they know, to try to become someone better.
Optimism/Pessimism
Related to learned helplessness are the concepts of optimism and pessimism.

Individuals who are pessimistic are more prone to developing learned helplessness.
Seligman [9] proposed that there are two ways of thinking about events—optimisti-
cally or pessimistically. He coined the term explanatory style to describe the manner
in which individuals habitually explain to themselves why things happen. In gen-
eral, pessimists tend to believe that negative events will last a long time, determine
everything they do, and are their own fault. Optimists tend to believe that defeat is
just a temporary setback and not their fault, its causes are confined to this one case,
and these situations are challenges which indicate they need to try harder. There are
three crucial dimensions to the explanatory style: permanence, pervasiveness, and
personalisation. Coaches ask clients who find themselves in adverse situations to
answer these three questions to assess the degree to which they believe they have
control over the situation, that is, the degree to which they feel helpless:
1. How long will this situation last?
2. To how many areas of your life does this apply?
3. For what part of this situation are you responsible?
Feelings of helplessness are at the heart of the phenomenon of pessimism.
However, there are some benefits to being mildly pessimistic since it heightens our
sense of reality and endows us with accuracy. But extreme pessimism can be quite
debilitating. The fundamental guideline for not using optimism is to ask what the
cost of failure is in the particular situation. If the cost is too high, optimism is the
wrong strategy. Situations in which individuals have perceived control are associ-
ated with optimism [15] which Seligman [9] defined as a personal style that attri-
butes positive events to personal, permanent, and pervasive causes and negative
events to external, temporary, and situation-specific circumstances. An optimistic
outlook has been identified as one of the characteristics of entrepreneurs [16].
Authentic Happiness
The characteristics of a fully functioning individual had already been described by

Rogers [17] as:
• Openness to experience: Individuals move away from defensiveness and have no
need to unconsciously apply strategies to prevent a troubling stimulus from
entering their awareness.
• An existential lifestyle: Individuals increasingly live ‘in the moment’, fully expe-
riencing life in all its wonders and sorrows. This results in living authentically
with excitement, daring, adaptability, tolerance, spontaneity, and creativity.
• Organismic trust: Individuals trust their own judgement and ability to choose
behaviour that is appropriate for each moment. They do not rely on existing
social practices and norms but trust their own sense of right and wrong more often.
• Freedom of choice: Individuals are not restricted by influences that challenge
their internal congruence. They are responsible for choosing their own behav-
iours from a range of choices that are readily available to them.
• Creativity: Individuals feel free to be creative in how they adapt to their circum-
stances and no longer feel the need to conform.
• Reliability: Individuals act constructively whilst maintaining a balance between
all their needs.
• A rich full life: Individuals experience emotions and feelings more intensely
because they are fully open to them, e.g. joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear
and apprehension.
Seligman built on these positive constructs when he described authentic happi-
ness. This construct is not just about achieving human happiness. It is about achiev-
ing human flourishing which has five core elements (abbreviated to PERMA) [11]:
• Positive emotion. Every day, individuals are encouraged to journal three things
that went well, and why.
• Engagement. Individuals are encouraged to preferentially use their highest
strengths to perform the tasks they would normally do.
• Relationships. Individuals are recommended to fine-tune the positive elements
of each relationship in which they are involved.
• Meaning. Individuals are encouraged to find meaning and belonging as they
serve ‘something bigger’ than themselves.
• Achievement. According to Seligman, determination counts for more than
intelligence.
When a client adopts the PERMA principles, they find their life enriched beyond
expectation. They achieve optimal development in which they fulfil their potential,
lead a full and meaningful life, and become ‘Master of their own Destiny’. Happy
and fulfilled clients have a positive attitude, take responsibility for their actions,
accept support when needed, and make positive contributions to those around them.
They face up to life’s challenges rather than denying them, do not make excuses to
justify decisions or actions, and do not externalise blame or quit (give up) on them-
selves and their ability to solve their problem or reach their goal (Fig. 3.1).
This state of optimal development is also referred to as a state of psychological
wellness which is more than an absence of mental problems. Rather, it is conceived
as the presence of self-acceptance, a sense of purposefulness, mastery, positive rela-
tionships with other people, and feelings of continued growth and autonomy [18].
Self-determination theory [19] proposes that psychological wellness is facilitated by
the satisfaction of three basic innate psychological needs which foster individual
Fig. 3.1 Master of your

own destiny
growth and wellbeing—the need for autonomy, competence, and mastery. The need
for autonomy relates to the individual’s ability to have choice in their actions, feel
validated by the experience [20], and be the architect of their own behaviour [21].
The need for competence relates to opportunities to use their strengths and feel
effective in doing so [22]. The need for mastery is fuelled by the desire for self-
actualisation [23].
In summary, concepts from traditional psychological research have been com-
bined with positive psychology findings to inform contemporary coaching practice.
Academic research has validated that rational beliefs act as cognitive protective
factors against negative psychological experiences like depression, anxiety, and
post-traumatic stress [24, 25]. Findings from current research indicate that rational
emotive cognitive behaviour processes are positively associated not only with nega-
tive emotions but also with positive psychological experiences and positive mental
health states such as happiness and optimism [26, 27]. A summary of the major
positive psychology research findings that underpin contemporary coaching is at
Table 3.1.
Mental Model
More recently, positive psychology researchers have investigated how the concepts
of mental model, mindset, and mindfulness impact of an individual’s cognitions of
happiness and wellbeing. Clients presenting to coaching often have preconceived
beliefs about whether life is good and people are worthy of respect based on past
experiences, biases, and judgements. Positive psychology coaching aims to reframe
the clients’ mental model of the world from one that is against them into one that is
for them—a negative into a positive—and helps them understand how they can take
action to create a more positive future. Coaches challenge clients’ underlying
assumptions and limiting beliefs to assist them surface truths based on fact not fic-
tion. Self-determination theory [28] proposes that we are in charge of our own
thoughts and feelings and, as such, we determine our future. Our personal goals are
windows to our wellbeing as well as to our future. Coaches aim to put clients back
into control—back into the driver’s seat–focusing on what is going right in their life
Table 3.1 Summary of positive psychology approaches to coaching

Positive psychology theories
Self-determination We are in charge of our own thoughts and feelings and, as such, we
theory [28, 29] determine our future. Psychological wellness is facilitated by the
satisfaction of three basic innate psychological needs—for autonomy,
competence, and mastery—which foster individual growth and
wellbeing.
Flow theory [6] and Csikszentmihalyi is an important contemporary psychologist noted for
optimal experience his research into happiness and creativity. His theory of flow describes
[3] the state of deep-mind concentration when a person is so involved in an
experience or situation that time passes without notice. A successful flow
experience results in self-affirmation, increased confidence associated
with perceived competence, creativity, and a feeling of lifelong
happiness
Positive psychology Seligman is considered to be one of the most influential psychologists of
[1, 30, 31], authentic the twentieth century and is often described as the father of
happiness [10], and contemporary positive psychology. He extended the work of
learned helplessness Csikszentmihalyi into the areas of authentic happiness and flourish. His
[13, 14] work on learned helplessness is highly applicable to the helping
professions. He and colleagues have written on the empirical validation
of positive psychology interventions [2], application of positive
psychology to coaching [32], and the benefits of a positive mindset to
mental health [12]
Strengths [8, 33–35] Peterson is a contemporary of Seligman who extended positive
psychology research into understanding character strengths and virtues,
values-in-action, group wellbeing and morale, psychological capital, and
positive organisational scholarship
rather than what is going wrong. To create change, coaches may need to challenge
the client’s mental model ‘through inquiry and an outside or etic perspective’ [36]
which shifts the client's thinking, thus allowing them to achieve a different out-
come [37].
Mindset
In addition to challenging the client’s mental model of the world, the coach may
also challenge their mindset which determines the behaviours and attitude they dis-
play when confronted with an unfamiliar person or situation. The client may act or
react, resulting in either a positive or negative outcome. They may utilise their
knowledge, skills, and strengths to find a mutually acceptable solution (choosing
‘happiness’) or retreat into past familiar behaviours which indicate unacceptance or
even rejection (choosing ‘defeat’). From a positive psychology coaching perspec-
tive, a positive mindset influences what clients believe they can do rather than what
they cannot do. It focuses on strengths to promote learning, growth, wellbeing, and
happiness. Hence, coaches often work with clients’ strengths and don’t even con-
sider their weaknesses unless they are hindering progress. A positive mental model
and mindset believes in the absolute ability of every individual to create their future
as they would want it to be with encouragement and support from their coach—and
a healthy dose of reality!
Mindfulness
A practice derived from positive psychology, yet originated as meditative contem-

plative practice in Asia over 2500 years ago, is that of mindfulness. Mindfulness is
the degree to which individuals notice what’s happening around them, pay attention
to others and things in their environment, and are fully ‘present’—experiencing life
‘in the moment’—and being grateful for all the positive people, experiences, and
events in their life. It has been defined as attention to, and awareness of, the present
moment which does not seek to react to or classify experience [38]. The focus is on
observation of the individual’s mental state at that time [39]. Mindfulness confirms
every person as a unique human being, capable of love and being loved, and
respected for who they are. It enhances an individual’s ability to express mindful
attitudes and behaviours in everyday life, including acceptance of everyday momen-
tary thoughts, feelings, and perceptions [40]. It prepares individuals for self-
reflection by fostering emotional detachment to the thoughts and feelings which
constantly flow through their mind without self-evaluation [41].
Research shows that mindfulness increases self-reflection and self-regulation,
reduces stress, and develops empathy [42]. Training in mindfulness encourages
individuals to focus their attention and observe their own behaviours [43]. The mind
has a tendency to wander and lose focus, travelling in the past and future to ignore
or escape the present [44]. In this process, the mind constructs its own reality that is
not necessarily consistent with the actual present situation [45]. Mindfulness prac-
tice brings the wandering mind back to the present. It allows individuals to develop
non-judgemental and non-biased awareness as they experience and come to accept,
the present. Consequently, thoughts and cognitive processes are formed based on
the experience itself and not on prior judgements and biases [46]. Practicing mind-
fulness also alerts the individual to observations and stimuli in their external sur-
roundings [46]. When an individual is not socially mindful, unconscious biases,
perceptions, and judgements may form [47]. As a result, they may dehumanise oth-
ers in their environment or treat them with less respect [48]. Hence, mindfulness
practice is important so that individuals develop increased awareness and under-
standing of others and engage more meaningfully in social situations.
The process of mindfulness involves focusing attention on an object or activity
(such as breathing or walking), noticing the visual stimuli and physical sensations
in the body while also distancing the mind from distracting thoughts and emotions
[49]. During this focused-attention process, individuals meta-cognitively observe
their psychological experience as well, focusing on the quality of their self-
awareness instead of on any particular content of which they are aware [50].
Mindfulness practice activates the cognitive functions of attentional vigilance,
Application to Coaching 39
attentional reorienting, executive monitoring of working memory, response inhibi-

tion, and emotion regulation, into a combined whole [51]. Mindfulness practice has
been shown to have a positive effect on wellbeing [38] and long-term quality of life
[52]. Beneficial effects of mindfulness practice have also been demonstrated on
mental health [53], task-persistence and performance-related stress [54], and proac-
tivity [55]. The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale [38] may be used to measure the
relationship between mindfulness and psychological health and functioning.
Traits have typically been considered as fixed attributes. However, there is evi-
dence to suggest that mindfulness practice can actually increase trait mindfulness
which may account for the therapeutic benefits of mindfulness practice [56].
Mindfulness has been investigated within neurological practice as a way to circum-
vent automaticity relating to addiction [57]. Cognition manipulation enables the
mind to create new neural behaviour pathways because of its malleability and neu-
roplasticity [58, 59]. Mindfulness training programs have been found to exercise,
strengthen, and remediate dysfunctional brain networks which regulate frontostria-
tal circuits, restoring an adaptive balance between top-down and bottom-up pro-
cesses [57]. They facilitate cognitive control over drug-related automaticity,
attentional bias, and drug cue reactivity while enhancing responsiveness to natural
rewards [57]. Contemporary mindfulness training techniques (such as mindful
breathing and body scan techniques) have been shown to have therapeutic effects in
clinical conditions such as depression, anxiety, and chronic pain [60, 61]. Overall,
‘it is in the strategic integration of positive psychology-based approaches and
evidence-based coaching where the most power and potential lies to ensure that
individuals] … can flourish’ [62].
Positive psychology coaching as we know it today occurs at the intersection of tra-

ditional psychology, positive psychology, and coaching. Findings from these three
areas of academic research inform contemporary coaching practice. Fundamental to
contemporary coaching practice are the principles and philosophy on which posi-
tive psychology coaching is based.
Philosophy of Positive Psychology Coaching
The philosophy underlying positive psychology underpins all aspects of how coach-
ing is conducted and how coaches interact with clients to achieve the best coaching
outcome for them. Coaches encourage clients to become more open to new discov-
eries about themselves and the possibilities that may be available to them in the
future. Above all, coaching practice strives for honesty and flexibility as the coach
encourages the client to explore and discover, and become more creative. These
attributes are the prerequisites to learning and growth. In an environment of abso-

lute trust, the coach non-judgementally uses their coaching skills to understand
what is being said in relation to the client’s situation and identify their coaching
needs. Coaching surfaces subconscious assumptions and beliefs which may need to
be challenged if new learnings, behaviours, and actions are to be created. If the cli-
ent’s behaviour is illegal, immoral, or unethical, the coach will ‘call’ this situation,
and won’t proceed with the coaching. If clinical issues are surfaced, such as addic-
tion, the coach will refer the client to the appropriate professional who can help
them resolve that issue.
Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching
Contemporary coaching practice is based on a combination of the coach’s experi-

ence, knowledge, values and beliefs, and positive psychology principles. Based on
the seminal research of Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, and other researchers who
have contributed to the field of positive psychology [35, 63, 64], a number of prin-
ciples inform contemporary coaching practice. First, the coach acknowledges the
positive worth of the individual but not necessarily their behaviour (which may be
the reason for wanting to be coached). Second, positive psychology coaching is
based on the premise that clients are doing the best they know how at the time and
they just need a coach’s support to do even better. In other words, people are innately
good and just trying to meet their needs. However, in doing so, they should not
deprive others of meeting their needs. Third, a fundamental tenet of positive psy-
chology coaching is that solutions lie within the client and it is the role of the coach
to uncover them. Fourth, there’s no such thing as failure—only feedback that pro-
motes learning. That is, learning is incremental and cycles through a process of
Action–Feedback–Learning–Revised Action. Fifth, positive psychology coaching
believes that there is a positive intention motivating every behaviour and a context
in which every behaviour has value. It is the coach’s role to discover the client’s
motivation for behaving as they do in that context and then guide them towards
more positive ways of behaving and interacting with others.
The coach enacts these principles by:
• Facilitating and guiding the client—NOT advising, mentoring, training, or super-
vising them. Asking, rather than telling the client, what they need to do to help
them resolve their situation and achieve their goal.
• Motivating, supporting, and encouraging the client—raising them up, rather than
pulling them down—not judging or reprimanding them for their behaviour or
actions.
• Stimulating thought, creativity, and discovery—breaking down limiting beliefs,
and encouraging the client to adopt new, empowering perspectives.
Mental Model, Mindset, and Mindfulness Techniques
These three cognitions that clients bring to the coaching process—their mental
model, mindset, and degree of mindfulness—are instrumental in influencing the
outcomes of contemporary coaching practice. There are two ways in which these
concepts are used during the coaching process. The first is when the client is encour-
aged to align their mental model and mindset with those of a more positive approach
to finding happiness in life. The second is when the coach challenges the client’s
mental model and mindset so they become more positive, and uses mindfulness
techniques to encourage them to become more present and engaged in the change
process. Coaches also practice mindfulness during coaching so that they too are
fully present with clients and can assist them achieve their coaching goals.
To change the client’s mental model of the world, coaches use cognitive refram-
ing or restructuring [65] to help them understand their inner world and how it relates
to the external world. Clients learn to untrain their brain by emptying it of precon-
ceived assumptions and beliefs about people and situations so they can develop a
more positive attitude towards life. The process of cognitive reframing releases the
client’s mental constraints and elevates their brain so they become wiser and more
compassionate in relation to self and others. Clients experience behavioural change
as their neural pathways re-form into new patterns and routines of behaviour.
Once the client’s mental model of the world has been reframed into a more posi-
tive attitude and approach to life, the coach addresses their mindset. The client
needs to believe in their own ability to take actions to solve their problems and
achieve their goals. They need to be ready and willing to make changes in their life.
The coach also needs to hold a positive mindset in relation to the client and the suc-
cess of the coaching session. A positive mindset has been identified as an essential
core competency of a coach when working with clients. The ICF defines a coaching
mindset as the ability to develop and maintain a mindset that is open, curious, flex-
ible, and client-centred (ICF Core Competencies 2019). Characteristics of a coach-
ing mindset are displayed when the coach:
• Acknowledges that clients are responsible for their own choices and actions,
• Engages in ongoing learning and development as a coach,
• Develops an ongoing reflective practice to enhance their coaching ability,
• Remains aware of, and open to, the influence of context and culture on them-
selves and others,
• Uses self-awareness and intuition to benefit clients,
• Develops and maintains the ability to self-regulate their emotions,
• Mentally and emotionally prepares for coaching sessions, and
• Seeks help from outside sources when necessary.
Coaches practice mindfulness so that they notice, pay attention to, focus and
concentrate on, the client’s story. They are fully present ‘in the moment’ without
any thought of the past or future. They encourage the client to practise mindfulness
too, to increase their self-awareness of who they are and what they stand for, and
generate insight into how they can move forward to achieve their dreams.
Mindfulness enables clients to self-regulate their negative emotions and regain self-
control. Continued mindfulness leads to resilience—the ability to cope and function
no matter what the circumstances. Using these techniques leads to more successful
coaching sessions and positive life outcomes. In addition, so that clients remain
positive and don’t resort to externalising blame, coaches avoid asking ‘Why?’ ques-
tions because using them may provide the opportunity for clients to deny there’s a
problem, make an excuse, blame someone else, or justify their position. Rather,
coaches ask ‘What’ and ‘How’ questions such as ‘What happened?’ ‘What part did
you play in that?’ ‘How do you think you can make things better?’ These questions
encourage clients to take responsibility for their actions, and lead them towards tak-
ing positive actions to discover their own solutions.
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Chapter 4
Coaching
Using findings from both traditional and positive psychology research, this chapter
focuses on how coaching is conceptualised and the motivations for coaching as it is
delivered to individuals in community and organisational settings. The differences
among coaching and other interventions such as mentoring, counselling, supervi-
sion, and training are detailed. The theoretical evidence for coaching from the dis-
ciplines of psychology and education, as well as from management research, is
summarised. Coaching in contemporary practice is goal-oriented and solution-
focused. Developmental, humanistic, and positive psychology techniques are used
to address the client’s needs and promote their mental and emotional wellbeing.
Coaches utilise cognitive behavioural psychology to assist clients reframe their
mental model and dispel limiting beliefs. Within educational research, coaching is
positioned as a developmental, learning opportunity for clients to develop self-
efficacy so they become motivated to achieve behavioural change. Clients who
believe in their ability to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persistence
and, at times, assistance, are malleable. Within management, coaching approaches
focus on the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies to enhance leader-
ship and executive development, job satisfaction, motivation and work performance,
and interpersonal and team relationships. This research evidence supports the emer-
gence of coaching as a profession and contributes to a growing body of knowledge
and theory into the development of coaching as a discipline.
Coaching originated in the 1700s as a mode of transport and later transitioned
into the sporting arena to support performance improvement [1]. Since the late
1900s, entrenched narrow views of coaching and misconceptions of it as ‘weird’,
‘fluffy’, and a ‘fad’ [2] have been overcome as it emerged into an ‘influential man-
agement concept’ [3] and an effective way to achieve personal growth and develop-
ment [4]. In organisations, coaching was first enacted within the Human Resource
Management (HRM) function as a developmental learning tool to build skills and
capacities for current and future job performance. It also had a holistic purpose to
enable employees cope with work and job-related stresses and contextual demands

46 4 Coaching
of a VUCA environment [5, 6]. Coaching is now one of the fastest growing inter-
ventions in the professional development of managers especially in large organisa-
tions [7, 8] and a well-accepted business practice in Europe and the United States.
Over a third of respondent organisations in a UK survey reported that coaching is
delivered in their organisation by line managers or peers (32%) and external coaches
(12%) [9, 10].
Definition
Within the academic literature, there is no clear definition of coaching. Thirty-seven

definitions have been identified based on the various types of coaching, the different
purposes and audiences for coaching (individuals or teams), what and for whom it
is conducted, what it involves, and the context in which it is applied [11, 12]. These
definitions highlight the essential ingredients of dyadic coaching as reflection and
self-development, behavioural change, and personal responsibility. Within organ-
isations, motivations extend beyond the achievement of personal and professional
goals into skills-based, performance coaching to develop and unlock potential [13].
In work situations, coaching is a custom-tailored experience that provides employ-
ees with the time, mental space, support and guidance they need to make sense of
the information available to them and explore how to apply it most effectively to
their workplace [14].
Within the professional literature, coaching is defined as ‘partnering with clients
in a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximise their
personal and professional potential, which is particularly important in today’s
uncertain and complex environment. Coaches honour the client as the expert in his
or her life and work and believe every client is creative’ (https://coachingfederation.
org). This definition represents the ‘purist’ form of coaching in which the coach
uses coaching skills to help clients explore their issues or concerns and achieve their
goals. Without any prior knowledge of the client or the situation, the coach can
conduct ‘content-free’ coaching and achieve amazing outcomes. Generalist issues
of concern where the coach can use this ‘purist’ form of coaching include where
clients lack direction and are unmotivated to make the changes they need to make
but don’t know how. The client may feel that there’s more to life but what is it? They
may be unable to formulate realistic goals and achieve them. They may be insecure
about their current work or life situation, e.g. how to achieve work/life balance.
They may be stressing as a result of communication, relationship, or conflict issues,
feel disconnected from work or family, and unappreciated. They may be overworked
and suffering from burnout. For all these reasons, clients benefit from having their
own personal coach who can help them overcome their difficulties and progress into
a more desirable future.
A number of developmental approaches stimulate individual growth including
coaching, mentoring, training, supervision, and counselling. However, these differ-
ent approaches may create uncertainty in clients’ minds as to the best approach to
Definition 47
adopt. The next section addresses these differences among coaching and alternate
forms of developmental interventions.
Difference Between Coaching and Mentoring
The terms coaching and mentoring are frequently used interchangeably [12, 15–
19]. Both processes deepen an individual’s understanding of themselves and
improve their personal and professional effectiveness [4, 20–22]. Mentoring has
significantly influenced the emergence of coaching within organisations since it led
to early interest in researching the effects of mentoring and coaching executives to
boost their performance, position their career prospects, and support the acquisition
of better interpersonal skills.
Mentoring is a professional relationship which enables an individual to develop
a sense of competence and autonomy in their world [23]. It involves an ongoing
relationship between a mentee and mentor who is either internal to the organisation
or engaged through an external contractual arrangement with the organisation [24,
25]. Mentors are often role models and the mentoring relationship is based on the
sharing of knowledge and professional experience. The relationship deepens the
mentee’s understanding of their knowledge, skills, and capabilities which enhances
their career prospects [26, 27]. The mentor has extensive skills and experience to
share with the mentee who is the recipient of their wisdom.
Coaching is a developmental process focused on helping individuals find their
own solutions to their problems and achieve the goals they have been unable to
achieve by themselves. It is a goal-oriented, solution-focused process based on a
partnership arrangement between coach and coachee [28]. The equal partnership is
a collaborative relationship in which the knowledge and expertise of the coachee is
combined with the coaching knowledge and experience of the coach to achieve the
desired coaching outcome. In its ‘purist’ form, coaching is content-free, client-led,
and has no pre-determined outcomes. Within the work environment, ‘performance’
coaching addresses specific performance-related issues or events that have caused
an employee or employer stress. It has an agreed agenda, is content-driven, and has
a pre-determined outcome. Coaching has traditionally been delivered by executive
coaches external to the organisation [29] but is increasingly being delivered across
all levels of the organisation by HR professionals and line managers formally
trained as coaches or in coaching skills.
There are key differences between coaching and mentoring. First, mentoring is a
relationship that forms between a more experienced mentor and a less experienced
mentee to enhance their career development [24]. A power-differential exists
between the mentor and mentee. The relationship is hierarchical and sometimes
paternalistic rather than an equal partnership [30]. Mentoring is ‘often associated
with … broader … career progress’ [31] although, at times, it may also involve
exploring more inclusive, interpersonal issues [29]. Mentoring processes are
mentor- directed and may involve the mentee reading prescribed materials,
48 4 Coaching
Table 4.1 Difference between mentoring and coaching

Difference Mentoring Coaching
Process Mentor-led Coachee-led
Relationship Hierarchical, Equal partnership
paternalistic
Orientation Broad, long-term career Short-term problem resolution followed by long-term
goals life and work goals
Resources Additional may be Nil additional required
required
Fig. 4.1 Power-distance relationship
attending short courses, and receiving feedback following in situ observations [32].
In contrast, coaching is coachee-led and requires no additional resources to be pro-
vided or offered by the coach. In essence, coaching is a ‘hands-off’ rather than a
‘hands-on’ process. It builds self-responsibility and self-regulation in the coachee.
Mentors are often role models who can coach [15] but coaches do not normally
mentor [25]—at least, not at the same time. Table 4.1 summarises these differences.
Figure 4.1 emphasises the power-distance relationship which is one of the main
variables differentiating mentoring from coaching.
Difference Between Coaching and Other Interventions
Coaching also differs from interventions such as training, supervision, and counsel-
ling [33]. Training is an instructional process which increases the skills directly
related to performance—to assist employees do their jobs better, faster, or more
Definition 49
efficiently or effectively. The outcomes of training programs are significantly

enhanced when the training is paired with, or informed by, coaching. Research has
found that only 20% of training outcomes are maintained in the long-term; however,
when coaching is conducted immediately following the training to reinforce the
new skills back into the workplace, an 80% transfer rate is achieved [34]. These
findings have been supported by other studies which confirm that the integration of
coaching into training programs significantly improves transfer of learning rates
[35, 36].
Supervision is the process whereby a more experienced person observes an
employee for the purpose of providing constructive feedback on the work per-
formed. It provides employees with direct feedback to stimulate reflection and
improvement [37]. Ideally, feedback is provided at regular intervals via coaching
conversations.
At times, coaching is confused with counselling. The major difference between
the two is that counsellors deliver therapeutic interventions to clinical populations
to resolve deep-seated issues resulting from traumatic incidents that occurred in the
past or which they are currently experiencing. In contrast, coaching is a non-
therapeutic intervention with non-clinical populations which focuses on the ‘here-
and-now’ and future possibilities. In counselling, therapy addresses issues such as
family dysfunction, domestic violence, abuse, and drug and alcohol dependency
[38]. The therapeutic process provides safe guidance for individuals through their
trauma into a renewed perspective on life. When the issue is resolved, the counsellor
provides ongoing assistance and support to the individual and their family to build
a better future. Counselling is typically delivered in hospitals, private practice, and
community/family relations centres by trained counsellors, psychologists, and psy-
chiatrists with skilled expertise and a deep understanding of the human condi-
tion [39].
In summary, coaching, mentoring, training, supervision, and counselling have
different foci in terms of clients, context, process, practice, relationship, and deliv-
ery [11]. In coaching, mentoring, training, and supervision, temporality is present
and future; clients are non-clinical populations; context is work related. In counsel-
ling, temporality is past and context is in professional and community practices.
Process variables differ according to the focus of the intervention. Issues relate to
personal growth, development, and career. The interventions require different skills,
qualifications, and experience. Relationships differ from collaborative and facilita-
tive in coaching, expert experienced elder in mentoring, authority in training and
supervision, and expert/professional in counselling. Delivery is either individual,
team or group, or family-based. These differences among the developmental inter-
ventions highlight coaching as an emerging profession in its own right with a dis-
creet set of clients, contexts, processes, practices, relationships, and delivery modes,
as summarised in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Differences among coaching, mentoring, counselling, training, and supervision
50
Coaching Focus Clients Context Process Practice Relationship Delivery

‘focuses on the present and Personal growth Normal, non-clinical Work Self-reflection Specific skill sets, Collaborative One-on-
future goals of coachees … and development populations who Rapport-building, ethics, knowledge and facilitative one, team
aimed at specific work- Future-oriented would benefit from active listening, base, responsibility
related developmental immediate feedback and effective to the client
outcomes’ [40] questioning
Mentoring Focus Clients Context Process Practice Relationship Delivery
‘a developmental Personal growth Normal, non-clinical Work Conversation and Requires Expert/ One-on-
relationship … between a and development populations— professional experience in a experienced one
more experienced Career typically junior or practice particular skill area elder; unequal
individual (the mentor) and progression talented employees power
a less experienced targeted for relationship
individual (the protégé)’ promotion
[41]
Training Focus Clients Context Process Practice Relationship Delivery
‘a learning sequence of Skill Normal, non-clinical Work Classroom Requires a training Authoritative Group
programmed behaviour; development populations learning skill set
combines skills
development, knowledge
transfer, development and
support of understanding
and sustained attitude
change’ [42]
Supervision Focus Clients Context Process Practice Relationship Delivery
‘activity of overseeing Performance Normal, non-clinical Work One-on-one Skills and Authoritative One-on-
subordinates at work to improvement populations feedback expertise in a one or
ensure that the work is particular area team
performed as required’
[37]
4 Coaching
Counselling Focus Clients Context Process Practice Relationship Delivery
‘a professional relationship Relationship and Clinical populations Hospital, Therapeutic. Professional Expert One-on-
Definition
that empowers diverse performance with mental or medical, or Involves practice—requires counsellor, one or
individuals, families, and issues brought on emotional trauma family rapport-building, qualification in psychologist, or family
groups to accomplish by past traumatic affecting their ability relations active listening, psychology, psychiatrist
mental health, wellness, events to operate in normal centre, and effective psychiatry, or
education, and career settings private questioning social work
goals’ [43] practice
51
52 4 Coaching
Coaching as a Profession
In 2004, Grant and Cavanagh [44] reviewed 65 years of academic progress relating
to coaching and identified challenges for the future. They concluded by calling for
coaching to become a profession. As an emerging profession [45–48], coaching is
increasingly being adopted by organisations as a developmental, leadership practice
[49]. However, with different styles and methods of coaching delivery, it has been
difficult to establish guidelines and standards which could apply across all delivery
approaches [50]. Moreover, coaching is emerging as a profession at different rates
in different countries. For example, in the relatively mature American coaching
market where coaching practice is well-established, there were calls for common
standards to legitimise its practice as early as 2003 [51]. In contrast, in the emerging
Malaysian coaching market, the focus is on quality of delivery, ethical standards,
and market penetration to help managers become better leaders, particularly in rela-
tion to the younger workforce [2].
With few common guidelines, researchers argued the need for professionals to
undertake critical reflection and self-evaluation of their own coaching practice [52].
They entreated new and emerging coaches to gain professional coaching qualifica-
tions to ensure their practice was efficacious and addressed ethical, confidential, and
legal issues [53]. Drawing on the psychological literatures, researchers concluded
that there are two types of coach-training schools focused on delivering either a
developmental coaching agenda with skills to address awareness, emotions, and
context, or a performance-based agenda with coaching as a clearly defined skill
[54]. Meanwhile, industry leaders struggled to identify the difference between
coaching as an emerging profession and contemporary HRM practice [12], a debate
hindered by the lack of theoretical underpinnings for coaching as a discipline sepa-
rate from psychology.
Coaching as a Discipline
Whilst recognising coaching as an emerging profession, the academic literature also

supports calls for coaching to develop as a discipline in its own right [55]. As a new
discipline, although drawing on related disciplines, coaching would have its own
discrete body of content, theoretical foundations, pattern of relationships, and pre-
scriptive claims [56]. Hence, there is growing interest in critically reviewing the
philosophical and theoretical foundations underpinning coaching practice [57, 58]
to encourage more nuanced views to counter the traditional ‘taken for granted’
expectations of coaching outcomes [59]. Currently, theories of developmental
coaching, narrative coaching, and macro-system coaching are all that are recog-
nised within the coaching domain [58, 60, 61].
The following two sections explain how the emerging discipline of coaching
draws on knowledge and theoretical underpinnings from the disciplines of
Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching 53
psychology and education. Psychological conceptualisations inform a coach’s

understandings of human behaviour, motivations, drives and needs, beliefs, and
mindsets [62, 63]. Theoretical approaches to achieving personal and behavioural
change focus on satisfying the basic human needs for competence, autonomy, and
relatedness [64–66].
Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching
Academic interest in coaching stems from the late 1990s when consultants first
delivered executive and workplace coaching to support busy professionals replace a
technical skills-base with strategic thinking to become more business-like [51, 67,
68]. The executive coaching process evolved from psychological practice as an indi-
vidual intervention to support the transfer of learnings back into the workplace and
improve managerial effectiveness [69–71]. Attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of
executive coaching were thwarted by the disparate criteria on which the executive
coaches were selected, and concerns regarding the actual outcomes [67, 72, 73]. As
a result, research divided into two directions: the measurement of return on invest-
ment (ROI) from coaching [74] and characteristics of effective coaches and the
coach-coachee match [75]. Initial research on ROI was conducted in the early 2000s
but then languished as the emphasis on meeting individual coaching needs spawned
a plethora of research studies based on psychological perspectives of human behav-
iour and motivations for change.
Psychological Underpinnings of Coaching
Within psychology, coaching practice was originally informed by observations of

human behaviour and manipulations to condition new responses [76]. Research on
motivations for change investigated the psychodynamics of individuals [77] and the
impact of psychological variables such as metacognition and mental health on goal
attainment [78–84]. Cognitive therapeutic approaches [85] posited that interper-
sonal difficulties are caused by habits and associated thought patterns which can be
rectified by focusing on goal-oriented behaviours [86] so that coachees find their
own solutions rather than blaming external forces [87]. Subsequently, solution-
focused coaching helped build a greater depth of self-understanding and self-
efficacy [81, 88, 89] by reducing negative affect and supporting goal attainment
[90–92]. Coaching was found to be most effective when solution-focused coaching
is combined with cognitive and rational-emotive behavioural approaches to produce
positive affect and the achievement of goals [85, 93, 94]. Other researchers investi-
gated how coaching impacts personality traits [95–97], self-identity [60, 98], com-
passion [66], and workplace behaviour [99–103]. Goleman attracted attention when
he released his theory on why emotional intelligence matters more than intelligence
54 4 Coaching
[104]. He identified coaching as one of the four styles associated with effective
leaders and a positive contributor to organisational climate [105]. Subsequent asso-
ciations with like-minded researchers saw coaching acknowledged as an area of
research to support leader development and emotionally intelligent workplaces
[106, 107].
Coaches use techniques based on developmental, humanistic, and positive psy-
chology to address issues and promote mental and emotional wellbeing [108].
These include coaching with unconditional positive regard [109, 110], reality-
checking to ensure that coachee needs, drives, and expectations are realistic and
attainable [111, 112], and exploration of limiting beliefs that hold the coachee back
from becoming authentically happy and achieving flow in their life [113, 114].
Social psychology techniques recognise the importance of the social environment
[115] and assist coachees develop self-regulation, goal attainment, and emotional
competence [116–121]. An important indicator of success from coaching is the cli-
ent’s degree of self-efficacy [122].
Self-efficacy is an individual’s ability to gather the motivation and cognitive
assets and take the actions necessary to perform a given task. In a work situation,
self-efficacy is displayed as an employee’s self-confidence or conviction that they
can take the actions needed to successfully execute a specific project within a given
context and timeframe. Self-efficacy has been found to be one of the two major fac-
tors that influence an individual’s ability to change, the other being importance
[123]. Importance is determined by the value an individual places on making the
change. Depending on the circumstances, they may experience different levels of
importance and self-efficacy. For example, an individual who is overweight may be
convinced of the importance of losing weight but have a low level of confidence
based on previous failure to lose weight or keep weight off. An individual who is
newly diagnosed with hypertension may be confident that they can take a pill to
lower blood pressure but are not convinced of the importance of this action. A defi-
ciency in either importance or self-efficacy can lead to unwillingness to commit
to change.
Educational Underpinnings of Coaching
The evidence for coaching from education and adult learning theories positions it as
a pluralist process that surfaces self-awareness, insight, learnings, and behavioural
change. Specifically, education provides the evidence for coaching as grounded in
the learning process, personal mindsets, motivation, and self-efficacy. In particular,
implicit person theory [124, 125] proposes that coachees who believe in their ability
to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persistence and, at times, assis-
tance, are malleable [126, 127]. Mindset theory [124], applied to an individual’s
ability to change and grow [128–130], integrates principles of self-efficacy, social
learning theory, and work motivation theory to effect change [62, 122]. Educators
and practitioners have been urged to develop a ‘more integrated, systemic, global
approach to coaching to accommodate the challenges posed by a new global para-

digm’ [131]. Combined with principles of adult learning [132–135], these frame-
works provide the basis for the development of adult learning strategies in the
workplace.
Management Underpinnings of Coaching
In addition to the psychological and educational underpinnings, coaching practice

has been informed by management literature based on workplace research. Since
coaching has typically been the responsibility of the HR function, research was
originally set within the HRD, psychology, and related fields [54, 136, 137].
However, the considerable growth in coaching over the past decade, and the identi-
fied benefits for individuals, teams, and organisations, has legitimised coaching as a
function of line managers as well as HR professionals [138]. Research within the
management literature has focused on ways to stimulate employee growth and
development based on measurable outcomes [40]. Theoretical approaches have
focused on the acquisition of competencies to enhance leadership development
[104, 107], job satisfaction [4, 139, 140], motivation and work performance [62, 99,
141–143], and interpersonal and team relationships [144–146].
Management theory contributes to pre-coaching by the development of instru-
ments which profile personality, leadership style, and career aspirations. These
instruments are administered by accredited practitioners who may also be HR pro-
fessionals. Significant management contributions to coaching success relate to goal-
setting theories and action-planning techniques. Figure 4.2 represents the significant
contributions of education and psychology theories and management research to
contemporary coaching practice.
The different types of coaching that emerged from these foundations are detailed
in the section below.
Types of Coaching
The expansion of literature and research into workplace coaching in the last two
decades has led to a diversification in the types of coaching offered by external,
executive coaches and internal line managers who coach [40]. The types of coach-
ing offered within organisations, whilst often used interchangeably [147], have spe-
cific characteristics that best serve the groups which are the target of the coaching.
The types of coaching that emerged from executive coaching origins include mana-
gerial, leadership, team, and peer coaching [148–150].
Executive coaching is a developmental process based on mutual trust and respect
within a partnership relationship between coach and executive [1, 151]. The success
of the process lies in the quality of the relationship. Transforming executives from
56 4 Coaching
Positive Psychology Coaching
Education Traditional Psychology

· Adult learning theory and principles, · Cognitive behavioural theory
self-directed learning
· Rational emotive theory
· Experiential learning · Developmental theory
· Single, double and triple-loop · Humanistic theory, unconditional positive regard
learning
· Social cognitive theory, self-efficacy
· Implicit person theory, change stages
· Self-determination theory Positive Psychology
· Critical self-reflection and reflective · Solution focus
practice
· Strengths and potential
· Transformative learning
· Mental model, mindset and mindfulness
· Disorienting dilemma
· Meaning making
Management
· Goal-oriented, action-focused
· Motivation, job satisfaction and employee
engagement
· Skills and competencies
· Job design and job-embedded learning
· Transfer of learning
Fig. 4.2 Coaching incorporates theoretical approaches from education, psychology, and

management
good to peak performers [148, 152, 153] relies on one-on-one interactions about
work-related issues [29, 75, 154]. Multi-source feedback on strengths and weak-
nesses provides baseline data against which to measure improvements in personal
effectiveness, leadership competency, organisational performance, and change [75,
155]. Executive coaching positively affects the executive’s self-awareness, transfor-
mational leadership behaviour, social capital, and career planning [75, 147, 156–
159]. An ulterior motivation for executive coaching has been posited as ‘to discipline
values’ [160] and achieve alignment between individual and organisational values
and behaviours.
Managerial coaching is conducted with middle managers so they can improve
the performance of their direct reports by facilitating their learning of work-related
skills and abilities [100]. It focuses on the planning, organising, staffing, and con-
trolling functions they need to perform their line management responsibilities effec-
tively [161–165] and the competencies they need to possess to succeed in their role
[137, 166–168]. The coaching provides timely feedback so managers can better
navigate workplace challenges, formulate work goals, clarify team performance tar-
gets and expectations, improve employee job performance, and adjust job/role func-
tions [169, 170]. Managers learn how to provide frequent performance feedback to
team members, promote employee engagement, and reduce turnover intention [171,
172]. Prominent in coaching is improving the manager’s ability to achieve organisa-
tional objectives [161–165].
Leadership coaching, the most common form of coaching in organisations today

[100, 173], is focused on supporting leaders who inspire and motivate their direct
reports to increase employee engagement and assist them cope with change [174–
176]. Leadership coaching impacts the leader’s behaviour and cognitive functioning
to translate individual learnings into team learnings. Shared group-level beliefs sup-
port the implementation of change efforts [177]. A combination of interventions
such as individual coaching and training has been found to be the most effective in
delivering change [178–181]. Sustained change is achieved when leadership coach-
ing satisfies the leader’s needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence [182].
Two styles of leadership coaching—guidance and facilitation—have been reported
in the literature [183]. The guidance style combines clear expectations of perfor-
mance requirements with observational learning, behavioural re-alignment, and role
modelling to achieve performance mastery. The facilitation style enables adaptive
learning from the environment, one-on-one feedback, and the adoption of a trans-
formational leadership style. A focus on coaching new leaders to integrate multiple
identities as they settle into their role highlights the latest developments in the
field [184].
Team coaching is an emerging developmental process that focuses on both
results and relationships [185, 186]. It confirms common goals, identifies issues
challenging the team or team members, assists them reflect on their performance
and review progress, and coordinates collective resources to accomplish the work of
the team [16, 181, 187]. Team coaching improves communication and decision-
making [188], facilitates problem-solving and conflict management [189], and
enables teams to learn how to increase their collective capability and performance
through ‘assisted reflection, analysis and motivation for change’ [190]. As team
members reflect on their performance, they identify opportunities for systemic
change and innovation [191, 192].
Peer coaching supplements other forms of organisational coaching as an effec-
tive, informal, relational practice that promotes and supports the achievement of
leadership and career aspirations [193]. It is delivered one-on-one by employees
informally as opportunities arise to innovate or improve performance, systems, and
processes [194]. As ‘a helping relationship that facilitates mutual learning and
development to accomplish specific tasks or goals’ [195], peer coaching provides
mutual support to achieve individual, immediate, and short-term goals and build
leadership capacity [196]. ‘Peer coaching is a low-cost resource. It has high impact.
It can be just-in-time. It is easily learned. And it is self-renewing, sustainable’ [197],
and an overlooked resource in the development of an employee’s critical thinking,
reasoning skills, and effective judgement [198]. Peer coaching has been used effec-
tively in educational settings to support learning and growth [196, 199].
Fundamental to all types of coaching is the desire to achieve behavioural and
performance changes to support productivity improvements [200, 201]. Workplace
coaching methodologies and systems support a type of learning that, over time,
becomes implicit, tacit, and assumed [202].
58 4 Coaching
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Chapter 5
Benefits of Coaching
This chapter outlines the tangible and intangible benefits of coaching for individu-
als, teams, and organisations which make coaching such a powerful intervention for
personal and professional growth. Tangible benefits are immediately observable
such as improvements in behaviour, relationships, or work performance. Intangible
benefits are internal to the individual, and these benefits are only obvious when the
client expresses learnings as Aha! moments. Some benefits are observed immedi-
ately, but others may take longer to display especially if other people are involved.
Each coaching session addresses goals and actions to which the client must commit
to achieve their coaching needs. It is important that the client commits to doing
something, no matter how small, which will make an immediate difference in their
life. In an organisational setting, ways to measure the return on investment from
coaching for individuals, teams, and the organisation itself are presented.
Tangible and intangible benefits of coaching are reflective of behavioural changes
brought about by participating in the coaching process. People who are focused and
goal-driven rarely pause to contemplate the workings of their inner selves. Coaching
provides them with the opportunity to step back and ponder the effect of their words,
behaviours, and decisions on people around them, especially those with whom they
work. This enhanced self- and social-awareness paves the way for the integration of
individual needs with family, work, social, and organisational needs. For example,
within a work environment, the aim of coaching is to align individual values and
aspirations with organisational values and business goals. When all employees are
aligned, cultural and transformational change, beneficial to the organisation,
will emerge.
Tangible benefits of coaching may include physical recognition or reward, such
as a merit certificate, gift, or public acclaim. Intangible benefits are those that are
not behaviourally visible such as feelings of pride in work done, satisfaction with a
completed report, or increased confidence. These intangible benefits only become
known when the individual chooses to reveal their presence. Sometimes benefits
take longer to manifest because the client is thinking through the coaching

68 5 Benefits of Coaching
Fig. 5.1 The benefits of coaching for individuals, teams, and organisations
conversation and making meaning of the insights gained during the session. They
may have become more self-aware of their actions and the consequences for them-
selves and others. They may come to realise that the way in which they have been
behaving is not working for them and needs to change. As a result, the client may
work with the coach to explore other ways of relating to people at home, at work,
and in the community at large. The benefits that accrue to them may be initially
intangible until they become represented in real time as discreet, tangible benefits
such as evidenced by improved communication and relationships with family and
colleagues; increased self-confidence; more effective self-management; higher
motivation to work as a result of increased job satisfaction; and stronger organisa-
tional commitment. Figure 5.1 depicts the benefits of coaching for individuals,
teams, and organisations, which are elaborated in the sections that follow.
Benefits for Individuals
At a personal level, individuals who are coached develop greater self-awareness of

their situation and what they need. They see things in a different light, just by having
the opportunity to speak with someone who listens to them and who cares about
Benefits for Individuals 69
what happens in their life. One of the biggest benefits that clients report from coach-
ing is that there’s someone who is objective, listening to their story, and not judging
them. The coach acts as a sounding-board to help them accept responsibility for the
part they have played in co-creating their situation.
A second benefit of individual coaching is that coachees learn how to resolve
problems by themselves as part of their personal development. They gain feedback
on what they are doing right, and reinforcement for the positive aspects of their life.
The coach works with a client to help them improve their communication with oth-
ers and develop better interpersonal relationships. It may be that clients need to
become more assertive, and the coach shows them how to do this in a way that will
bring about positive effects rather than negative consequences. It may be that the
client is experiencing conflict with another person, and the coach works with them
to develop better strategies which they can use to resolve situations more amicably.
It may be that the client is experiencing great stress, and the coach helps them alter
the situation in which they find themselves or change their reaction to the stressor,
so they can get on with their life.
Third, as a trusting, partnered relationship between a coach and client develops,
each coaching session increases the client’s confidence and self-esteem. Some out-
comes are immediately visible—such as behavioural or performance change. Others
may be less obvious to others but be intrinsically rewarding to the client—such as
gaining satisfaction from achieving their set goal or connecting with a desired other.
The coach is aware that intangible behavioural changes such as a changed mindset
can have a more far-reaching positive effect on the client’s life and workplace than
tangible changes because they have reframed or eliminated deep-seated assump-
tions and beliefs.
The visible benefits of individual coaching can be measured by changes in
behaviour, performance, goal achievement, or career development. To measure the
changes in an organisational setting, baseline data may be collected in relation to
key performance indicators (KPIs) of the client’s role, or ‘soft skills’ data such as
leadership ability, communication, and relationship skills. Data may be measured
pre- and post-coaching using a range of commercially-available assessment instru-
ments such as DiSC, Myer-Briggs Type Indicator, CLS360, Hogan, and Belbin
Team Roles. Examples of tangible and intangible benefits that may be derived from
individual coaching are included in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 The benefits of coaching for individuals

For the Observable behavioural change
individual Performance improvement
Achieving a specified goal
Improved job satisfaction
Undertaking a developmental opportunity
Promotion or securing a new position
Benefits for Teams
Research has found that coaching delivered within teams increases employee
engagement, performance, and productivity [1–4], promotes personal growth and
development [5], improves communication skills [6, 7], enhances teamwork [8],
develops leaders [9–11], and retains talent [12–15]. Coaching within teams is con-
ducted by external coaches or internal coaches such as HR professionals or line
managers formally trained as coaches or in coaching skills.
Dyadic coaching in the workplace is often focused on ‘performance’ rather than
‘pure’ coaching but may include elements of personal ‘catch-up’ as well. The
coaching of individual team members ideally occurs every 4–6 weeks to ensure that
each employee is ‘on track’ with their performance requirements and progress. In
organisations with a coaching culture, these regular sessions replace the annual per-
formance review. When this happens, performance which needs adjusting can be
addressed in a timely manner so that ‘failure’ is avoided and not costly to the
business.
Line managers may coach team members individually or as a group, for exam-
ple, when conducting a ‘Work in Progress’ meeting to provide direction to their
employees for the coming week. Individual or group coaching is also effective to
follow up on a training session, so that the transfer of learning from the training
program to the workplace is maximised. In addition to such coaching being deliv-
ered by the line manager, coaching of colleagues may occur informally by team
members who ‘peer coach’ each other on an ‘as-needed’ basis [16]. This practice
spreads the philosophy of support, encouragement, and continuous improvement
throughout the team, minimising the ‘burden’ on the line manager to be the only one
who is coaching others. Of course, team members need some training in basic
coaching skills to deliver peer coaching competently and confidently.
The benefits of coaching within teams can be measured by changes in HR statis-
tics such as retention of talented staff, reduced absenteeism, number of customer
complaints, pre- and post-surveys that rate items such as job satisfaction and
employee engagement, and team performance indicators such as the achievement of
business targets. Examples of the benefits of coaching for teams and team members
are included in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 The benefits of coaching for teams and team members
For the team and team members Increased employee engagement
Retention of talented staff
Better working relationships within the team
Less conflict
More cooperation and collaboration
Achievement of team targets
Reduced absenteeism
Reduced staff complaints
Benefits for Organisations 71
Benefits for Organisations
The implementation of coaching within organisations is an opportunity to create a

more positive and supportive work environment for personal and organisational
flourishing [17]. It is also an opportunity to engage in ‘more candour, less denial,
richer communication, [and the] conscious development of talent’ [18]. Coaching in
organisations has been shown to increase sales and revenue [19–21], productivity
[22, 23], competitive advantage [24, 25], and the pace of cultural change [26, 27].
Coaching all team members encourages interdependence which can strengthen rela-
tionships and contribute to the long-term sustainability of the organisation [28].
Moreover, as coaching is conducted, teams and team members are encouraged to
reflect on their performance and identify opportunities for organisational learning,
innovation, and systemic change [29, 30]. It is because of these benefits to organisa-
tions that coaching is frequently chosen as a complementary intervention to trans-
formational change initiatives. Examples of the benefits of coaching for organisations
are included in Table 5.3.
Coaching also results in significant benefits for the executives who are coached.
These benefits relate to both interpersonal and professional issues that executives
struggle with as they perform in their role. Intangible benefits may include the execu-
tive’s ability to inspire and achieve higher levels of individual and team performance,
raise job satisfaction levels, become more expert in making strategic decisions, be
more open and less defensive, create more effective relationships internally and exter-
nally with customers and suppliers, and initiate and lead successful cultural change
programs by realigning patterns of individual behaviour and social norms with organ-
isational values. These benefits relate to the daily issues that executives struggle with
as they enact their role. An overall summary of the benefits of coaching for individu-
als, teams, and organisations, and the ways to measure them, is at Table 5.4.
Return on Investment (ROI)
Early research on the effectiveness of coaching identified financial improvements

for individuals such as increased sales performance and individual earnings. New
insurance agents with coaches were found to sell 20% more than those without
Table 5.3 The benefits of coaching for organisations

For the organisation Increase in revenue
Increase in sales
Increase in new client numbers
Decreased employee turnover
Decreased customer complaints
Increased productivity
Improved bottom-line profitability
Table 5.4 Summary of the benefits of coaching and how to measure them
The benefits of
coaching Benefits How to measure
‘Hard’ measures (based
on KPIs)—tangible ‘Soft’ measures—intangible,
numbers where converted to measurement
possible numbers where possible
Individual Observable Achieving individual Leadership capability (360°
behavioural change KPIs assessment)
Performance (reported by line Interpersonal effectiveness
improvement manager) (360°, survey)
Achieving a Quality standards • Communication
specified goal (inspection) • Relationships
Improved job Customer satisfaction Observable behavioural change
satisfaction (front-facing staff) (self and ‘other’ report)
Undertaking a (survey)
developmental
opportunity
Promotion or
securing a new
position
Team Increased employee Achieving or exceeding Staff survey of
engagement team targets (reported • Employee engagement
Retention of by line manager) • Job satisfaction
talented staff Reduced staff • Teamwork
Better working absenteeism, • Working relationships
relationships within complaints, conflict Team effectiveness, e.g. Belbin
the team (reported by HR) Team Roles, Hogan
Less conflict
More cooperation
and collaboration
Achievement of
team targets
Reduced
absenteeism
Reduced staff
complaints
Organisation Increased revenue Employee engagement Cultural change
Increased sales levels • Cooperation
Decreased employee (reported by HR) • Collaboration
turnover Retention of talented • Support
Decreased customer staff (reported by HR) • Sharing
complaints Profitability (reported • Development
Increased by finance)
productivity
Improved bottom-
line profitability
Benefits for Organisations 73
coaches and be 13.5% more likely to survive the first year (74% compared with 64%
who weren’t coached) [31]. Professional workers with coaches earned between
$5,610 and $22,450 more than those who didn’t [32]. Since then, a number of
research studies have focused on how coaching contributes to the organisation’s
financial performance [33–37]. Given that organisations are concerned with bottom-
line results, it is not unreasonable that executives want to quantify the benefits of
coaching so that financial decision-makers can have some ‘nice … crunchy, quanti-
tative performance data’ to justify the organisation’s expenditure on coaching [38].
Monetary Benefits
Measuring the return on investment from coaching originally focused on the mon-
etary benefits, that is, ROI. For example, in an extensive study on the effectiveness
of executive coaching, the US Manchester Consulting Group found the average ROI
was over 500% [39]. Another study reported the impact of executive coaching on
100 executives from 56 organisations of various sizes; the majority of participants
reported an ROI of between $100,000 and $1 million, a conservative estimate being
5.7 times the initial investment [35]. In a third study, whilst the cost of coaching 25
executives was $579,800, the total performance value of the executive coaching
programme was estimated at $1,861,158, which represented an ROI of $3.21 for
every dollar invested, or $1.21 when the initial cost was deducted (an ROI of
221%) [40].
In a fourth study, MetrixGlobal was engaged to determine the business benefits
and ROI of an executive coaching investment involving executives from large
(mostly FORTUNE 1000) companies [33]. The executives had participated in either
‘change oriented’ coaching aimed at improving certain behaviours or skills, or
‘growth oriented’ coaching designed to improve overall job performance. The pro-
grams lasted from 6 to 12 months. Approximately 60% of the executives were aged
40–49. Half of the participants held positions of vice president or higher and a third
earned $200,000 or more per year. They reported:
Coaching produced a 529% return on investment and significant intangible benefits to the
business. Including the financial benefits from employee retention boosted the overall ROI
to 788%. The study provided powerful new insights into how to maximise the business
impact from executive coaching.
Since environmental factors like currency fluctuations, political stability, and

economic conditions also impact the organisation’s position in the marketplace, in
recent years researchers have paid less attention to the macro, organisational out-
comes from coaching and focused more on the micro-influences of coaching on
performance and productivity. Investing in the organisation’s human capital rather
than plant and equipment has been found to result in long-term, ongoing gains for
shareholders [41].
People Benefits
The value of executive coaching to the organisation’s human capital can be mea-
sured by examining the intra- and inter-personal gains made by executives and other
organisational members such as changes in behaviour or improvements in leader-
ship skills. For example, a Workforce Study was conducted within SmithKline
Beecham’s US Finance Division and reported a reduction in turnover from 27.5 to
2% when employees were coached; moreover, only 16% of employees expressed
intention to leave the organisation after being coached compared with 35% prior to
coaching [42]. Another study reported high returns on various indicators including
shareholder return, derived from investing in human capital [43]:
In December 2001, we … created a live portfolio of companies that spend aggressively on
employee development. In its first 25 months …the] portfolio has outperformed the S&P
500 index by 4.6 percentage points (2.2% versus a decline of 2.4% for the index). In January
2003, we expanded our investment strategy by launching two additional live equity portfo-
lios made up of similar development-oriented companies... each of these three portfolios
outperformed the S&P 500 by 17% to 35% in 2003.
Monetary and People Benefits
A number of both monetary and ‘people’ benefits from coaching have been noted in
the literature. For example, the MetrixGlobal study [33] reported improvements in
productivity, quality, organisational strength, customer service, and bottom-line
profitability. Reductions were reported in customer complaints, conflict, and overall
organisational costs. Executives who received coaching were retained by the organ-
isation. In addition, executives noted improvements in teamwork, working relation-
ships with direct reports, immediate supervisor, peers and clients, job satisfaction,
and organisational commitment, as detailed in Table 5.5.
Some of the most recent research on the benefits of coaching for organisations
has been conducted on behalf of the ICF [2, 44]. This research discovered that
coaching increased productivity and improved work performance (by 70%), busi-
ness management (by 61%), time management (by 57%), and team effectiveness
(by 51%). Coaching impacted positivity measures such as increased self-confidence
(by 80%), better relationships (by 73%), improved communication skills (by 72%),
and improved work-life balance (by 67%).
The ICF [2] report on Building a Coaching Culture for Increased Employee
Engagement identified three key benefits:
• Higher employee engagement (60% of employees rated as highly engaged com-
pared with 48% of all other organisations)
• Higher revenue growth (63% report being above their industry peer group in
2014 revenue compared with 45% of all other organisations)
• Higher engagement levels for high-potentials with access to any of the three
coaching modalities.
References 75
Table 5.5 Monetary and ‘people’ benefits of organisational coaching

Organisational benefits People benefits (increase of/in)
Improvements Retention of talent (32%)
Productivity (reported by 53% Teamwork (67%)
of executives) Working relationships with direct reports (77%), immediate
Quality (48%) supervisor (71%), peers (63%), and clients (37%)
Organisational strength (48%) Job satisfaction (61%)
Customer service (39%) Organisational commitment (44%)
Profitability (22%)
Reductions
Customer complaints (34%)
Conflict (52%)
Organisational costs (23%)
Some researchers have posited that the true value of coaching lies in the stories
that are told during the coaching process as clients reflect on their thoughts, actions,
and beliefs through coaching conversations [45]. They agree that, even though
coaching is an emerging professional field of practice, unfortunately it lacks a clear
and agreed sense of outcomes and how they can be measured [38, 46].
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Chapter 6
Coaching Skills
This chapter introduces the skills that coaches use to bring about successful change
outcomes in clients. The coaching skills have been derived from the techniques that
psychologists and therapists use to build rapid rapport and trusting relationships
with patients. Process-oriented coaching skills include active and reflective listen-
ing, powerful questioning, and summarising. The difference between process-
oriented and content-oriented coaching skills is explained in this chapter.
Process-oriented coaching skills facilitate the coach’s understanding of the client’s
situation and coaching needs. The coach uses open and closed questioning to elicit
details pertinent to the client’s concern and encourages them to think more openly
about alternate ways of behaving. But it is by asking powerful questions which chal-
lenge underlying assumptions and beliefs, and reveal biases and judgements, that
the client gains increased self-awareness and surfaces deeply hidden insights. The
coach summarises the client’s situation and needs before using content-oriented
coaching skills to assist them goal set and action plan.
Coaching skills have been described as intangible in content or technical knowl-
edge, and difficult to assess [1]. Also known as ‘soft skills’ or interpersonal skills,
their use is instrumental in the delivery of successful coaching outcomes.
Communication, collaboration, and cooperation are all ‘soft skills’ that individuals
use every day in their interaction with others. Within a coaching session, the coach
uses skills of active and reflective listening, powerful questioning, and summarising
to assist the client achieve the goals they desire. The use of coaching skills contrib-
utes significantly to the creation of a trusting working relationship with the client in
which learning takes place and personal change results. Coaches position them-
selves as co-learners with the client, seeking resolution based on constructive feed-
back and collaborative accountability. When coaching conversations are focused on
the issue, not the person, they can be actioned in a dispassionate, realistic way.

80 6 Coaching Skills
Coaches use a variety of skills such as listening, questioning, paraphrasing, and

critical reflection to build a trusting coach–coachee relationship which enhances
responsibility and accountability [2]. Using the coaching skills builds trust and
alignment and engages individuals both cognitively and emotionally. Coaching
behaviours that ‘ask the right questions and model behaviors [that] employees can
replicate are more productive than traditional “tell me” feedback approaches’ [3]
because they establish expectations of the client’s active involvement in, and respon-
sibility for, achieving their desired outcomes from the coaching. The skill of the
coach is to facilitate rather than prescribe outcomes [4].
Traditional Psychology Contributions
Coaching skills have been developed from traditional psychological approaches but
are principally based on the work of three major contributors: Milton Erickson [5],
Virginia Satir [6], and Carl Rogers [7, 8]. Milton Erickson’s contribution to coach-
ing was his powerful observation skills which allowed him to ‘read’ people—listen-
ing to the spoken words but also paying attention to the ‘unspoken’ thoughts and
feelings that lay beneath the surface as expressed by the client’s non-verbal behav-
iour. Virginia Satir’s contribution to coaching was to the language of coaching—the
need to listen intently to the client’s story and then replicate their exact words and
language pattern to give the coach insight into their preferred learning and commu-
nication style. This approach is similar to the Socratic questioning techniques used
in cognitive psychology. Coaching using this model facilitates the identification of
specific cognitive distortions such as over-generalisations and provides the mecha-
nism for coaches to challenge client’s assumptions about what ‘should’ or ‘must’ be
done or happen. Carl Rogers’ contribution to coaching was his positioning of coach-
ing as a process of providing unconditional positive regard for the client, and belief
in the absolute worth of the individual and their ability to find their own solutions.
Language models provide the framework for developing questions that stimulate
creativity and discovery as clients explore their personal subjective experience and
formulate specific goals to be achieved from the coaching [9]. Cognitive distortions
and ‘irrational’ beliefs that hold them back from achieving their coaching outcomes
are identified [10, 11]. Reframing (or cognitive restructuring) is a well-established
cognitive therapy technique used in clinical settings [10]. It is a particularly effec-
tive linguistic technique that is also used in coaching to change the client’s percep-
tion of a situation, experience, or event. Reframing provides an alternative way for
the client to view their situation or concern. It aims to decrease negative affect and
increase positive motivations to behave differently. Three stages in the reframing
process, which can be modified as appropriate during coaching, have been outlined
[12]. First, the coach acknowledges the client’s perspective. For example, ‘I hear
what you say and understand the impact this incident has had on you’. Next, the
coach offers a challenge to the client’s current thinking. For example, ‘Could it be
that this situation may be viewed in a different way?’ Finally, the coach encourages
the client to suggest different explanations for their situation or concern as alterna-
tive valid perspectives, with a focus on the positive actions they can take to move
them meaningfully forward. ‘What is it that you think you could do differently?’
The outcome leads the client to become more open to alternate views on their situ-
ation and new ways of behaving in response to it.
Carl Rogers’ [7] client-centred therapy distinguished between directive and non-
directive counselling and therapeutic skills. Non-directive counselling skills, which
are also used in coaching, assume the client’s willingness and ability to undertake
behavioural change, and hence require only limited intervention by the coach. They
include active and reflective listening, open and closed questioning, paraphrasing,
and summarising. The client is an active participant in the coaching process. Non-
directive approaches are particularly effective when they incorporate the three nec-
essary and sufficient characteristics of therapists (and coaches) for client
improvement: congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy [13]. In
contrast, cognitive behavioural therapeutic techniques are considered directive
because of their emphasis on experiential approaches to behavioural change such as
modelling and explicit feedback [14]. However, when directive approaches are
combined with non-directive approaches, and implemented in collaboration with
the client, they become less directive. As coaching does not aim to offer instant,
routine solutions but rather to foster learning and change [15], coaches avoid using
directive approaches [16]. Instead, they use unconditional positive regard as the
basis to work non-judgementally with clients, totally accepting the person as doing
the best they know how at the time but not necessarily accepting their behaviour,
which is often related to, or the cause of, why the client is seeking coaching.
Directive approaches may be incorporated into the coaching on a needs-basis.
Over the years, researchers have investigated the application of other research
techniques to support coaching practice such as transpersonal [17], gestalt [18, 19],
narrative [20], integrative [21–23], solution-focused [24–27], neuro-linguistic pro-
gramming [28–30], and motivational interviewing [31, 32]. Motivational
Interviewing (MI) is a client-centred coaching style aimed at facilitating behav-
ioural change by helping clients explore and overcome their ambivalence for change
[33]. The technique has been well-documented as an effective behavioural change
intervention in the health industry, especially associated with alcohol and drug
abuse [34, 35]. The effectiveness of motivational interviewing in reducing adult
obesity, increasing physical activity and improved nutrition, and promoting a more
optimistic view on their quality of life has been reported [36].
The discipline of counselling psychology [37] has contributed the skills of active
and reflective listening, open-ended and closed questioning, and summarising to
coaching, which are discussed in the next sections. Coaches who actively and reflec-
tively listen to clients are better able to understand their situation and summarise
their needs.
Listening Skills
Listening is an active process through which individuals gather information to meet

their needs for interacting with the environment [38]. It’s a critical skill for coaches
to learn and use effectively. The coach listens for what is said, and also for what they
intuit is not said from observing the client’s non-verbal language. By using the NLP
techniques of matching and mirroring the client’s non-verbal behaviours, the coach
develops a deeper level of rapport with the client more quickly. Listening to the
client’s exact words allows the coach to identify their preferred communication
style—visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic—which they can also match and mirror.
There are two types of listening—active listening and reflective listening.
Active listening is an interactive process by which the coach gathers information,
promotes learning, and encourages behavioural change [15, 39]. As they listen, they
develop intuitions about the client’s mental mindset, assumptions, beliefs, biases,
and judgements based on the explicit and implicit language they use [40]. Reflective
listening is also an essential coaching skill used to demonstrate the coach’s under-
standing of the client’s situation and needs [41]. As appropriate, the coach asks
questions for clarification or to obtain further information. In doing so, they must be
careful not to let their personal filters, assumptions, judgements, or biases distort
what they hear. Three types of reflective responses used in therapeutic situations
have been described [12]: simple, amplified, and double-sided reflections. Only
simple reflection is used in coaching situations. At intervals, the coach reflectively
summarises the client’s story so they know that the coach understands their concern
and what they have done in an attempt to address it.
When the coach actively listens to the client and reflects back their story, includ-
ing any actions that the client may have taken to resolve their situation and with
what outcome, the client will either agree with the coach that they have heard cor-
rectly or inform them if something is missing. Traditional psychology research then
offers open and closed questioning techniques that the coach can use to seek more
specific information.
Questioning Skills
Questioning involves the use of open and closed questioning techniques which may
be direct or non-direct. Open questions are non-direct, designed to stimulate discov-
ery and creativity. They are used at the beginning of the coaching session to open up
the conversation and start trust-building. They develop the client’s story so the
coach understands it completely and can identify their coaching needs. The coach
affirms that the client has done the best they knew how at the time, and ascertains
the client’s readiness to move forward by embracing different behaviours. Closed
questions aim to discover the facts of the situation. They are direct and seek a spe-
cific answer, such as facts and figures, which helps the coach build a picture of the
client’s situation and needs. The coach ensures that closed questions are asked in an
inquiring rather than inquisitorial manner lest they cause offence and possibly pro-
voke hostility in the client.
Summarising Skills
Summarising is a specialised form of reflective listening. It’s an effective way for

the coach to communicate interest in a client, build rapport, call attention to salient
aspects of the coaching conversation, and shift the focus back ‘on track’ if neces-
sary. The coach listens to gain a complete understanding of all ‘parts’ of the client’s
story—the gestalt [42, 43]. Summarising is the skill that succinctly pulls all the
‘parts’ together to represent a particular section of the client’s story as it unfolds.
This is important so that the coach doesn’t get overwhelmed with too much infor-
mation at once. By summarising in ‘parts’, the coach is able to check for under-
standing and, in doing so, confirm that they are hearing what the client has to say.
As the client reports their story, they too become more aware of what lies beneath
their concern and can provide additional information if it is important to facilitate
the coach’s better understanding.
Process Versus Content Coaching Skills
These essential process-oriented coaching skills [44] are used in every coaching
session at different times to elicit client change. When the coach masters these
skills, they engage clients in active learning of new perspectives and ways of behav-
ing, and help them develop self-efficacy and motivation to achieve. In addition, the
coach needs the skill of facilitation, the ability to gently guide and direct the client
towards a successful coaching outcome, and motivation skills to keep them moving
positively forward towards their desired goal.
In contrast with the process-oriented coaching skills, content-oriented coaching
skills are aligned with a competency-based, performance agenda such as in a corpo-
rate or regulatory environment. In occupations or professions where strict adher-
ence to implementation guidelines is required (such as in skilled manufacturing,
medicine, law), content-oriented skills of observation, feedback, and correction are
necessary. The difference between process- and content-oriented coaching skills
was examined in a medical education setting [45]. Researchers discovered that in
this workplace, supervisors need process skills in relation to preparation, relation-
ship development, micro-communication skills, reflection, and self-assessment.
They also need content skills related to the giving of feedback, goal-setting, and
development planning. The researchers noted the inter-connectedness of the process
and content-oriented coaching skills and observed that, in prescriptive environ-
ments such as medical practice, there are tensions between encouraging self-
direction, and ensuring progress and competence in the performance of the job role.
They also noted difficulties in balancing the use of process versus content skills in
the ‘partnership—teaching’ relationship between the coach/supervisor and the med-
ical residents.
In summary, in certain situations, effective coaching may involve a combination
of process- and content-oriented skills [44]. Content-oriented coaching skills such
as the ability to deliver constructive feedback, goal set, and action plan are
incorporated into the coaching process when content (i.e. knowledge and skill
development) is important to the client. Occasions when it is particularly important
to include content-oriented coaching skills in the coaching session are when coach-
ing is conducted for professional development, performance improvement, and
career progression.
Positive Psychology Contributions
The field of positive psychology has added the use of powerful questioning skills to
the traditional skill mix of open and closed questioning skills required of coaches.
Powerful questions are both direct and non-direct. They are non-direct in that they
are open-ended, meaning that there is no right or wrong answer and the client is free
to mentally roam around a number of abstract responses. They are direct in that they
are designed to stimulate cognitive dissonance and challenge fixed mental frames
and beliefs.
Powerful Questions
Powerful questions are simple, open-ended and come from a place of genuine curi-
osity. They shift the conversation and take it deeper into potentially unknown,
unchartered territory [46]. Neither the coach nor the client knows the answer to a
powerful question until it emerges from the client’s subconscious. Powerful ques-
tions get right to the heart of the matter, addressing the real issues confronting the
client—issues which have been lying under the surface for some time, disabling
their true personal and professional effectiveness. They cause the client to think
through what has happened and what they have done and, as a result, encourage
self-reflection, surface underlying assumptions, and generate creative thinking.
Clients come to understand the part they played in creating their situation and take
responsibility for their actions. As clients engage in deep structure learning, search-
ing within for the answers or solutions to their problems, they begin to realise that
the person they are today is not the person they want to be tomorrow. Having made
this realisation, they are usually fully ready to commit to the coaching process and
welcome the ways they may evolve as they do things differently.
All the while, the coach uses unconditional positive regard to support the client
through this process. The coach sits, and waits, and remains silent as necessary, not
wanting to interfere with the client’s thoughts. The coach holds their presence ‘in
the moment’ and is completely ‘there’ for the client. It is only when the client
emerges from the depths of their thoughts and feelings that the coach resumes the
appropriate coaching style and continues the coaching session.
The essential process-oriented coaching skills used in every coaching session are
those of active and reflective listening, powerful questioning, and summarising.
These skills are used at different times during the coaching process to elicit different
client responses. Coaches who actively and reflectively listen to clients are better
able to understand their situation and coaching needs. When the coach masters these
skills, they engage clients in learning new perspectives and ways of behaving, and
help them develop self-efficacy and motivation to achieve.
Active Listening
During coaching, and especially at the beginning of the coaching session, the coach
focuses completely on what the client is saying to discover as much information as
possible about their circumstances. Noticing the exact words and phrases a client
uses, the coach listens for:
• Content—information about the client’s story that they are willing to share,
• Context—the particulars of the situation in which the story took place as
they see it,
• Impact—what resulted after what happened, to them and others, as well as implicit
metaphors and images that may emerge in addition to explicit expressions, and
• Feelings—the emotions that arose in them and others during and after the event.
Reflective Listening
Reflective listening is like holding up a mirror to the client’s story. Using the client’s
exact, significant words (and especially ‘feeling’ words), reflective listening high-
lights the four key elements of the communication: the content and context, impact,
and feelings. The coach may say: ‘What I’m hearing is….’ or ‘Sounds like you are
saying….’ These are effective ways they can reflect back the client’s story, although
reflection shouldn’t be over-used in a conversation. Another way is to ask questions
to clarify certain points such as: ‘What do you mean when you said…?’ ‘Is this what
you mean …?’ If the coach finds themself responding emotionally to what the client
has said, they should say so, and ask for more information: ‘I may not understand
you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally. What I thought you
just said is XXX. Is that what you meant?’
As the client’s story unfolds, the coach varies the level of reflection to help them
discover their inner truth. Reflections of affect, especially those where the coach uses
their insight and asks permission to state something that’s obvious to them but hidden
to the client, can be powerful motivators for change. For example, ‘It seems that the
relationship between you and your partner has broken down and that is distressing
you. Is that correct?’ If the coach is right, the emotional intensity of the session deep-
ens. If wrong, or the client is not ready to deal with this insight, they will correct the
coach and the conversation continues. However, if the coach’s insight is firm, they
may come back to re-test their hypothesis at a later time during the coaching.
As the coach listens to the client’s story, they may intuit some negative or limiting
beliefs that are holding them back or thwarting their ability to resolve the situation
by themselves. They note these down and as appropriate, surface them to the client’s
awareness as appropriate. The discrepancies are then ‘on the table’ for discussion
either immediately if the client is willing, or later on as the coaching progresses. As
the coach listens actively and reflectively, they may ask open and closed questions to
gain additional information which helps them understand the client’s story.
Open Questions
Open questions are those which clients cannot answer with a ‘yes’, ‘no’, or ‘three
times in the last week’ response. Most coaches begin coaching sessions with an
open-ended question such as: ‘What’s the most important thing we should be talk-
ing about today?’ or ‘What brings you here today?’ or ‘Tell me about what’s been
happening since we last met?’ or ‘So, what makes you feel that it might be time for
a change?’ Open questions allow the client to tell their own story in their own way.
They are useful when the coach needs more information but is not exactly sure what
information they need. Examples include:
• What did you do?
• What happened then?
• What else?
• Do you have any other ideas?
• How are you feeling right now?
Closed Questions
Closed questions are those that seek a specific response for information, for exam-
ple: ‘How many times a day does this behaviour occur?’ They uncover the facts and
support direct communication. Examples of closed questions include:
• When did this occur?
• Who else was present?
• How long did the incident last?
• What is your manager’s name?
In addition to asking open and closed questions to discover more about the cli-
ent’s situation, the coach uses powerful questioning to challenge any aspects of their
story which seem misaligned with their coaching needs or present as possible barri-
ers to successfully achieving their goals.
Powerful Questions
Powerful questioning is used after all the details of the client’s story have been dis-
closed. By that time, the client is feeling comfortable in the coaching space and a
trusting, working relationship has been established. The coach eases into asking a
powerful question by first asking permission to do so, for example, ‘Would it be
alright if I ask you a question you may not expect?’ or ‘I’d like to ask you a question
that may be difficult for you to hear. Is that alright?’ or ‘I’d like to ask you a question
from left-field. Is that OK?’ With permission, the coach proceeds and the relation-
ship is not fractured. The coach knows if they have asked a powerful question by the
client’s response to it. They may say: ‘That’s a good question. I’ll have to think
about that.’ Alternatively, the client may not come up with an answer immediately
but may ask to take the question ‘on notice’. No-matter what the response, the coach
has stimulated the client to re-think their perspective or review their position which
is often sufficient for them to achieve a complete breakthrough. Table 6.1 lists eight
simple yet powerful questions that coaches can use again and again with clients
until clarity is gained.
What makes the right question even more powerful is when the coach probes for
deeper understanding. They can take the question to its deepest meaning by asking
this simple follow-up question: ‘And what else?’ The question draws more informa-
tion from the client and deepens their understanding of themselves and their
situation.
• ‘What do you want? … And what else?’
• ‘What’s holding you back? … And what else?’
• ‘What is it costing you to continue holding back? … And what else?’
The most appropriate times to use open, closed, and powerful questions during
the coaching session are outlined in Table 6.2.
Table 6.1 Examples of powerful questions

Eight powerful questions
1. ‘What do you want?’
2. ‘What do you need?’
3. ‘What’s holding you back?’
4. ‘What is it costing you to continue holding back?’
5. ‘How will things be in 3, 6, 12 months’ time if you don’t do anything about your current
situation now?’
6. ‘What does success look like for you?’
7. ‘What is the most meaningful action you can take right now?’
8. ‘What is the question you hope I won’t ask you?’
Table 6.2 Questions used in coaching

Questions used in coached
Start the conversation with Open What’s the most important thing we should be
questions talking about today?
Gain clarity and Closed What exactly is the problem?
understanding with questions Who else is involved?
What have you done to resolve the situation?
How committed are you to resolving this problem?
How will you feel when it is resolved?
Probe deeper for solutions Powerful When this problem is resolved (or goal achieved),
and feelings with questions what will the best possible outcome be?
If we could wave a magic wand and create an ideal
world, how would you like your life to be in 5 years’
time?
What else? What else? What else?
How do you feel when you imagine yourself in this
picture?
When you achieve this ideal future, how will your
life be different?
Summarising
Summaries are conducted at appropriate times during the coaching conversation

and at the end to make sure that the coach completely understands the client’s story
and responses to questions. They are especially useful when the client is sharing a
great deal of information which would be hard for the coach to reflect back all at
once. The structure of the summary is straightforward. It begins with the coach
announcing that they are about to summarise, make reference to pertinent aspects of
the client’s story, and invite the client to correct anything missed. It finishes with an
open-ended question such as ‘Is that correct?’ to check for understanding. If any
discrepancy or ambivalence was perceived in the client’s story, the coach includes
what they noticed in the summary and asks for an explanation, for example: ‘You
said that you wanted to save money for your education yet you have just booked a
9-week around-the-world trip. How does this booking support your desired goal?’
Here’s an example of an effective summary:
Let me stop and summarise what we’ve just talked about. You’re not sure that you want to
be here today and you really only came because your manager insisted on it. At the same
time, you’ve had some nagging thoughts of your own about what’s been happening, includ-
ing the fact that you’re not keeping up with the job these days and whether you’re in for a
demotion. Did I miss anything?
In summary, the degree to which the coach actively listens to the client’s story
and reflects back the content, context, impact, and feelings associated with their
story is significant in determining the success of the coaching session. The coach
uses open and closed questioning to confirm the client’s story and acknowledge the
actions they have taken to resolve their situation. But it is by asking powerful ques-
tions which cause the client to dig deeper into their subconscious to surface issues
References 89
that are of real concern to them and the reason they have come to coaching, that
makes all the difference in how the coaching session unfolds and whether or not it
meets their coaching needs. Coaching with intent increases the client’s confidence
in their ability to identify possible options, generate solutions, and change their
behaviour to move towards their desired goals.
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Chapter 7
Coaching Process
This chapter focuses on coaching as a dynamic, relational, and social process that
helps clients increase their personal and professional effectiveness. Coaches partner
with clients in a trusting, working relationship to help them find solutions to their
problems and facilitate behavioural change to achieve their goals. As a developmen-
tal intervention, the coaching process helps clients identify the specific problem to
be addressed and the opportunities available to them when their situation is resolved.
Coaches use coaching skills to shift clients’ perspectives, stimulate exploration and
discovery, and identify ways they can solve their own problems. Since coaching is
applicable to clients in any occupation or business, it is a meta-process that can be
applied to any situation in which a client feels the need for improvement or a desire
to achieve a specific goal which they have been unable to attain as a result of their
own efforts [1]. Professional guidelines ensure that the coaching process is con-
ducted ethically, with competence and integrity, and with total respect for the client
and their dignity.
Coaching is an ‘asking’ rather than ‘telling’ process, holistic and client-centred,
concerned with achieving the client’s goals for a happier and more fulfilling life and
more effective functioning at work. ‘Pure’ coaching is client-led, with no pre-
determined agenda or outcomes. Successful outcomes from coaching can be
achieved even when the coach has no knowledge or pre-conceived notions of the
client, their situation, or their coaching needs. In contrast, traditional ‘performance’
coaching has pre-determined outcomes and an organisational as well as individual
agenda [2]. Positive psychology coaching focuses on what’s going right in a client’s
life and work, rather than what’s going wrong, and finding ways to uplift the client’s
living to achieve flow [3, 4] and flourish [5].

92 7 Coaching Process
Coaching as practiced today in community or organisational settings has its origins

within the developmental process of mentoring which was embraced by organisa-
tions in the 1980s as a valid means of supporting executives in the performance of
their role [6, 7]. As mentoring became more commonplace in organisational set-
tings, attention turned to the micro-skills that successful mentors use to support
mentee learning. These skills were identified as active and reflective listening, open
and closed questioning, and summarising, and later became the foundational skills
for coaching. As previously explained, mentors can coach but coaches do not usu-
ally mentor, at least, not in the same session. The reason is primarily due to the
different foci involved in these two developmental processes in terms of clients,
context, process, practice, relationship, and delivery [8]. The first attempt to capture
the steps in performance coaching was made by Sir John Whitmore in 1984.
Traditional Psychological Contributions
Coaching was a little known and researched field until the 1980s when Sir John
Whitmore developed the famous GROW model of coaching [2]. The initials of the
acronym GROW stand for Goal-setting, Reality checking, Options, and Wrap Up.
The model provides a useful, practical framework for helping clients clarify perfor-
mance and business goals, explore options, and act on them. More recently in the
academic literature, an evidence-based, individual coaching model was proposed by
Stober and Grant [9]. According to this model, the basis for effective coaching is the
successful formation of a collaborative relationship within which the coach holds
the client accountable for actions that have been jointly determined. The coach
works with the client to raise their awareness of the issues, and help them find ways
to take responsibility for change. The coach then motivates the client to take actions
and be committed to achieving the desired results.
Positive Psychological Contributions
Current models of coaching from a positive psychology perspective position coach-

ing not as a linear, lockstep process, but as a dynamic, interactive, relational, and
social process that promotes self-improvement [10] and focuses on assisting clients
achieve life goals [11]. It is a particularly effective process to stimulate learning and
create new meanings and behaviour [12–16]. Coaching unleashes a client’s poten-
tial to reach meaningful, important objectives [17] and allows them to build trust in
their own values, motives, feelings, and thoughts to develop personally and attain
their goals [18].
The coaching process stimulates recall from clients to identify what they know
about their situation and expose what they don’t [13]. The coach aligns the coaching
process to the client’s targeted situation and needs [9, 19, 20]. Coaches contribute
knowledge of theories, models and guidelines, professional expertise and change
methods based on research as well as self-knowledge and wisdom, together with
contextual knowledge based on subject matter expertise, to the coaching process
[21]. Coaching is one of several relational processes aimed at supporting growth
and development [22, 23].
As a non-judgemental, relational process, coaching supports development by
holding the client as the expert in their life and field of expertise with all the neces-
sary resources they need to address their challenges [24, 25]. The working rela-
tionship is an equal partnership [26] with clear, mutually defined expectations
[27]. The relational nature of the interaction allows coaches to provide candid and
honest feedback on the client’s performance and behaviour [28]. A meta-analysis
of the academic literature has revealed a moderate and consistent correlation
between a high-quality coach-client relationship, and cognitive and affective
coaching outcomes such as employee wellbeing, self-efficacy, motivation, and
work satisfaction [29]. As the coaching relationship deepens, self-awareness
increases [30–33] which allows the client to bring ‘tacit understandings to a level
of conscious awareness’ [34].
As a social process, coaching is both a product of, and contributor to, the reshap-
ing of the client’s social context by influencing power structures and individual
agency [35]. Hence, coaching may be used either as an ‘enabler of conformity or
change … [or] as a process of control or resistance’ [36]. Clients learn through
social interactions with individuals, groups, and communities in their environment
[37]. The act of sharing can have a profound impact on them and their relationships,
leading to new perspectives and transformation [38]. The growth of emotional intel-
ligence research highlighted coaching as a social–relational process that occurs
either as a dyadic relationship between coach and client or among group or team
members as they create ‘interactional richness … [and] a specific opportunity for
individual learning and development’ [39].
The assumption underlying the relational aspect of the coaching interaction is
that learning occurs in social situations and is critical to growth and development
[22, 40]. Moreover, emotional competence is developed through relationships
based on mutuality and respect through which the client develops independence
and takes control of their own learning [41, 42]. In addition to being an effective
process to facilitate personal change, coaching is also a highly effective process for
improving employee performance [43, 44]. HR systems that promote relational
climates indirectly influence the nature of relationships and understandings of helping
behaviour [45].
Positive psychology coaching research has been applied to a number of fields
and contexts such as counselling [46, 47], financial planning [48], university educa-
tion [49], corporate budget-setting [50], and homelessness [51], with results indicat-
ing significant decreases in psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety) and
significant increases in wellbeing (e.g., life satisfaction, self-esteem). An
understanding of positive psychology has informed leaders’ perception of employ-

ees’ ability to cope with and manage change in the workplace, particularly in rela-
tion to critical incidents [52].
Coaches have an obligation to ensure that the coaching process is targeted to address
the client’s situation and needs, and is performed in a way that is personally respect-
ful and professionally ethical. The ICF has established a statement of Ethical
Principles and Code of Ethics by which their member coaches abide. The state-
ments provide the framework upon which professional coaches are encouraged to
base their practice. The principles and values to which member coaches subscribe
include confidentiality and the provision of the utmost care and concern for the
welfare and success of the client. The Code sets out the rules by which coaches
should operate in specific situations and serve as building blocks for the ethical and
moral standards of coaches. While each member coach agrees to follow this Code,
they are also encouraged to supplement and add to it in order to build a lifelong
commitment to conducting an ethical coaching practice.
Coaches operating ethically display the following characteristics:
• Competence: Being fully qualified as a coach and maintaining high standards of
performance in their practice.
• Integrity: Professional coaches demonstrate high standards of personal and pro-
fessional integrity at all times. They present themselves and their ability in an
honest and fair manner, being cognizant of their level of expertise as well as
aware of their limitations. They know themselves, their values and belief sys-
tems, and live their values whilst being aware of the effect of their behaviour on
others. They perform coaching to the best of their ability and know when to refer
on to others for a different or more intensive personal change intervention.
• Professional responsibility: Coaches maintain their professional qualifications
and operational standards by keeping up-to-date with developments in their pro-
fession. They aspire to conduct themselves in a manner that reflects positively
upon the coaching profession, is respectful of different approaches to coaching,
and abides by all applicable laws and regulations.
• Respect for people’s rights and dignity: Coaches treat all clients with equal dig-
nity and respect, being aware of their right to privacy and confidentiality, and that
they need to declare any conflict of interest. They cherish the worth of each client
and acknowledge their right to self-determination, autonomy, and choice.
Coaches are open to clients regardless of age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion,
sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status, and do not
knowingly participate in or condone unfair discriminatory practices.
Since high expectations are set for people in positions of influence within the
community, professional coaches have a reputation to maintain. Everyday citizens
look to people in such positions as role models for good behaviour, getting results,
and maintaining the reputation and good standing of the community. How the coach
relates to other professionals in their community, as a kindred spirit working in the
caring profession, has an effect on the way others view the coach and the services
they provide. Relationships that are built on trust, respect, and integrity provide the
foundations for supportive, mutually beneficial, and long-term associations. When
known as a coach who adheres to ethical and legal standards in all social and busi-
ness dealings with clients and others in the community, the professional coach sets
an example for others to follow.
If any dispute arises with a client, professional coaches address the dispute
promptly. They arrange a specific meeting with the client to discuss the issue, aim-
ing for clarity of purpose and intention. If the intention is to resolve the situation
amicably, the coach will find a way to ensure that both parties ‘win’. However, if the
dispute continues and cannot be resolved between coach and client, the coach may
need to enlist the services of a mediator who can make an objective assessment of
the situation and a determination based on the merits of the case.
Professional Guidelines
The following professional practice guidelines are derived from the core competen-
cies of the ICF. Professional coaches adhere to these principles at all times whilst in
a coaching relationship with a client.
Establishing Trust and Intimacy with the Client: This is the coach’s ability to
create a safe, supportive environment which produces ongoing, mutual respect and
trust. It is a relationship in which the coach:
• Shows genuine concern for the client’s welfare and future,
• Continuously demonstrates personal integrity, honesty, and sincerity,
• Establishes clear agreements and keeps promises,
• Demonstrates respect for the client’s perceptions, learning style, and per-
sonal being,
• Provides ongoing support for and champions new behaviours and actions, includ-
ing those involving risk-taking and fear of failure, and
• Asks permission to coach the client in sensitive, new areas.
Trust is the basis of any long-term relationship. Without trust, there is no rela-
tionship. The client should be able to rely on the coach’s word, meaning and inten-
tion. Whilst trust is mostly given or earned, it takes just a small transgression for it
to be withdrawn—for the client to say ‘I don’t trust you’ and walk away. From the
coach’s perspective, living up to their values is paramount in establishing and main-
taining a trusting relationship. This does not mean that the coach must always
deliver as and when was agreed, but it does mean that if there is any doubt, the coach
will communicate with the client and re-negotiate the terms of engagement.
Communication is the key. Being honest and accountable are the other keys. Doing
what you say you will do, and living the values of honesty and integrity are the
hallmarks of an effective, professional coach.
Maintaining a coaching ‘presence’: When the coach is fully ‘present’ with the
client, they are completely focused on the client, dismissing any of their own
thoughts or concerns, and relating only to what the client is saying and how it is
being said. Being ‘present’ with the client means that the coach:
• Is focused on the client and their needs, and flexible during the coaching process,
• Accesses their own intuition and trusts their inner knowing—‘goes with their gut’,
• Is open to not knowing and takes considered risks,
• Sees many ways to work with the client and chooses ‘in the moment’ which is
most effective,
• Uses humour effectively to create lightness and energy,
• Confidently shifts perspectives and experiments with new possibilities for their
own action, and
• Demonstrates confidence in working with strong emotions, self-manages, and is
not overpowered or enmeshed by the client’s emotions.
Setting ground rules and boundaries: In any relationship, and especially when
the coach meets the client for the first time, it is important to inform them of what
they can expect from the coaching program. In this way, the client is fully informed
and can choose to opt-in or opt-out of the coaching relationship. The success of the
coaching process hinges on the coach and client agreeing on the ‘ground rules’ of
how the coaching relationship will operate—no surprises. Both parties have input
into developing the ground rules which may have to be referred to later if there is
conflict, discussions become confused, actions are not taken, or the relationship
breaks down. Ground rules can do just that—‘ground’ both the coach and client in
the reality of where the coaching first started and hook them back to the original
intention to do right by each other. Examples of possible guidelines include:
• Being open to new perspectives and experiences which provide opportunities
to learn,
• Acting with integrity in all coach-client interactions, and
• Displaying joint commitment to helping the client achieve their goals.
Knowing the boundaries of the coaching relationship is also important. For
example, the role of the coach is to do just that—coach. It is not to counsel or pro-
vide therapy. If serious issues or concerns surface during the coaching sessions,
which they sometimes do, and are getting in the way of the client moving forward,
the coach needs to know the boundaries of their capability and remit, and refer the
client to their local general practitioner or a trusted, known professional to resolve
that issue before returning to coaching. Otherwise the coach will be acting out of
integrity and may become part of the problem not the solution.
Sometimes clients will attend coaching sessions ‘not fully present’. For example,
they may be under the influence of recreational drugs or alcohol. In these condi-
tions, clients find it difficult to focus and act rationally, and are unable to totally
commit to the coaching process and make life changes. The role of the coach is to
References 97
‘call’ the situation and say that they do not coach people who are under the influence
of non-prescription medication, drugs, or alcohol. The coach suggests that the client
makes an appointment to meet with a professional who can treat their condition, and
only return to coaching when the issue has been resolved.
As coaches enact these principles during the coaching process, they display per-
sonal integrity and professional competence which gives clients assurance that they
can help them resolve their concerns and develop a better life.
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Chapter 8
Coaching Practice
This chapter explains the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching which assists indi-
vidual clients identify the critical issue facing them and the opportunities available
to achieve a positive outcome. The specific goal they wish to achieve and the actions
they need to take are clarified, and the client agrees to commit to being responsible
and accountable for taking these actions. The joint accountability of coach and cli-
ent is emphasised. Coaches use the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching with indi-
vidual clients in community settings and coachees in organisational settings who
seek to transform their life or work.1 In organisational settings, individual and team
coaching may be conducted as part of a comprehensive transformational cultural
change process. The chapter explores the importance of the coach-client relation-
ship as coaches use different coaching styles and methods to guide clients towards
positive change. The step-by-step strategies to engage a new client and conduct the
first and subsequent coaching sessions are detailed.
Coaching practice involves the delivery of developmental processes to well-
functioning individuals who just want to do more or achieve even better in their life
or work. There are no major dramas or traumas impacting on the individual at that
point in time that may require intensive therapy. They do not have a diagnosed men-
tal health illness. In community settings, coaching is conducted by professionally
trained coaches who own their own business. These coaches use ethical coaching
practices to coach clients and help them achieve their client-led agenda. External
coaches may also work with individuals in organisational settings, often in conjunc-
tion with internal coaches or trained HR professionals [1]. Increasingly, line manag-
ers are being trained in coaching skills so they can conduct regular coaching sessions
with their direct reports to support personal and professional effectiveness.
The term client will be used in this chapter to refer to both a client and coachee.
1
102 8 Coaching Practice
Traditional behavioural psychology research informs coaching as a developmental

practice derived from mentoring, using similar micro-skills of active and reflective
listening, open and closed questioning, and summarising. Coaching is formally con-
ducted by fully qualified coaches or those trained in coaching skills. Developmental
psychology contributes understandings of how individuals create new learnings
from self-awareness and insight generated through coaching. Humanistic psychol-
ogy incorporates total acceptance of the client as an individual of worth. Social
psychology research emphasises the importance of practising new learnings in the
client’s social environment. Positive psychology research reinforces the importance
of the coach-client relationship in contributing to successful coaching outcomes.
Coaching aims to stimulate personal growth and development through powerful
questioning. The recipients of coaching are all clients who seek to enrich their life
with greater happiness and fulfilment.
Within organisations, coaching practice was originally focused on remediating poor

performance, with research findings reported in fields such as education [2, 3], med-
icine [4], and management [5, 6]. More recent views of coaching emphasise a devel-
opmental and empowerment motivation for coaching and link the performance of
employees with organisational outcomes [7, 8]. Coaching success depends on a
range of factors including client self-efficacy and positive expectations [9], coach’s
empathic understanding and the quality of the coaching relationship [10, 11], and
the personality match between coach and client [11, 12]. Dyadic coaching is con-
ducted to improve performance, personal development, and/or manage careers [13].
Indeed, some organisations are replacing their annual performance appraisal with
frequent coaching sessions to ensure that employees have greater clarity on what is
expected in their role, provide immediate feedback to improve their communication
and interpersonal skills, and assist them develop new strategies to resolve conflict in
the workplace [14].
Coaching is a reflective practice which transforms behaviour by developing the
client’s awareness of a need to change [15]. Coaches use various techniques to build
self-awareness and assist client learning, and support the practice of new behaviours
and skills through role-playing, behavioural modelling, and intensive feedback [16,
17]. Other techniques which aid reflection include processes such as storytell-
ing and journaling, and the use of metaphors and mind mapping tools. In work-
places, coaching develops individuals and teams because of the ability of the
coaching process to customise individual learnings to organisational needs [18, 19].
As organisations embrace coaching within a leadership development framework,

coaching delivered by line managers is becoming an accepted practice within many
organisations [20, 21]. Coaching by leaders is viewed as a means of enhancing the
performance of all employees as they progress and grow towards peak performance
[7]. Feedback on work performance is given in a timely and supportive rather than
punitive manner, the underlying belief being that all employees are capable of addi-
tional growth and development when they are provided with personalised feedback
on their performance. The assumption is that employees want to utilise their
strengths and initiative in a way that is meaningful and purposive, and which sup-
ports the strategic direction of the organisation [22, 23].
Within the organisational environment, coaching extends from individual appli-
cation to being conducted at all levels of the organisation [24]. The coaching is
delivered by employees specially designated as occupying a coaching role (often
HR or Learning and Development (L&D) specialists), or the ‘Manager as Coach’
separate from the execution of their daily duties [25]. Coaching has been recognised
as a practice strategy to help individuals develop and improve their capabilities to
exceed prior levels of performance and go beyond their organisation’s expectations.
Coaching Relationship
Coaching is a ‘goal-directed interaction between the coach and the coachee which
reflects what leaders do when engaging with their direct reports to improve their
performance’ [26]. The exact nature of the coaching relationship has been the sub-
ject of intense research since the 1990s when researchers focused on evaluating the
impact and effectiveness of executive coaching from either psychodynamic [27,
28], behaviourist [29–31], person-centred [32], cognitive therapeutic [33], or
system-oriented perspectives [34]. Most references to coaching note the formal or
informal dyadic nature of the coaching relationship to facilitate individual learning
and behavioural change [35, 36]. However, within an organisational setting, coach-
ing is a triadic relationship involving the employee, manager, and organisation for
the purpose of providing feedback to achieve workplace goals and outcomes. (See
Chap. 15 for more information.)
The coach and client play different roles in the coaching relationship which is
central to successful outcomes from the coaching experience. The coach’s role is to
understand the client’s issues and objectives, help them examine their situation with
greater depth and clarity than they could do alone, and assist them discover their
own solutions [37]. Coaches assist clients get ready for change, manage their emo-
tions as they go through the changes, and plan ways to achieve the new behaviours
as goals to be achieved. Research has identified six core principles that guide the
coach’s understanding of the client’s readiness to change. These include the learn-
er’s need to know; their ability to self-direct their learning; prior experiences of the
learner; readiness to learn; orientation to learning and problem-solving; and motiva-

tion to learn [38, 39]. In other words, in coaching, clients are positioned as indepen-
dent learners with control of, and responsibility for, their own actions. When they
are ready and willing to learn, and can relate the relevance of the issue to their life,
clients feel valued, supported, and involved in the self-evaluation of their own learn-
ing [39].
The client’s role in the coaching process is to engage with the coach openly and
honestly to become motivated, disclose their hopes and fears, and generate new
learning [15]. Curiosity, cultivation, and collaboration—three core ethno-relative
values and behaviours—promote discovery as clients reflect on and delve beneath
the surface of each situation [40]. Clients learn to acknowledge the part they have
played in creating their situation and take responsibility for resolving it [41]. They
identify the actions they need to take to achieve their goals and revisit the desired
goals as necessary [34, 42, 43].
Coaching Styles
Coaches use a combination of reflective and probing coaching styles as they encour-
age the client to think through their situation and determine their own solutions.
There are four coaching styles that coaches use to stimulate client learning: facilita-
tion, guiding, directing, and motivating styles.
Facilitation style: This coaching style is particularly effective at the beginning of
the coaching session. Facilitation requires the coach to ‘park’ their own thoughts
and self-talk in order to be fully ‘present’ with the client and listen to what they are
saying. The facilitation style uses open-ended questioning, active reflection on the
client’s story, and encouragement to motivate the client to continue sharing in the
trusting, supportive environment. The coach does not tell the client what to do.
Rather they elicit from the client what they know, what they have tried, and details
of how they have succeeded or failed, as a way of assessing how best they can help
them move forward. After all relevant information is on the table, the coach adopts
alternate styles of coaching to direct and focus the conversation towards specific
areas of interest or concern.
Guiding style: A guiding style ensures that the conversation stays ‘on track’ and/
or returns to a focused objective. It is used only after all the facts are on the table. A
guiding style is initially tentative and exploratory, for example, ‘Could it be that you
are thinking about …?’ Later on, as clarity is gained, it becomes more forceful: ‘I
think we should focus on one aspect of your situation rather than on the entire prob-
lem which seems insurmountable at this time. Which aspect would you like to focus
on first?’ Throughout this process, the coach continues to check for understanding
and acknowledgement. The coach also ascertains the client’s level of skill and will-
ingness to find a solution and then action-plans with them to achieve their goals. At
times, especially when the client is ‘stuck’ and seems unable to move forward, it
may be necessary for the coach to take control of the conversation and guide it in a
certain way. They may ‘call’ what they see happening, or what they have observed.
For example, the coach may say: ‘It seems to me that you are reluctant to undertake
any of these actions. I’m wondering why this is so?’
Directing style: Sometimes the client may need to take specific actions to resolve
their situation but they don’t know where to start. This is where the coach may step-
in to provide some direction. After first asking permission to offer suggestions and
making it quite clear that the client must make the decision regarding what action to
take, the coach may suggest that the client investigate a certain option, do some
research, talk to certain people, or perform a specific task. These suggestions come
from the coach’s experience in working with other clients on similar issues or situ-
ations. At this point in the coaching session, the client knows that they need the
coach’s support and are willing and grateful to receive it. They decide what to do
based on the coach’s suggestions or other thoughts that come to them as they listen.
When the client has decided on the particular course of action they will take, the
coach may reinforce their decision thus: ‘I’m expecting that you will follow-through
on the actions you have committed to take before the next time we meet, and then
report back on these at our next session.’
Motivating style: Throughout and particularly towards the end of the coaching
session, it is important to motivate the client to think that they can do it. Yes they
can! They will usually get excited about doing new things, talking with different
people, and exploring new possibilities. It is then very easy for the coach to engage
with them on their journey of discovery and self-development. If however, on the
other hand, the client doesn’t seem to be motivated or seems resistant to change, it
may be necessary for the coach to explore their motivational needs—what turns
them on? People are generally motivated by one of three things—the need for
achievement, power, or affiliation [44]. Most people have a primary and secondary
motivation, for example, Primary = Achievement, Secondary = Power. The coach
may make an educated guess about the client’s motivation by listening to the words
they use, identifying their strengths, and learning more about their particular area of
expertise. For example, a client may be proud of a recently submitted report they
wrote with minimal guidance from others. This client’s primary motivation is
Achievement, followed by Power. They are not so much concerned with Affiliation.
Hence, when working with this client, the coach may appeal to their need to achieve,
to accomplish something, to get the task done, so that they can feel an internal sense
of pride or receive external acknowledgement, for example, from their boss.
Coaching Methods
Dyadic coaching can be conducted in four different ways. The most usual way is
in-person. However at times, telephone, video, or email coaching may be conducted
either as the main or supplementary method of coaching.
In-person coaching: Most coaches prefer to coach in-person. This method gives
them the most information about the client using all representational modalities—
visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic. It is definitely easier to build trust and rapport
when coaching sessions are conducted in-person. Issues can be more quickly
resolved, explanations given, and understandings agreed when people are in close
physical proximity. Communication flows more freely and nuances are detected
which may not be apparent using other coaching methods such as telephone or
email. Any queries can be quickly investigated and if necessary, corrected, when
coaching in-person. Other reasons include:
• Coaching in-person allows the coach to observe a range of non-verbal responses
such as body and eye movement, posture, and balance.
• The coach can see, as well as ‘hear’, the silences in the conversation.
• They can use a physically separate and confidential space in which to
coach to eliminate distractions and interruptions.
• Making the effort to travel and meet in-person communicates the value that both
the coach and client place on coaching.
• It is easier to create an interactive coaching environment when coach and client
are in the same physical location.
Other forms of coaching may replace in-person coaching once rapport has been
established.
Virtual coaching: Using video conferencing equipment enables the coach to see,
hear, and talk to clients all over the world for little or no cost, especially if the client
appreciates the in-person coaching experience. The video view can be turned off if
desired to allow just the audio communication, as using the video function uses a lot
of processing power and internet bandwidth which may reduce the coach’s inter-
net resource capacity. Unfortunately, video conferencing is not always available in
some areas, and delays and intermittent dropouts may be experienced on occasions.
Telephone coaching: Video or in-person coaching may not be possible when
either the client or coach is in a different physical location (e.g. interstate) or does
not have access to the requisite equipment and internet capability. In these instances,
telephone coaching is a good substitute. It is also useful when a session needs to be
re-scheduled so that the initial momentum does not wane. Coaching via telephone
is also useful ‘in-between’ in-person coaching sessions especially when short time-
frames must be met or urgent issues which could throw the client ‘off-balance’ need
to be quickly addressed. Progress updates can be reported and tasks ‘ticked off’
ready for the next steps to be taken.
Once trust and rapport have been developed between coach and client, telephone
coaching can be equally as intense and concentrated as in-person coaching.
However, the coach must have excellent listening and rapport building skills to con-
duct successful telephone coaching. Generally telephone coaching sessions are
shorter because they are more focused, there are fewer distractions, and less oppor-
tunity to ‘socialise’ which may prolong the length of the session. As well, there’s a
certain level of urgency when on the telephone to do what needs to be done and
close the session. Hence, the session which would usually be conducted over one hour
may only last half an hour but achieve everything that was set out to achieve.
Moreover, some clients feel more comfortable in their own environment where they
don’t have a sense of being observed in the same way as in an in-person coaching
session. This could mean they are more open and the session moves more quickly.
Of course, the same applies to the coach. Some coaches who have developed sensi-
tivities to voice tone and word choice may feel more confident when they are coach-
ing over the telephone.
Since there’s no travelling or ‘socialising’ time, telephone coaching allows the
coach to work with more clients. It also makes it possible for the coach to work with
clients with whom they may not normally be able to work with in-person, for exam-
ple, clients in remote or overseas locations. It is also less expensive—particularly in
terms of the cost to the coach’s time—and these savings can be passed on to clients
in the form of lower fees. Telephone coaching is particularly applicable to clients
who are coming to the end of their coaching program and would benefit from a
phased closing of the coaching relationship. It goes without saying that telephone
coaching makes access to coaching a great deal easier for clients with physical dis-
abilities or mobility problems.
Some additional benefits of telephone coaching include:
• Coaches can work with clients nationally and internationally, and this can really
broaden their client base.
• Coaches can be more flexible in the times they coach. Late evenings and early
mornings, for example, suit many busy clients who can’t find sufficient time for
a coaching session during the day.
• Coaches can choose the times of the day to conduct coaching sessions when they
are more alert, ‘present’, focused, and energised. Also, the flexibility of tele-
phone coaching means that they have time to undertake other important activities
during the day in-between their scheduled coaching appointments.
Email coaching: For some people, the written word is the way they think. They
like the time to ponder exactly what they want to say and the time to digest what’s
been said. They can read and re-read the text to extract greater insight and meaning,
then file the email and revisit it later if necessary. The benefits of email coaching
include:
• Coach and client can work at their own pace—no meetings, no appointments, or
close deadlines.
• The coach or client is never ‘on the spot’. They can think things through and
respond at their leisure.
• Unlike telephone coaching, coach and client can keep the coaching emails for
future reference.
• Coaching emails can be received using flexible technology such as smartphones
and iPhones. The contents can be pondered during other daily activities and
especially at ‘down’ times such as travelling home on the train, or later at night
when all is quiet.
Email coaching is not as time or cost-effective as telephone coaching largely
because reading and writing is so much slower and less reliable than listening and
speaking. It has other shortcomings as well. Coach-client interaction is considerably
reduced. Rapport is more difficult to build. Hence, the coach must rely on setting
‘reflective exercises’ for clients to respond to. Such exercises invite them to think
deeply about themselves and the issues in their work/life. If clients are not open to
reflection, email coaching may not work for them. If they would rather write three
words than an essay, email coaching is not for them. If they don’t like thinking or
talking about themselves, it’s not for them. In these instances, in-person, virtual,
and telephone coaching are the more appropriate coaching methods.
The dyadic ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is used to coach individuals in com-
munity and organisational settings. However, before beginning the coaching, it’s
important that the client understands what coaching is and is not, and is willing to
commit to the coaching process by signing a coaching contract. Hence, the coach
meets with the prospective client and starts to form a trusting relationship which is
the basis on which all successful coaching outcomes will be achieved, using the
guidelines in the next section.
Engaging a New Client
Typically, the first contact with a potential client is via phone or email. However, it
is important that the coach meets with the prospective client before coaching begins,
either in-person or virtually, to establish if there is a ‘chemistry match’ [9, 11, 12]
between them so that a trusting relationship can form. Each needs to feel a personal
connection with the other. If the coach does not feel this connection, they should say
so, and the client may agree. Alternatively, the client may suggest that there’s been
a misunderstanding which they want to correct, as a result of which the conversation
may take a completely different direction (for the better). Either way, each needs to
feel comfortable for the coaching sessions to ‘work’. The first meeting is the oppor-
tunity to convert the enquiry into a paying client.
The first meeting with the client is designed to establish the coaching relation-
ship. When a prospective client contacts a coach, they either have a ‘burning issue’
to resolve or a significant goal to be achieved. Sometimes they attend with frustra-
tion because they haven’t been able to resolve the situation by themselves. The first
meeting establishes the basic ‘rules’ by which the coaching sessions will be con-
ducted and sets the scene for how the coaching relationship will develop. Table 8.1
provides guidelines for the coach when meeting with a prospective client for the
first time.
The next section explains the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching (Fig. 8.1) [45]
which is the basis for coaching all individuals whether in community practice or
Table 8.1 Guidelines for the first meeting with a prospective client
Step 1: Establish the coaching relationship
• Get to know each other enough so that you can identify a ‘chemistry match’—the feeling of
connection, and that you will be able to work together to meet the client’s coaching needs.
Step 2: Get clear on roles and expectations
• Explain what coaching is, the purpose of coaching, and the coaching relationship.
• Gain agreement on expectations and responsibilities of both the coach and client.
• Gain agreement on how the coaching sessions will work.
Step 3: Understand the client’s situation and needs
• Identify areas of concern or problems to be resolved (in brief), so that you know if you are
the right person to help the client deal with these issues or concerns and, if so, determine
how many coaching sessions you would recommend.
Step 4: Agree on and sign the coaching contract
• Agree on the coaching program (i.e. how many sessions, cost per session or program, how
frequently coaching will occur, what to do if problems occur), sign the contract, and set the
date for the first coaching session.
Fig. 8.1 ©AIPC COACH

model
organisational settings.2 Using this model, the coach identifies the critical issue or
reason why the client has come to be coached, and assists them explore opportuni-
ties, identify their desired goal, and take actions to achieve it. They jointly deter-
mine the way in which they will hold each other accountable for achieving the
desired outcomes from the coaching.
2
There are some preliminary requirements to coaching individuals in organisational settings
which are detailed in Chap. 15.
©AIPC COACH Model of Coaching
Before the first coaching session, the coach ensures that both they and the client are
fully ‘present’ in the moment. They do this by reducing the possibility of distrac-
tions (e.g. turn off mobiles) and ensuring the client’s comfort (e.g. glass of water,
bathroom visit). The coach makes sure they are up-to-date with the client’s situation
and any actions they have taken since their first meeting. This process should only
take a few minutes if no other issues have emerged in the interim. As the coaching
session progresses, the coach maintains the order of the coaching steps as per the
©AIPC COACH model of coaching. However, if other issues arise during the
coaching, the coach may need to return to a previous step to address these different
issues. In any case, the coach makes sure that all the steps in the ©AIPC COACH
model of coaching are covered by the end of the coaching session.
The steps in the ©AIPC COACH Model are as follows:
Step 1 Critical Issue: The first step of the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching
involves the identification of the Critical Issue that has brought the client to coaching,
which is often a problem to be resolved or a goal to be achieved. This step is designed
to assist the client gain clarity on their situation—the content, context, its impact, and
their feelings—as well as discover what they have done to resolve the situation. There
is no judgement, no right or wrong. The coach simply enquires and listens to the cli-
ent’s story to understand them and identify their coaching needs. If the coach doesn’t
fully delve into the client’s situation, they may end up coaching the ‘presenting’
concern but not the ‘real’ concern, and may have to cycle back to this step later on.
An excellent introductory question in this first step is: ‘What’s the most impor-
tant thing we should be talking about today?’ This non-directive, open-ended ques-
tion facilitates the client revealing what is upmost on their mind. Sometimes the
client has a problem or situation to be resolved. At other times there is a goal to be
achieved which the client may have worked on in the past but, for various reasons,
been unsuccessful in achieving by themself. Hence, they have come to coaching
seeking the coach’s assistance. The coach also uses direct, closed questioning to
obtain details regarding the client’s situation and what they need.
The coach treats the client with the utmost respect and acknowledges that they
have been doing the best they know how at the time. The coach also acknowledges
the client as the expert in their life. The client brings knowledge and information
about their situation/problem/goal to the coaching session, and the coach uses their
training and coaching skills to help the client move forward. The coach facilitates
all aspects of the client’s situation to be revealed, using unconditional positive
regard and reinforcing the client’s appropriate behaviours whilst suspending all
judgement and bias. At appropriate moments in the coaching conversation, the
coach summarises what has been said to ensure mutual clarity and understanding.
Step 2 Opportunities: This step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is the
client’s opportunity to think more broadly about their situation and possible future—
to think ‘outside the square’ and imagine their best possible future. Having used
facilitative, direct and non-direct communication techniques (i.e. open and closed
questioning) to reveal the particulars of the situation/problem/goal, the coach now
moves into a guiding style, to help the client become more open to other ways of
©AIPC COACH Model of Coaching 111
thinking and perceiving their world. Using powerful questioning, the coach encour-
ages the client to fully experience the ideal way they would like their situation to be
(i.e. problem solved, goal attained). Using selected neuro-linguistic programming
(NLP) techniques, the client is encouraged to fully immerse themself in their desired
ideal future scenario, savouring the sight, sounds, feelings, tastes, and smells that
surround them. If they could wave a magic wand and create an ideal world for them-
self right now, with no boundaries or constraints, what aspects of their life would
they keep and what would they change? The coach asks: ‘If everything was possi-
ble, what would your life be like?’ ‘What kind of work would you be doing?’ ‘What
meaning would that bring to your life?’ ‘How would things be different from what
they are now?’ Once the client is engrossed in this desired vision, the coach pro-
vides motivational encouragements to support the achievement of this goal. This
approach surfaces feelings that submerge the logic of the ‘head’ beneath the over-
riding feeling of the ‘heart’, thus confirming the vision as the ultimate destination
on the client’s journey to self-fulfilment and self-actualisation.
After working with the client for a while, the coach may notice some things that
the client has not discovered about themself (e.g. a specific mindset, confusion
around a particular issue, limiting beliefs or assumptions). The coach asks for per-
mission to share these insights with the client—tentatively at first—so that they can
agree or offer additional information. The coach gently challenges any defensive-
ness. The client may either agree or disagree with these insights, which may add
further clarity to their situation and ideal future.
Step 3 Actionable Goals: The third step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coach-
ing is similar to the GROW model in that the client identifies the goals and actions
they need to take to achieve their ideal future. The coach assists the client identify
goals that will bring about their desired future. The clearer the vision, the more eas-
ily goals can be identified. At all times, it is the client who is driving the agenda
although, as necessary the coach may use a directing style to bring the client back
‘on track’. The client states their goal as clearly as possible, ‘My goal is …’, and the
coach makes sure that it is SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, time
bound) [46]. The client may express several goals, some of which may be subsumed
within a main goal. If this is the case, the client prioritises their goals on an Urgency/
Importance matrix using a scale of 1–10. From this analysis, the client determines
which goal they would like to work on first and the order of the other goals, and
together they start action-planning, one goal at a time. The coach is cognisant of the
fact that goal-setting and action-planning can only occur when the client is ready to
engage in logical and rational cognitive decision-making. If they are emotional, a
short break may help them recover their calm.
The skill/will model is important in this step in terms of the client’s self-efficacy.
The model is based on the premise that whilst a client may have the will to commit
to a certain course of action, they may not necessarily have the skills required to
complete the task. They have to either gain the skill themself or ask for assistance
from someone who does have the skill. In that case, the conversation turns to whom
in their network they can draw upon for support. Alternatively, a client may have the
skill to perform a certain action but may not have the will to commit to taking that
action. They may not desire the end outcome, or think it worth the effort, or consider
the barriers to achieving it insurmountable, or simply not care. In the latter case, the
client may need to be jolted into the reality of their situation if things don’t change.
For example, the coach may say: ‘Do you realise the consequences if you don’t
make these changes? You may lose your job, be demoted, or moved to another
department?’ If the client is willing to accept these consequences but the coach
considers them important because ‘doing nothing’ may threaten life and limb, they
may solicit the support of a ‘higher authority’ (e.g. sponsor, direct manager, signifi-
cant other) to convince the client of the need to change. Clients typically will only
make changes when either the ‘pain’ is too great to keep enduring it or the ‘prize’ is
too attractive to miss out on.
Step 4 Commitment: The fourth step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coaching
is the commitment stage. How prepared is the client to commit to completing the
actions they decided to take to achieve their desired future? The coach seeks to dis-
cover the client’s level of commitment on a scale of 1–10. How high will they com-
mit? If their level is low, the coach addresses any perceived barriers in an attempt to
raise their level of commitment to at least an 8. If the client is reluctant to commit,
the coach asks them to re-ponder the alternative if there are no changes to their cur-
rent situation. The coach then uses a motivating style to encourage the client to think
positively and aim to reach high to achieve their dream. Alternatively, when motiva-
tion is really lacking, the coach may question if the coaching has been focused on
the real issue, and start a conversation with the client to confirm a new agenda.
Step 5 Hold Accountable: The final step in the ©AIPC COACH model of coach-
ing is determining how the coach and client will hold each other jointly accountable
for the client taking the actions they committed to. Whilst the client is responsible
for taking the actions, in the collaborative coaching environment there is a joint
accountability for achieving the coaching outcomes. The coach establishes the best
method of communicating with the client in-between sessions (e.g. email, tele-
phone, virtual). After each coaching session, it is part of the coach’s role to ensure
that the accountability measures they have put in place and agreed on, are main-
tained (i.e. that the client is communicating with them to report on their progress).
If not, the coach intervenes to get this process restarted. It is only when the client is
not able to perform a certain action (i.e. doesn’t have the knowledge, skill, or
resources) that the coach gets directly involved and facilitates this process.
Since coaching sessions are more frequent initially, it is relatively easy for the
coach to keep track of the client’s progress. However, as coaching sessions become
less frequent, the coach needs to make weekly contact via phone or email to keep
track of progress. Alternatively, software programmes are available which allow the
client to upload their goals and action plan so the coach can monitor the actions they
have taken in real time. By keeping track of the client’s progress in-between ses-
sions, the coach is better prepared for the next coaching session especially if there
have been challenges along the way that have significantly impacted the client.
References 113
Second and Subsequent Coaching Sessions
In the week before their next coaching session, the coach may ‘remind’ the client of
their next appointment. This is especially important if the client is feeling over-
whelmed by their workload and considering re-scheduling or not meeting at all. The
key to a successful coaching program is for the coach to schedule meetings as the
need, target, or goal dictates and to be flexible with these arrangements if other
pressing matters take priority. The ©AIPC COACH model of coaching is repeated
in all the following coaching sessions, with the coach ‘checking-in’ to make sure
that there are no urgent or emerging issues which need to be addressed immediately
before the next scheduled session commences.
As time goes by and the client becomes more self-regulating and self-responsible,
what happens inside the coaching session becomes less important than what hap-
pens outside the coaching session in terms of the client’s long-term growth and
development. Facilitating steady progress becomes the coach’s main focus to sus-
tain the client’s progress during and after each coaching session. This is achieved
when the client integrates new knowledge and skills into their everyday practice.
Effective coaches use the principle of spaced practice, i.e. having the client take
small actions to achieve some success and then building on that result to reinforce
new behaviours over multiple sessions and multiple settings (e.g. home, workplace,
social). The client may learn more slowly, but the learning becomes deep structure
learning rather than surface learning.
The ultimate goal of a successful coaching program is that all clients are working
to a pace that satisfies them and those around them, able to make decisions that sup-
port their health and happiness, accept the things they cannot change and work
around or with them, and take responsibility for their actions without blaming oth-
ers. There are no excuses, no justification, or quitting when things go wrong—just
lessons to be learned. Once the coaching concludes, it is important that the client
remain motivated to achieve their goal by experiencing every moment as if it was a
new adventure and opportunity to learn, living for now, appreciating what they have,
making a difference, being content, and remaining positive.
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Chapter 9
Coaching for Self-Awareness and Insight
This chapter introduces the first, fundamental purpose for individual coaching in
community and organisational settings—to increase self-awareness and insight.
Self-awareness can be revelatory when insights result from Aha! moments that sur-
face from the client’s subconscious during coaching. Reflective practice, in which
the coach uses personal sharing to develop rapport and a trusting, working relation-
ship with the client, incorporates relational depth to surface insights leading to per-
sonal change. Throughout, the coach engages the client in active and reflective
listening to reveal their story. They also use powerful questioning to challenge any
discrepancies or incongruences that appear in the client’s story as opportunities to
reveal judgements, biases, and preconceived beliefs that are holding them back
from achieving their goals. Clients who are self-aware and insightful are more con-
fident and have greater ability to grow and develop personally and professionally.
The chapter addresses the way that coaching for self-awareness and insight is
conceptualised, the motivations for developing self-awareness and insight, the indi-
viduals who are the recipients of coaching to develop self-awareness and insight,
and how coaching for self-awareness and insight is delivered in community and
organisational settings by external and internal coaches.
Traditional behavioural psychology research informs the way that individuals gain
self-awareness through self-reflection. Developmental psychology contributes
understandings of how people learn as a result of reflective practice and experiential
learning. Social psychology research emphasises the importance of self-efficacy in
the personal change process. Positive psychology research reinforces humanistic
coaching techniques to support and motivate clients to make change. The motiva-
tion for coaching for self-awareness and insight is for clients to become more open
118 9 Coaching for Self-Awareness and Insight
to discovery about themselves and how they relate to others. The recipients of
coaching for self-awareness and insight are all coaching clients whether in commu-
nity or organisational settings. Clients may have tried to make the changes they
desire by themselves but been unable to achieve a result. Alternatively, in work situ-
ations, individuals may have been ‘sent’ to coaching to resolve personal or interac-
tional issues affecting their performance and relationship with colleagues or
manager. Coaching for self-awareness and insight is the foundational skill of an
effective coach. During every coaching session, the coach aims to generate client
self-awareness and insight.
Traditional psychology research offers findings concerning how coaches can

develop self-awareness and insight in clients through self-reflection. When the cli-
ent experiences an Aha! moment, the change can be transformative. However,
unless the client is willing to engage in self-reflection, it is unlikely that personal
change will be achieved, as discussed in the sections below.
Self-Awareness
Early reference to self-awareness was made by George Herbert Mead [1] who dif-
ferentiated between inward attention (which he called self-awareness) and outward
attention (which he called conscious attention). Subsequently, self-awareness the-
ory proposed that the self has two mutually exclusive roles—subjective and objec-
tive—and that an individual can only focus on one at a time [2], a claim that has
been disputed by other researchers [3]. What is agreed is that self-focus leads to
increased consideration of others’ points of view, since focusing on the self neces-
sitates adopting an external perspective which is the prerequisite for perspective-
taking [4]. Self-awareness was originally viewed as a therapeutic tool to alleviate
psychological distress. However, more recently, researchers have focused on self-
awareness as an important component of self-development in non-clinical popula-
tions [5].
Self-awareness has been variously defined as the awareness of one’s own feel-
ings and ability to recognise, manage, and control these feelings [6], an overarching
awareness of one’s mental states and environments [7], and ‘a conscious awareness
of one’s internal states and interactions with others’ [5]. The practice of self-
awareness includes observation and management of feelings and thoughts to protect
and improve the self [8]. Self-awareness has been conceptualised as ranging from
complete bodily experiential self-awareness at one end of a continuum to full exter-
nal environment awareness at the other, with the ability to take an external perspec-
tive and see the self as others do [9]. Individuals with a higher level of objective
self-awareness have increased self-knowledge [10] and a stronger sense of identity
[11], are less influenced by external factors [12], more likely to acknowledge
responsibility for their actions [13], and have a greater sense of wellbeing [7].
Individuals vary in their levels of self-awareness [14] which has been conceptu-
alised as consisting of state-like qualities such as self-reflection and mindfulness,
and trait-like qualities such as the ability to identify, process, and store self-related
information [15]. Researchers have drawn a distinction between situational and dis-
positional self-awareness [16] where situational self-awareness is a process by
which we automatically compare our current actions to our internalised standards to
reduce inconsistency [17], and dispositional self-awareness is the trait-like tendency
for an individual to reflect on their psychological processes and inner experiences as
well as their relationships with others [18]. Dispositional self-awareness is also
known as self-attentiveness or self-consciousness. Increased self-awareness has
been associated with sustaining the long-term benefits of coaching [19, 20].
According to Morin [10], self-awareness simply means awareness of self—when
the individual’s attention is drawn to their bodily sensations and perceptions resulting
from physical and mental stimulations from the external environment. Individuals
focus on self to different levels at different times to recognise and evaluate thoughts
and emotions, and increase self-knowledge [21]. Coaches are encouraged to practice
self-awareness so they can better serve their client’s coaching needs [22, 23].
Self-Reflection
Self-awareness is informed by self-reflection which is ‘the extent to which an indi-

vidual pays attention to and evaluates his/her internal states and behaviours’ [5]. It
is a deliberate process aimed at reducing personal biases [24]. Self-reflection was
originally recognised as a valuable aspect of therapeutic practice but is now widely
accepted as an important developmental tool and a precursor to self-awareness [8].
Reflection offers individuals the time and space to step-back and evaluate past feel-
ings, actions, and their consequences, and reconsider prior beliefs and thoughts, to
develop insight for future responses [22, 25]. Self-evaluation during self-reflection
creates a cycle of growth and development [26] which leads to self-awareness and
insight, promoting wellbeing and life satisfaction [7, 27].
Insight
Insight is the clarity that individuals gain from self-reflection on their internal states
and external, visible behaviours. Insight has been found to be related to cognitive
flexibility and the best predictor of dimensions which promote increased psycho-
logical wellbeing [7]. Definitions of insight have mainly been derived from
cognitive- behavioural laboratory research which typically requires cognitive
restructuring of an individual’s approach to a problem or its interpretation [28].
Insight is ‘the reorientation of one’s thinking, including breaking of the unwarranted
“fixation” and forming of novel, task-related associations among the old nodes of
concepts or cognitive skills’ [29]. Insight has also been described as occurring
‘when a problem cannot be solved using conventional stepwise methods … [and
becomes] the “aha!” experience … [with the realisation] that the solution involves
unconventional methods … [that is], that the problem needs restructuring’ [30]. A
goal-oriented perspective on insight is that, when the goal cannot be reached by the
usual cognitive means, a restructured goal representation is required for solution
[31]. That is, an unconscious cognitive process restructures the problem representa-
tion into a more adaptive way to solve the problem [32, 33]. Insight has been associ-
ated with metacognitive feelings of ease, pleasure, accuracy, and confidence when
the problem is solved [34].
Historically, researchers believed that insight into problem-solving is a gradual,
incremental process [35, 36]. However, some researchers began to view the insight
experience as sudden: ‘like dynamite, the insightful solution explodes on the solv-
er’s cognitive landscape with breathtaking suddenness, but if one looks closely, a
long fuse warns of the impending reorganisation’ [37]. This view supports that of
Gestalt psychologists who suggested that change may occur as a result of sudden,
one-time learning wherein the individual experiences an Aha! moment [38].
Surprise (associated with the disparity between the initial problem representation
and the new realised representation) and suddenness (the result of the easy applica-
tion of the new representation to the problem) have been proposed as the two pri-
mary affective elements of an insight experience [39], although Jarman [40] noted
that these two elements are also characteristic of creative and novel ideas for
problem-solving that do not involve a restructuring of problem representation.
Dual processing is considered necessary to complete a problem-solving task [41,
42]. The first type of processing is intuitive and implicit, based on an unconscious
associative learning mechanism that is independent of cognitive control. The second
type of processing is effortful and explicit and involves conscious and deliberative
thought that heavily depends on cognitive control [43]. Problem-solving was found
to occur more readily and without insight when constraining factors were gradually
removed [44], indicating that the initial mental representation of the problem was
biased by unnecessary, false, or ill-defined assumptions about the task [32, 45]. This
supports the view that ‘there is no particular class of insight problems that necessar-
ily requires a representational change; each problem can be solved without insight
if the initial problem representation is adequate and the appropriate heuristics are
available’ [46]. Phenomenological research methods have proven useful in the sub-
jective reporting of Aha! experiences [47, 48].
Positive psychology research offers findings concerning how coaches can use reflec-
tive practice to stimulate self-reflection and develop self-awareness and insight. The
degree to which the coach achieves relational depth with the client determines how
successful the coaching session will be, as discussed in the sections below.
Reflective Practice
Reflective practice derives its origins from education when it was introduced as
a critical, problem-solving mechanism, challenging individuals to think differ-
ently to effect change [49, 50]. It entered the HRM field as reflection-in-action
(i.e. during the event) and reflection-on-action (i.e. after the event) [24].
Reflective practice has been described as the antithesis of ‘a positivist episte-
mology of technical-rational knowledge’ [51], enabling individuals to surface
tacit understandings and make sense of their experienced situation [51]. As an
active and purposeful journey of exploration and discovery, reflective practice
engages cognition and emotion to re-interpret experience and create new knowl-
edge from often unanticipated outcomes. Clients’ ‘taken-for-granted’ assump-
tions are challenged so that they become more receptive to alternative ways of
thinking and behaving [52].
Reflective coaching practice impacts a number of variables including the
pace of change, pressure of conflicting demands, feelings of isolation, confi-
dence in seeing the change process through, and personal growth [53]. A meta-
analysis investigating the effectiveness of individual coaching in an
organisational setting found that coaching has significant, positive correlations
on individual-level outcome categories ranging from 0.43 (coping) to 0.74
(goal-directed self-regulation), with three intermediate correlations (perfor-
mance/skills, wellbeing, and work attitudes) [54]. Coaching situates learning
in communities of practice [55] and builds capability based on knowledge and
collaborative learning initiatives [56].
Relational Depth
Reflective practice which incorporates self-reflection to create self-awareness

and insight may result in a revelatory experience when the coach-client relation-
ship dives to deeper depths. Relational depth is ‘a feeling of profound contact
with the client, in which one simultaneously experiences high and consistent
levels of empathy and acceptance towards that Other and relates to them in a
highly transparent way’ [57]. Working at relational depth is one of the essential
features of an effective intervention using the client-centred approach [58]. As
the intervention proceeds, clients learn to accept their dissociated part and cre-
ate an internal dialogue which integrates their various parts into new configura-
tions of self [59]. Research findings indicate that working at relational depth has
a substantial impact on therapeutic outcomes including increased levels of
openness and engagement, and heightened levels of client self-worth and effi-
cacy [60]. The relational effect may have as much as 10–30% of an increase in
positive impact on therapeutic outcomes [61].
Coaching for self-awareness and insight is facilitated by reflective practice and the
use of humanistic coaching techniques. At relational depth, the coach uses mindful-
ness techniques to surface insights and emotions from which the client can learn.
Reflective Practice
Coaches may use a number of techniques to assist clients self-reflect on their situa-
tion to discover their own solution. These include journaling to provoke revelations,
sharing personal experiences as evidence of breakthroughs, and exercises which
incorporate kinaesthetic techniques to unlock verbal expression.
Reflective practice may be stimulated by the coach asking the client to write a
journal which allows them to self-disclose in private, expressing their innermost
thoughts and feelings. Discussing their journal reflections with the coach serves to
integrate breakthroughs into new everyday behaviours. However, researchers have
provided a caution in that unchecked self-reflection may result in a level of unhealthy
introspection called ‘rumination’ [7]. Rumination occurs when the client engages in
the ‘repetitive focus on symptoms, causes and consequences’ of a distressing situa-
tion [62] which may lead to depression [63]. Conversely, healthy self-reflection
leads to the reduction of depression and the gaining of insight.
The second technique that coaches may use in reflective practice is that of per-
sonal sharing. As appropriate, coaches may share stories from their own or others’
personal experience and the resultant learnings with clients. This technique is useful
when increased rapport needs to be developed with the client, especially when they
are reluctant or mistrustful of the coach and/or the coaching process. Sharing of
experiences has an impact on both physical and emotional levels of consciousness.
Self-reflection on personal experiences releases tensions that often lead to break-
through learning.
A third technique used in reflective practice is experiential learning. Coaching is
largely an auditory experience so, when the coach utilises visual or kinaesthetic
techniques to unlock revelations, these may appeal to clients whose preferred mode
of communication is through these different representational systems. For example,
visual learners may appreciate creating visual images of their situation as it is now
and how they would want it to be. Visual art has been utilised extensively by mental
health clinicians and social workers to provide the ‘mental space’ for clients to
explore aspects of themselves that have been hidden from conscious awareness. It is
a powerful technique which assists clients to access their hidden emotions and later
express them verbally with the coach. The artistic act allows creative freedom with-
out restraint, attesting to the worth of non-verbal communication in the coaching
process.
A kinaesthetic approach which may appeal to clients reluctant to verbally and

emotionally express is to use a Gestalt technique in which clients use materials such
as building blocks, miniature people figures, and other physical objects to construct
a representation of their current situation. Moving the physical objects around
allows clients to reconstruct their life into the way they would like it to be.
Manipulating physical props may reveal thoughts and emotions which are initially
beyond words but later can be surfaced for discussion with clarity of mind and
intention. This technique is particularly effective with clients who have difficulty
expressing themselves or who are reluctant to engage verbally with the coach. As
clients gain in self-awareness, the coach encourages them to sit awhile and mind-
fully consider the insights that have surfaced as a result of reflective practice.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness is a companion activity to self-reflection. Before commencing reflec-

tive practice, the coach urges clients to become mindful so they are fully ‘present’
and ‘in the coaching moment’. This state is the one in which clients will be most
receptive to Aha! experiences. Clients can train their brain to be more mindful and
develop an increased sense of their inner world by utilising a number of strategies
to position them as fully ‘present’—activities which they can practice in their every-
day life—such as:
• Being ‘present’ in every moment, and appreciating the wonders in life.
• Being aware of their thoughts—both positive and negative—and choosing the
positive whenever wise to do so.
• Noticing, every day in every way, the things that are going right in their life
including new things and what they’re feeling—being aware of their emo-
tional state.
• Paying attention to the smallest of things that enrich their life and moving them
forward—being curious and receptive rather than distracted.
• Taking action to move the coaching process forward—even though their imme-
diate actions may not be perfect.
• Being authentically ‘present’ without the interference of preoccupations about
the past or the future.
• Surrounding themselves with positive people who build them up rather than let
them down, and nurturing positive relationships with others.
• Being grateful for everything and every person in their life who brings them joy
and happiness, and showing gratitude every day in even the smallest way. They
may ask themselves these three questions:
–– What surprised me today?
–– What moved me today?
–– Who or what inspired me today?
In summary, self-awareness and insight is facilitated by reflective practice. The

coach uses techniques such as journaling, personal sharing, and experiential learn-
ing based on the client’s preferred communication system, to stimulate their self-
awareness and insight. Coaching at relational depth intensifies the client’s experience
and leads them to more profound breakthroughs which may be transformative
beyond current conceptions of personal change.
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Chapter 10
Coaching for Learning and Growth
This chapter introduces the second, fundamental purpose for individual coaching in
community and organisational settings—to facilitate the client’s learning and
growth. All coaching is an opportunity for learning. Educational research has identi-
fied that adults learn through a cycle of experiential learning, reflecting, and theoris-
ing to refine actions. Adult learning principles inform the learning process, that is,
adults learn when they are ready to learn, self-motivated and self-directed, the activ-
ity builds on their previous experience, and they can integrate new learnings into
their knowledge- and skills-base. There are three key elements in the learning pro-
cess: the environment, the learner’s experience, and the relevance of the instruction.
that places the learner at the centre of the learning experience. It is a developmental
process grounded in critical self-reflection and personal transformation. Clients
who believe in their ability to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persis-
tence, and at times, assistance are malleable [1]. Contemporary coaching focuses on
the use of reflective practice to raise disorienting dilemmas which provoke break-
throughs in thinking. As clients engage in deep-structure learning, they make new
meanings which may be transformative. Overall, coaching increases self-directed,
lifelong learning which transfers into all aspects of their personal and profes-
sional life.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for learning and growth is conceptu-
alised, the motivations for learning and growth, the individuals who are the recipi-
ents of coaching for learning and growth, and how it is delivered in community and
organisational settings by external and internal coaches.
128 10 Coaching for Learning and Growth
Educational research has identified a number of theories relating to how individuals

learn. They differentiate between pedagogical and andragogical approaches to
learning and transformative change. Reflective practice produces change at surface
and deep-structure levels. Cognitive psychology research investigates the character-
istics, stages, and mental processes associated with learning. Positive psychology
research reveals coaching as a dynamic, interactive, relational, and social process
that facilities individual learning. The motivation for coaching for learning and
growth is for clients to increase their expertise in an interest or work area, transfer
personal learnings to applications in their home, work, or social environment, and
contribute to the collective learning of others. The recipients of coaching for learn-
ing and growth are all clients who want to engage in lifelong learning including (in
an organisational environment) leaders who seek opportunities to learn more and
gain experience in different roles.
The discipline of psychology offers several theories on adult learning. These include
David Kolb’s [2] theory of experiential learning, Argyris and Schon’s [3] theory of
single and double-loop learning, Knowles’ [4] theory of andragogy (as opposed to
pedagogy) which describes approaches to the teaching of adult learners, and
Mezirow’s [5] theory of transformative learning. Cognitive psychology looks at the
characteristics, stages, and cognitions relating to expertise, and positive psychology
research investigates the significance of relationships in bringing about growth and
change [6].
Adult Learning Theories
Kolb’s [2] theory of experiential learning proposed that individuals learn via a four-
step process of doing, reflecting, theorizing, and refining actions, which transforms
the outcomes of the experience into new knowledge. Kolb described four distinct
learning styles based on this four-stage learning cycle:
1. Concrete Experience—the learner encounters a new experience or a reinterpreta-
tion of an existing experience.
2. Reflective Observation—the learner reflects on what they have seen or heard. Of
particular importance are any inconsistencies in what was seen or heard.
3. Abstract Conceptualisation—the learner develops a new idea or modifies an
existing one.
4. Active Experimentation—the learner applies the new idea or knowledge to their
current situation or everyday life.
Kolb views learning as an integrative process with each stage mutually support-
ive of, and feeding into, the next. Learners may enter the cycle at any stage and
follow it through its sequence. However, integrated learning only occurs when the
learner ‘closes the loop’, that is, when they complete every part of the four-step
cycle. Hence, no one stage of the cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its
own. If the process is interrupted, the learning is not completed and learning does
not occur. Various factors such as the social environment, educational experiences,
and the basic cognitive structure of the individual influence a person’s preferred
learning style.
An alternate model of how individuals learn was the deficit model proposed by
Argyris’ [7] theory of single- and double-loop learning. Single-loop learning occurs
when errors are corrected without questioning and altering the underlying govern-
ing values or assumptions. Double-loop learning occurs when errors are corrected
after a process of questioning the governing values and assumptions (i.e. reflection)
and then taking actions to ameliorate the situation [3]. These traditional pedagogical
approaches to learning were not well-received by adult learners and typically proved
ineffective in helping adults learn. Hence, in the 1950s and 1960s, more adult-
centric models of learning were developed that were cohesive, explanatory, and
unifying [8]. These new models formulated the principles on which the current
foundations of adult learning are based.
Knowles’s [4] theory of andragogy explicitly linked coaching and adult learning
theory as an experiential process [9, 10]. It identified the core andragogical princi-
ples as the learner’s need to know, self-directed learning, prior experiences of the
learner, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and problem-solving, and motiva-
tion to learn [11, 12]. Hence, in coaching, clients are positioned as independent
learners with control of, and responsibility for, their own actions. New learning
occurs when the content is relevant to their current situation and builds on their prior
knowledge and experience, and when clients are ready and willing to learn and
make changes in their life. The coaching relationship is central to successful out-
comes from the coaching experience.
A second theory of how adults learn was proposed by Mezirow [5] in his theory
of transformative learning. Constructivist approaches to learning reformulate mean-
ing as the coach acts as a co-learner and role model for challenging assumptions and
meaning perspectives, and examining fundamental value judgements and expecta-
tions [9, 10]. Transformative learning theory incorporates concepts of critical self-
reflection to stimulate shifts in thinking which prompt action [13]. Transformative
learning ‘transforms problematic frames of reference to make them more inclusive,
discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change’ [14]. The coach
invites clients’ critical self-reflection by focussing on a surfaced dilemma, recognis-
ing the resulting discontent, and exploring options for new behaviours, relation-
ships, and actions [9]. By creating significant changes in learners’ fundamental
beliefs about themselves, transformative learning produces paradigm shifts which
affect the learner’s subsequent thought processes and actions [15]—changes which
are generally more profound than the learning outcomes achieved by single- or
double-loop learning processes [7, 10].
Adult Learning Principles
Adult learning principles, strategies, and frameworks that promote learning under-
pin adult learning interventions [2, 11, 16, 17]. Based on his andragogical model of
adult learning, Knowles [4, 17] proposed six principles that guide adult learning:
• Adults are self-directed human beings.
• Adult learning draws from an accumulated collection of life experiences.
• An adult’s readiness to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of their
social role.
• Adults are more problem-oriented than content-oriented.
• Adults learn more when they are internally motivated to do so.
• Adults have a ‘need-to-know’ approach to learning.
These principles suggest that the adult learner has an innate desire to be an active
agent in their own learning and growth. Learning is self-directed and optimised
when the client’s experience is acknowledged and incorporated into the learning
process [8]. When the client is viewed as a self-directed learner, the coach becomes
more of a facilitator of knowledge and a collaborator with the client in their learning
experience [18]. As learning is integrated into the client’s life experience, their
coaching needs may change and goals may need to be redefined. Self-directed
learning occurs particularly at times of critical life experiences when the usual pat-
terns of routine and behaviour are evaluated using different kinds of consciousness
[19]. The more relevant the learning to the client’s life experiences and values, the
more likely they are to undertake personal change [12].
The design of adult learning experiences considers three elements key to the
learning process: the environment, the learner’s experience, and the relevance of the
instruction [20]. If any of these design elements is missing, the learning experience
will be sub-optimal. From an environmental perspective, the physical space should
be conducive to learning (lighting, acoustics, seating arrangements) as well as psy-
chologically safe (secure, private, confidential) [21].These two conditions allow for
a genuine exchange without fear or favour. In addition, the social environment
should be inclusive and offer opportunities for respect and belonging, and for all
views to be equally expressed. In terms of experience, individuals are a product of
their accumulated experiences. Drawing upon these experiences during a learning
activity allows clients to integrate new concepts with old constructs to make sense
of the new information. Experiences which occur outside of them in the physical
environment can have a lasting effect on their values and beliefs if they are profound
and disconcerting to their established frames of reference. When clients are open to
new experiences and willing to consider the personal implications, their dilemmas
may cause learning to occur. Thinking human beings, when presented with new
information, automatically question it to verify its authenticity and consider its rel-
evance for their life. If they ‘need-to-know’ this information, they will be more
receptive to it and likely to take new learnings on-board.
that places the learner at the centre of the learning experience [22–25]. Contemporary
coaching focuses on enhancing personal self-reflection and self-directed learning to
achieve transformative change. In organisations, coaching is also conducted to
develop emotional competencies and identify ways that leaders can work more
effectively with teams [26]. Learning may be intentional [27] or occur by happen-
stance [28]. The developmental coaching process unlocks learning opportunities for
growth and development, and unleashes potential. The transformation that occurs is
‘explicitly and intentionally created and reflective in approach’ [29] and takes into
account the emotional, social, and political context of the learner as well as the pos-
sible consequences of the change for the team and organisation.
Building on educational theory, coaching is positioned as a developmental pro-
cess grounded in individual learning, personal mindsets and motivations, and self-
efficacy. In particular, implicit person theory [30, 31] proposes that clients who
believe in their ability to learn, perform, or change as a result of effort, persistence
and, at times, assistance are malleable [1, 32]. Mindset theory [30], applied to an
individual’s ability to change and grow [33–35] integrates principles of self-efficacy,
social learning theory, and work motivation theory to effect change [36, 37].
Educators and practitioners have been urged to develop a ‘more integrated, sys-
temic, global approach to coaching to accommodate the challenges posed by a new
global paradigm’ [38].
Critical Self-Reflection
Contemporary coaching practice incorporates critical self-reflection into the self-

directed learning process. Critical reflection has been defined as ‘active, persistent
and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of
the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends’ [39]. Critical
reflection involves challenging assumptions, exploring alternatives, and developing
reflective scepticism to gain increased self-awareness and personal insight [8].
Untested assumptions are replaced by informed perspectives [40]. Deep-structure
learning [3] occurs when surface issues progress from concrete learning (such as the
memorisation of facts and figures) to a more complex introspective level (such as
when meaning is made of the facts and figures). Individual and unique learning
processes create meaning within specific social and cultural contexts [41]. Creating
alternate meaning from learning processes may be transformative and life-changing
[42]. Personal transformation is the desired outcome of successful coaching for
learning and growth.
Coaching is a reflective practice which invites individuals to engage in single-
loop learning to discover what they intuitively know or have learned from
experience [3]. However, it is the client’s ability to meta-reflect or step back and

review that creates double-loop learning which changes their governing values and
actions as they relate to future situations or events [7]. Techniques such as apprecia-
tive enquiry support clients’ meta-reflection and questioning of their world-view to
change perspectives [43]. As clients respond and adapt to their environment, they
question and challenge existing assumptions and behavioural patterns, explore pos-
sibilities for creativity and innovation, actively construct meaning based on new
perspectives, and grow socially and emotionally in independent, fulfilling, and sup-
portive relationships [44, 45]. They envision their best possible future and, together
with the coach, identify a plan to change their behaviour and communicate the
changes [46]. As a reflective practice, coaching transforms behaviour by developing
clients’ awareness of the need to change [47].
Critical self-reflection surfaces troubling thoughts, feelings, and assumptions.
The coach challenges those which cannot be validated in everyday reality to
increase the client’s self-awareness and change their perspective. Deep-structure
learning occurs when assumptions are questioned and replaced by evidence-based
information. New knowledge generates insights which, through sense-making,
promote the integration of learnings with prior knowledge to generate new mean-
ings to be tested in social and cultural contexts. To aid reflection, the coach may
use processes such as storytelling and reflective journals, as well as metaphors
and mind mapping.
Personal Transformation
Traditional models of learning are based on concrete, simplistic, and unevaluated

understanding of knowledge with little personal significance. At the other extreme,
transformative learning facilitates progression through to a more abstract, relative,
and meaningful understanding of knowledge, which can be personally transform-
ing. Learning is transformative and can lead to personal change and development
when the client’s pain threshold has been reached and they require a different out-
come. Transformation occurs when firmly held assumptions and beliefs are chal-
lenged as a result of a ‘disorienting event’ [14]. The client transitions from an
externally driven perspective to an internally motivated desire for more meaningful
learning.
Coaching for learning and growth utilises positive psychology strategies which pro-
mote self-directed learning and personal transformative change. Reflecting on their
behaviour and experiences, adult learners become more intensely aware of how they
relate to the external world, and ways to become more personally and professionally
effective. During coaching, the coach uses adult learning principles to guide the cli-
ent towards self-revelation via critical self-reflection and the use of disorienting
dilemmas to stimulate personal learning.
Self-Directed Learning
As a developmental process and bespoke form of learning, coaching provides the

opportunity for individuals to take time-out in a supportive environment to reflect
on their thoughts and actions, identify goals for learning and growth, and action
plan for the future. The principles of adult learning theory inform coaching in that
the coaching process is directed by the client and learnings are built on the client’s
prior knowledge and experience. Using the coaching skills, the coach facilitates
opportunities for clients to explore scenarios for growth based on problems to be
solved or needs to be satiated. When the client is ready to learn and an active partici-
pant in the coaching process, they discover new ways of being and doing and are
motivated to change. Growth changes are reinforced when practiced in real-time
situations within the client’s social environment.
Positive psychology coaching facilitates client exploration in a safe space that is
physically, psychologically, and emotionally supportive of their needs. Coaches
provide the space for clients to cognitively meditate and experientially explore a
range of possible scenarios based on their heightened understandings of self and
others. Clients will learn when they are ready to learn new behaviours; willing to
take risks (and possibly ‘fail’); have the cognitive ability to self-reflect and self-
review; possess the skills to follow-through on actions, or know how to access the
necessary resources; and have a level of maturity to cope with and manage the new
behaviours (and possibly new emotions) in their social environments. The social
environments in which individuals live and work, and the social connections they
make which support or hinder their growth, have been identified as important fac-
tors in sustaining their change efforts. Peterson et al. [48] concluded that other peo-
ple matter because it is within groups that we live, work, and play. Hence, feelings
of belonging are vitally important to self-esteem, psychological health, and
wellbeing.
Disorienting Dilemmas
The second way that coaches stimulate learning and growth is by raising disorient-
ing dilemmas or events to the client’s consciousness [14, 49]. These are created in
the client’s mind when the coach challenges discrepancies or incongruences in their
story. Powerful questioning surfaces assumptions, biases, and deep-seated beliefs
previously hidden to the client. The resulting disturbed state allows the client to
restructure their mental model and mindset, and re-orient their thinking and behav-
iour to create new learnings. Disorienting dilemmas are also surfaced by discus-
sions on experiences which have had a lasting impact on the client’s values and
established frames of reference, especially when the new information surfaced is
relevant to the client and their ‘need-to-know’.
Meaning-Making
The third way that coaches stimulate learning and growth is by facilitating the cli-
ent’s self-awareness and insight to make new meanings from the revelations sur-
faced at relational depth. Meaning-making is achieved when the client ascribes
personal significance to a particular life event or phenomenon [50]. Personal signifi-
cance is ascribed to everyday events based on the view that individuals constantly
seek to find the meaning expressed in daily activities [51]. Subjective meaningful-
ness associates the event with experienced feelings that matter to the individual
[52]. The meaning-making process plays a significant role in an individual’s psy-
chological wellbeing [53, 54] and decision-making [55]. Individual differences in
trait self-awareness have been compared with perceptions of meaningfulness in a
decision-making task in a non-clinical population, with researchers concluding that,
when given a choice, individuals with higher trait self-awareness are more likely to
seek out and find meaning from an event compared with those who have lower trait
self-awareness [56].
The first step in meaning-making is ‘scaffolding’, that is, developing an associa-
tion between what is known about one’s self with what has been revealed in the
self-reflection [57]. Techniques from client-centred therapy [58] provide the scaf-
folding to navigate the divide between the known and unknown. Adopting a client-
centred mindset, the coach creates an environment in which the client experiences
genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being treated with uncon-
ditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood) in order to
grow and reach their potential [59]. To nurture a client-centred environment, coaches
need to become more in touch with their own mind, body, and spirit—the conditions
that develop and promote an individual’s own way of being [6]. Once surfaced, the
client’s self-awareness brings acceptance of the need for behavioural change and
emotional self-regulation. Reflective practice can be applied to both an individual’s
personal and professional development. However, without experience in personal
reflection, professional reflection may prove difficult.
In summary, coaches utilise adult learning principles to encourage clients to
critically self-reflect on their situation and create new, self-directed learnings. They
raise disorienting dilemmas or events to the level of the client’s consciousness to
surface deep-structure learning. Dilemmas are revealed through powerful question-
ing which challenges the client’s existing mental model and mindset to uncover
unhelpful biases and assumptions. Once discovered, these can be revised through
coaching into more positive beliefs which allow the client to make new meanings
and move positively forward.
References 135
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Chapter 11
Coaching for Behavioural Change
This chapter introduces the third, fundamental purpose for coaching in community
and organisational settings—to effect behavioural change. It explores how tradi-
tional psychology research identified the ways in which behaviour is shaped by
reward and punishment. Goals are the ‘rewards’ that clients work towards, away
from the ‘pain’ in their life. Coaching focuses on ‘toward’ goals, that is, moving the
client towards a more positive future and away from ‘learned helplessness’ [1].
Behaviour is shaped not only by the internal cognitions of the client but also in
response to the social situations in which they find themself, and the social norms
that apply in certain circumstances. Developmental psychology revealed that clients
who are ready for change, motivated to change, and have self-efficacy behave in
ways which acknowledge that their behaviour is not fixed but can be moulded and
reinforced to achieve a better outcome [2]. Positive psychology research focuses on
finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems. Coaches use goal-oriented and
solution-focused techniques aligned with the client’s core values and beliefs to
motivate and support self-efficacy to achieve their behavioural goals.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for behavioural change is conceptu-
alised, the motivations for behavioural change, the individuals who are the recipi-
ents of coaching to develop different behaviours, and how coaching for behavioural
change is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and inter-
nal coaches.
Traditional behavioural psychology research informs the mechanics of behavioural

change. Individuals change their behaviour when the ‘pain’ is too great to continue
to endure or the ‘reward’ too attractive not to strive for it. Cognitive behavioural
psychology overlays the importance of the client’s mental model and mindset on
140 11 Coaching for Behavioural Change
readiness to change. Social psychology research situates changes within the client’s
social environment. Positive psychology research focuses on finding solutions
rather than dwelling on problems and offers techniques that coaches can use, and
clients can adopt in their everyday lives, to promote happiness, joy, and prosperity.
The motivation for behavioural coaching is for clients to become more self-
efficacious, goal- and action-oriented to plan for behavioural change. The recipients
of behavioural coaching are all clients who have been unable to make the changes
they desire or require by themselves without external support.
Traditional psychological research offers theories from behavioural, cognitive

behavioural, and social cognitive perspectives regarding how individuals may be
motivated to change. Coaches motivate individuals to change so they will establish
and maintain more productive behaviours and be happy and more satisfied with
their life and work, as explained in the next sections.
Coaching emerged from therapeutic approaches that originally focused on observa-

tions of human behaviour and how manipulations of behaviour can condition new
responses: stimulus–response (unconditioned or conditioned) [3]; classical and
operant conditioning [4]; and reward–punishment reinforcement principles [5].
Traditional behavioural research reinforced the views of early empiricist philoso-
phers who proposed that all behavioural phenomena were due to the gradual and
passive association of overt behaviours and resulting feelings of pleasure or pain
(hedonism) through contiguity and reinforcement [6]. An organism would exhibit a
need such as for food or shelter, and produce a random behaviour in response to this
need; if satisfaction was achieved, an association was formed and strengthened over
time with repeated exposures. Hence, behavioural theories are predicated on the
belief that an individual will move away from a painful situation towards a gainful
situation (the reward), driven by a basic need to minimise physical pain and maxi-
mise pleasure. They focused on the tried-and-proven way of getting people to
change—‘carrot and stick’. This age-old method is still the basis on which most
parents bring up their children today. Children get a reward (a smile, a pat on the
back, kind words) for doing as they are told. If they are naughty, they get a repri-
mand. So, from an early age, individuals learn to behave in certain ways as a result
of externally applied forces. Over the years, the ‘carrot-and-stick’ method of obtain-
ing compliance has been incorporated into many traditional work processes and
systems.
Years later, an alternative motivation for change was put forward [7, 8]. Incentive
theory proposed that behaviour is elicited in response to environmental factors in
order to achieve a goal. When a goal is present, the individual attempts to reach that
goal, e.g. losing weight, exercising, eating healthily. Incentives may be tangible or
intangible. An intangible incentive may involve feeling good about oneself, while a
tangible incentive may be the receipt of an award or something that brings public
recognition (e.g. photo in the paper). Intangible incentives are also known as intrin-
sic rewards [9] whilst tangible incentives are known as extrinsic rewards [10].
Sometimes, one type of reward is replaced with the other. This usually happens
when an intrinsic reward is replaced by an extrinsic reward. For instance, an
employee is promoted to management but loses all touch with their technical area
of expertise. As time goes by, they seek further promotions based on financial
reward rather than on their technical excellence which was previously rewarded and
of which they used to be so proud. The external reward of increased pay now out-
weighs the internal pride and satisfaction they used to have in their technical skills
when people used to come to them on a daily basis for help and support. This situ-
ation is known as the over-justification effect. In general, over-justification occurs
when the external reward becomes the only reason for continuing to behave in a
certain way. There is evidence that the effectiveness of the intrinsic incentive
approach to motivation diminishes over time as people adapt to expecting greater
extrinsic incentives for higher performance [11].
A third motivation for change was proposed by House [12]. His path-goal theory
suggested that expectations based on past experiences direct behaviour toward par-
ticular goals. The theory was that individuals are motivated by goal-setting and
action-planning [13]. Empirical evidence for the effectiveness of goal-setting and
action-planning has been derived from both traditional and positive psychology
approaches to coaching as well as from management literature. Traditional psychol-
ogy research has described goals as the ‘internal representations of desired states or
outcomes’ [14] and goal-setting as a powerful way to motivate individuals to
change. Focusing on a goal activates the mind to concentrate on what an individual
would like to achieve and how they would like things to be different. Goal-setting
addresses three key areas of impact—cognition [15], behaviour [16], and affect
[17]—which are ‘central to coaching’ [18]. The desired outcome is stored in mem-
ory as a cognitive image which drives the client forward and can be compared with
the final, actual result. The anticipated pleasure of achieving the goal motivates
them to keep trying, incentivising action towards capturing the prize [19].
The desired goal to be achieved from behavioural change may be specific or
abstract. Specific goals typically relate to performance tasks, often underpinned by
personal capabilities and competence [20]. SMART goals are highly specific and
more likely to produce the desired result [13]. However, if they are too difficult to
achieve, they may cause stress in the individual which may result in a decline in
their performance [21]. Research has suggested that vague, abstract goals may be
less demanding and threatening to the individual [22], thus allowing for more flex-
ible, motivational performance improvements. In certain circumstances, learning
goals may be more appropriate to facilitate better performance [23], for example,
where the individual has insufficient skills to perform the task. Learning goals
stimulate intrinsic motivation which is associated with improved performance [24].

Learning goals are sometimes called mastery goals [18].
Goals may be time-framed in terms of proximal or distal outcomes [25]. Proximal
goals are shorter-term, hinting at urgency of action-planning [26]. Distal goals are
often ‘broad’ and ‘fuzzy’, relating to a longer-term vision of the future [27]. Goals
may also be categorised as avoidance or approach goals, moving either away from
the undesirable situation or towards a more desirable future [18]. At times, goals
may be competing for resources or attention which may result in internal conflict as
the individual endeavours to meet their needs as well as those of others. Converting
competing into complementary goals is the task of the coach [28]. Alternatively
motivation may be attributed to higher order intentions such as altruism, selfishness,
or mortality.
Cognitive Behaviour Theory
As a more humanistic approach to therapeutic interventions with clients evolved

from behavioural modification techniques in the 1950s, cognitive-behavioural
approaches emerged to address both the mental and physical aspects associated
with change [29]. These approaches assume that behaviour is directed as a result of
the active processing and interpretation of information, and propose that interper-
sonal difficulties are caused by habits and associated thought patterns which can be
rectified by focusing on behavioural techniques which elicit goal-oriented behav-
iours [13].
Cognitive behaviour theory (CBT) is one of the leading mental health interven-
tions for mental disorders [30]. Cognitive-behavioural coaching (CBC) is based on
CBT and delivered by qualified professionals [31] who emphasise the importance of
enhancing the emotion–regulation abilities of clients and replacing their non-
productive behaviours with more appropriate ways of behaving. Patients are treated
by exposure to the distressing object or situation which results in desensitisation and
relief of anxiety. However, in a coaching situation, clients are not experiencing men-
tal distress. Rather, their confusion often relates to ambiguities, inconsistencies, or
inadequacies they experience in the conduct of their everyday life. Consequently,
coaching focuses on the thoughts, behaviours, and feelings that are elicited in the
client in these confusing situations which may be caused by a value-behaviour
inconsistency or by limiting beliefs which send incapacitating information to the
brain. Research has shown that individuals may act contrary to their explicit beliefs
when strong feelings are involved [30].
In addition to its use in clinical populations, research has shown that CBC is an
effective evidence-based approach for facilitating cognitive, behavioural, and affec-
tive changes in non-clinical populations [32, 33]. It has been linked to significantly
increasing goal striving, wellbeing and hope in individuals [34], and facilitating
goal-setting and improvement in organisational settings [35]. CBC addresses irra-
tional and limiting beliefs which restrain the client from taking actions to resolve
their situation and leads to a more productive life [36].
Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory [37] proposes that behavioural change is influenced by cog-
nitive expectations which result in cognitive reconstruction which may be impacted
by environmental factors such as culture and norms [38]. Central to social cognitive
theory is the concept of self-efficacy [39] which is the individual’s belief in their
capacity to organise and execute the actions that are required to manage prospective
situations especially when the task is new, novel, or difficult. According to Bandura,
an individual’s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what is known as
the self-system. This system plays a major role in how individuals perceive situa-
tions and how they behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy plays an
essential part in this self-system. The belief in one’s own ability to achieve begins to
form in early childhood as children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks,
and situations. It continues to grow throughout life as they acquire new skills, expe-
riences, and understanding [40].
Bandura found that self-efficacy plays a major role in how individuals think,
behave, and feel in relation to goals to be achieved and challenges to be addressed.
Those with a strong sense of self-efficacy view challenging problems as tasks to be
mastered, develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate, form a
stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities, and recover quickly
from setbacks and disappointments. Individuals with a weak sense of self-efficacy
experience the reverse. They avoid challenging tasks, believe that difficult tasks and
situations are beyond their capabilities, focus on personal failings and negative out-
comes, and quickly lose confidence in their personal abilities. Hence, identifying
the degree to which individuals believe in themselves, and believe they can attain
their goals, is at the heart of every motivational and reward programme leading to
change. If clients don’t believe they can make the changes they will self-sabotage—
which is called a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’.
Social cognitive theory and the concept of self-efficacy explain and predict
behavioural changes that underpin coaching interventions. According to Bandura
[40], there are four major sources of self-efficacy:
• Mastery Experiences: Performing a task successfully strengthens an individu-
al’s sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or
challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy.
• Social Modelling: Witnessing people successfully completing a task is another
important source of self-efficacy. In particular, observing others similar to them-
selves making a success of their life by sustained effort increases a client’s belief
that they too possess the capabilities to master difficult yet similar activities.
• Social Persuasion: Bandura asserted that people could be persuaded to believe
they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Verbal encouragement from oth-
ers helps individuals overcome self-doubt, allowing them to focus on putting
their best effort to the task at hand.
• Psychological Responses: Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and
stress levels, play an important role in self-efficacy. They all impact on how an
individual feels about their ability to perform in a particular situation whether

real or perceived (e.g. making a public presentation). By learning how to mini-
mise stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, indi-
viduals can improve their sense of self-efficacy.
Social learning theory [39] emphasises the role of observational learning, social
experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality. Automatic
(unconscious) and controlled (conscious) social cognitive processes influence per-
ceptions during social engagement [41]. Individuals understand their self in relation
to others as they interpret the external world through perceptions and judgements
which generate mental representations of the social schemata. These representa-
tions influence an individual’s perception, orientation, and responsiveness in social
situations, and allow them to make sense of their social world.
Prochaska and DiClemente’s Transtheoretical Model of Change [42] proposed
five stages of readiness towards behavioural change—Pre-contemplation,
Contemplation, Preparation, Action, and Maintenance. The model is highly appli-
cable to coaching as it gives the coach an indication of how to work with a client
according to their stage of readiness for change. From a coaching perspective, it is
important to note that the model is not linear. Individuals engaged in the change
process may not progress smoothly across the stages. Life events or barriers to pro-
gression may cause them to return to a previous stage or give up. The factors that
control the transfer between different stages, and the time necessary for change to
occur, include the client’s decisional balance and self-efficacy [43].
Advocates of behavioural theories believe in the immense value of being able to

observe behaviours which makes it easy to collect data and quantify information
when conducting research. Therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioural
interventions, token economies, and discrete trial training programs are all based on
theories of behaviour modification. These approaches are often useful to change
inappropriate or harmful behaviours in both children and adults. However, critics of
behavioural conditioning have argued that it is a one-dimensional approach to
behaviour modification, and that behavioural theories do not account for internal
influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings. Nor, they claim, does behavioural
conditioning account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs
without the use of reinforcement or punishment. For example, people and animals
are able to adapt their behaviour when new information is introduced even if a pre-
vious behaviour pattern had been established through reinforcement.
In response to these claims, positive psychology research has found that inter-
ventions are most effective when they are solution-focused rather than problem-
oriented [44, 45], and when clients are supported to find their own solutions rather
than blaming external forces [32]. This combined approach helps build a greater
depth of client self-understanding and self-efficacy [44, 46, 47] by reducing nega-
tive affect and supporting goal attainment [48–50]. Hence, coaches focus on sup-
porting values-driven behaviours and identifying unhelpful beliefs that limit the
client’s ability to change. Each of these approaches is addressed in the following
sections.
Solution-Focused
When problems are to be solved rather than goals to be achieved, positive psychol-
ogy coaching adopts a solution-focused approach to help clients resolve problems
or concerns that are holding them back. The coach helps the client develop self-
awareness and insight which generates learning and allows the solution to emerge
from within. The solution-focused coaching approach promotes discovery and
insight, builds a greater depth of self-understanding, reduces negative affect,
increases positive affect, and supports resolution of the situation. By focusing on the
solution, not the problem, and how they would like things to be, clients uncover
what they have intuitively known all along but been unable to achieve by them-
selves. They find the solution to their problem rather than dwelling on the problem
itself, which is where and how they became stuck in the first place.
Values and Beliefs
All behaviours, thoughts, feelings, and actions are shaped and given direction, pur-
pose, and meaning by the values and goals that individuals hold implicitly or explic-
itly [18]. Hence, techniques used in coaching focus on identifying the behaviours
and cognitions which support the client’s positive and enabling values and beliefs.
The client’s values and beliefs have been shaped by early childhood experiences in
the home or school environment. Children growing up are taught how to behave
appropriately in various situations. As time goes by, and especially in the adolescent
years, they are exposed to people behaving differently, in response to their own set
of values and beliefs. One of the many tasks of teenagers is to ‘try out’ new ways of
behaving to ascertain the values they want to take forward into adulthood. All too
often, they encounter values which are the very opposite of those they were taught.
They may become confused or enraged, and react in ways totally uncharacteristic of
who they used to be. They are finding out who they are going to be in the future.
Often causing parental angst, the ‘rule book’ is thrown open to reinterpretation
based on their new references and experiences.
During coaching, clients gain insight into the behaviours that support their core
values and identify any discrepancies that provide opportunities to discover their
growth needs [51]. A number of changes may be desired or required in the client’s
behaviour, attitude, beliefs, or perspectives which impact their ability to develop
trusting and collaborative relationships at home and work, resolve their problems,
and achieve their goals. Coaching re-aligns their behaviours with core values and
beliefs, unravelling the patterns of behaviour in their life which have been unpro-
ductive in moving them forward, and identifying ways to reinforce what has been
working for them and should continue. But first, the client must identify what it is
they value in relation to self, family, work, health, etc. A Values-Sort Card exercise
or similar [52] can be useful to assist them determine the focus of their future behav-
iours. After identifying their say, 5 core values, the coach works with the client to
write down the behaviours that support these values and compares these with the
client’s current behaviours. Any discrepancies are opportunities for the client to
determine more productive ways of living their values and achieving their
desired future.
Drawing on traditional psychology findings, researchers have identified the value of

combining cognitive behaviour therapeutic techniques with rational-emotive behav-
ioural interventions to produce clients’ positive affect and the achievement of goals
[53]. In addition, positive psychology promotes a solution-focused approach to
behavioural change which reveals the behaviours that support the client’s positive
values and enabling beliefs [45].
Solution-Focus
Solution-focused coaching is a highly powerful motivator for change [54]. If clients

are still experiencing ‘pain’, coaches use the initial stage of the coaching process
and cognitive-behavioural restructuring to turn the negative problem into a positive
goal. Any immediate problem can be reframed as a goal to be achieved via coach-
ing. To do this, the client must be a willing and active participant in the coaching
process—ready to openly and honestly discuss what is concerning them and what is
important to them. The coach facilitates the client’s recognition of their own self-
awareness and insights as a result of self-reflection and the resulting learnings, to
indicate that they need to do something different. The client engages with the coach
to determine a specific goal and actions which will take them closer to embracing a
happier and more fulfilling life. The very act of revealing themselves to the coach is
often sufficient to bring about internal ‘shifts’ that are so insightful as to propel the
client to begin the change process. Any positive movement forward is a good start.
The coach’s role is to channel that forward movement into the completion of actions
which allow new beginnings to emerge.
Goal-Setting and Action-Planning
Goal-oriented and solution-focused coaching techniques assist the client self-

regulate their behaviour so they become more personally and interpersonally effec-
tive and lead a more purposeful life [54]. Through goal-setting, action-planning,
monitoring, and evaluating their attitude and behaviours, clients transition to effect
the desired changes. Goal-setting allows clients to specify their own end-point and
then work towards it—whether that is personal, career, or work-related. Clients
want to know the end-point so they can manage their time and resources to achieve
the desired outcome. The goal may be anything from completing a specific task, to
making a presentation to their manager, or enrolling in an educational course. The
coach works with the client to put in place a plan of action to accomplish their goal.
The coach and client then identify the best means of motivating the client so that the
goal is achieved in a timely manner.
Goal-setting involves identifying where the client is now and where they want to
be in the future. The desired end-point may be usefully defined in SMART terms
[55] so that the coaching can be measured for success. There are four elements to
setting and achieving goals. These include:
1. Focus: Goals narrow attention and direct efforts to goal-relevant activities—
away from perceived undesirable and goal-irrelevant actions.
2. Target: Goals can lead to more effort (e.g. if an employee typically produces 4
widgets an hour and has the goal of producing 6, they may work more intensely
than they would otherwise do in order to reach the goal).
3. Desirability: An individual becomes more prone to work through setbacks if
pursuing a highly desired goal.
4. Determination: Goals can lead an individual to develop cognitive strategies to
change their behaviour.
Table 11.1 outlines a seven-step process that coaches can use to assist clients
goal-set.
Table 11.1 Seven steps to goal-setting

Goal-setting
1. Specify the nature of the task/s to be accomplished. What is the goal?
2. Specify how performance is to be measured. How will you know when you get there? Some
baseline data may be required.
3. Specify the standard or target to aim for. How much of an improvement do you need?
Specify exactly the targeted end-point.
4. Specify the time span involved. How long have you got to complete the task?
5. If there are multiple goals, clients rate each goal quantitatively and then rank them on an
Urgent/Important matrix.
6. Clients then action plan the items that are easy for them to execute first, so they will
experience a feeling of immediate success.
7. The coach then determines who the client needs to consult with/inform/involve in their
change process. Are you capable of making these changes by yourself? If not, from where can
you access the necessary resources?
Action-planning breaks down the goal into small, achievable steps and then iden-
tifies the actions to be taken, by whom, over a period of time. Nominating a timeline
injects a sense of urgency into resolving the situation. Plans may be short-term
(12 months) to achieve immediate personal or business goals, medium-term
(2–3 years) or long-term (3–5 years) for vision goals. In a business or work environ-
ment, the plan may include the roles and responsibilities, performance indicators,
and alternative methods that can be implemented to reach the client’s objectives.
Action-planning is a simple way to collect all the information needed by the client
to make the best decision about their life, work, and career. Steps in the action-
planning process include:
1. Identifying the goal.
2. Choosing appropriate actions to achieve the goal.
3. Assigning timelines and priorities.
4. Making it happen, whilst remaining positive and optimistic.
Research has concluded that sustained effects of coaching over a specified period
are associated with client satisfaction derived from fulfilling their goals and
desires [56].
Supporting Self-Efficacy
During coaching, the coach notices the client’s degree of self-efficacy, that is, their
belief in their ability to change, and their readiness and willingness to change as
well as accept responsibility and accountability for their actions. Ultimately, it is the
client’s belief in themself that will get them through. Self-efficacy acknowledges
what clients cannot change, for example, due to illness, past experiences, or external
factors such as a pandemic. Whilst immediate success is beneficial, clients also
learn from their ‘failures’ which expand their horizon leading to growth and the
adoption of different perspectives. From a positive psychology perspective, clients
need to do something about making changes. It is insufficient to indicate that they
will try. Trying is an inadequate commitment to change and may never happen.
Hence, coaches use the final segment of the coaching process to gain a sufficiently
high level of commitment from the client to taking the actions they have decided to
take. People experience change in two ways—first in their mind, and then in prac-
tice. Hence, performance ability increases as clients preview themselves enacting
the new behaviours in their mind, before attempting to practice the new behaviour
in the real world. Coaches encourage clients to do something, no matter how small
or whether it will be successful, in an attempt to reach their goal. What clients do is
good for now, even though it may be ‘imperfect’.
Behavioural coaching interventions are predicated on the basis that clients are
ready and willing to make changes in their life, and have the capacity and resources
to do so. Coaching that is not aligned with the readiness of the individual to change
will be less likely to succeed. Also, coaching programs that try to move a person too
References 149
quickly through the stages of change are more likely to create resistance that will
impede behavioural change. For example, if a client wants to quit smoking, it is
essential to know where they are at in terms of their readiness to cease smoking. A
client who is not even thinking about quitting is generally not ready to receive infor-
mation about specific smoking cessation tools. In this case, focusing the coaching
on smoking cessation tools sends the message that the coach is not listening. This
may not only damage rapport but could also make the client more resistant to quit-
ting smoking. A more stage-specific intervention with this client would be for the
coach to get them to just think about quitting. Once the client gets to the contempla-
tion stage, additional strategies can be used to move them through the remaining
stages. Using stage-specific interventions decreases the coach’s frustration by less-
ening their unrealistic expectation that change will occur with a single intervention.
In summary, coaches work with clients to help them identify the behaviours that
are congruent with their personal values and beliefs, raise any discrepancy with
their current behaviour, and assist them make the changes they need to make to lead
a life that is meaningful and on-purpose. As clients develop self-awareness and
insight, they learn and grow, and their minds become more open to new possibili-
ties. With the coach, they explore and discover alternate ways to behave to become
more effective in their life. Coaches uncover what motivates clients and what causes
them conflict and concern. They support self-discovery of their own solutions and
assist clients establish goals and take actions for which they are responsible. The
coach and client are jointly accountable for achieving the coaching outcomes. A
goal-oriented, solution-focused approach to coaching supports the client’s self-
efficacy and motivation to implement behavioural change.
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Chapter 12
Coaching for Personal Development
This chapter focuses on coaching for personal development. Traditional personality

psychology research identified traits and behaviours that were combined into per-
sonality types which could be profiled. Individual psychology informs how indi-
vidual needs and wants drive client behaviour and interpersonal effectiveness.
Positive psychology coaching utilises the client’s strengths to maximise their poten-
tial, boost self-esteem and build resilience. The coach encourages self-regulation of
emotions and tensions relating to stressful or conflictual situations. Individual
coaching within the workplace may also address performance-related issues which
cause clients stress or anxiety and collaboration and decision-making problems
within teams. The outcome is that clients gain in self-confidence, increase their self-
esteem, and live a more fulfilling, meaningful and purposive life. They develop
resilience which enables them to recover from adversity, uncertainty, conflict or
negative change events more quickly. A positive self-image, positive attitude and
positive behaviours which reflect the client’s inner values may inspire and motivate
others to engage in their own personal development.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for personal development is concep-
tualised, the motivations for personal development, the individuals who are the
recipients of coaching for personal development, and how it is delivered in com-
munity and organisational settings by external and internal coaches.
Traditional psychology research contributes understandings of personality develop-

ment to the coaching process. Personality style influences how clients communicate
and interact with others. It also influences how clients cope with conflict and man-
age stress. Individual psychology contributes understandings of individual needs
and wants, and the achievement of potential. Clients are motivated to be coached for
154 12 Coaching for Personal Development
personal development when they wish to become more personally effective and
influential at home and work. The recipients of coaching for personal development
are all clients who are experiencing dissatisfaction with their life or work and are
committed to making changes to improve their current situation.
Coaching for personal development may be conducted by external coaches with
clients who pay for their own coaching or with valued employees (coachees) inter-
nal to an organisation which pays for their coaching. Leadership coaches may work
inside organisations as line managers or HR professionals [1]. Some organisations
have instigated internal teams of coaches who coach employees on a needs basis or
as part of a cultural change program [2, 3].
Traditional individual and personality psychology research has investigated indi-

vidual differences in terms of what motivates people and how they think and behave.
Individuals are motivated by key drivers which may relate to individual personality
traits to meet their needs and wants. Assessment instruments have been developed
to categorise traits into personality profiles.
Individual and Personality Psychology
Individual psychology examines how people are psychologically similar or differ-

ent in their thinking, feeling and behaviour. The study of individual differences
originated in the early 1900s. At that time, scientists attempted to identify traits
within the general population which then became the study of personality types,
styles and attributes. Attempts to measure, explain and predict behaviour and per-
formance resulted in multiple and often conflicting theories about individual psy-
chology. By considering the variations that can occur from one person to another,
the full range of human behaviour and emotion can be determined. Researchers
began to understand what constitutes acceptable variation from the norm and what
constitutes unacceptable behaviour or delays in certain areas which may require
remediation or intervention, for example, for criminal behaviour or developmental
delays. A related consideration was how much variation there is in values, beliefs
and behaviours within an individual over time and situations. Is this variation within
a single person more or less than the variation among others in the general popula-
tion? Are there more similarities within in-group populations (e.g. groupings by
gender, culture, age or ethnicity) than within populations external to the group?
Personality psychology addressed these questions and more as it investigated
how people live and work individually and together. It also addressed the unique
ways that people function within specific environments. Personality research inter-
ests ranged from the analyses of genetic codes to the study of sexual, social, ethnic
and cultural differences. It included questions related to behavioural styles,
cognitive abilities, interpersonal styles, and emotional reactivity. Two areas of spe-
cific interest to researchers were the identification of individual traits that combine
into personality types, and how to assess an individual’s personality type.
Personality Theories
Personality and individual psychology first addressed personal traits that contribute
to how individuals experience life and interact with others. Type A and Type B per-
sonalities were proposed [4] based on combinations of individual personality traits.
The typology suggested that Type A people like an ordered environment and become
extremely stressed when things go wrong at home or at work. They are ambitious,
rigidly organised, highly status-conscious, sensitive and caring, truthful, impatient,
and always trying to help others, take on more than they can handle, want other
people to get to the point, and are proactive and obsessed with time management.
Type B personalities are more relaxed and generally live at a lower stress level. They
typically work steadily, enjoying achievement but not becoming stressed when they
have not achieved. When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either
enjoy the game or back down. They may be creative and explore different ideas and
concepts. They are often reflective, thinking about their outer and inner worlds.
Over time, and with experiences and dilemmas surfaced through coaching, Type A
clients may learn to become more relaxed like Type Bs. Also, traditional psychol-
ogy research showed that individuals may not be on the extremes (i.e. either Type A
or Type B) but somewhere in-between. Hence, depending on the degree to which a
client is mainly Type A or mainly Type B, different communication and stress man-
agement techniques will be more effective in supporting their personal development.
Next, researchers investigated how personality traits may be combined into per-
sonality types and how individuals might be profiled into different type categories.
Starting in the 1920s, behavioural scientists began to investigate why people behave
the way they do, for example, why some people crave power while others are con-
tent to contribute to the greater good. The advent of World Wars prompted scientists
and psychologists to find a way to explain the differences in human behaviour so
that people could better relate to each other. One of the earliest forms of personality
assessment was developed by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Myers [5, 6]. The Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-assessed typology of human behaviour con-
structed from understandings of the conceptual work of Carl Jung [7, 8]. The MBTI
attempted to ‘make normal’ the similarities and differences among human beings by
proposing different personality types to explain specific personality differences and
how people may cope with these differences in a constructive way. Subsequently,
researchers began to investigate proprietary ways in which personality traits could
be combined into commercially available, personality profiles.
A number of personality assessment instruments were developed which can-
vassed both self and others’ opinions of an individual’s personality and allowed
others to comment on how that individual’s personality affected them. For example,
the DISC personality profile is based on a model of how ‘normal’ people behave in
their environment or within a specific situation [9]. DISC is an acronym for the
categorisation of the four primary dimensions of behaviour in this profile: Dominant,
Influential, Steady, and Conscientious. The instrument identifies behavioural style
by measuring attributes or qualities of an individual and aspects of their personality.
The key to understanding the DISC dimensions is to understand the two needs that
these researchers believe drive and influence how people behave in relation to one
another—the need for affiliation and the need for control.
Another popular 360° assessment instrument is the Human Synergistics Life
Styles Inventory (LSI) [10]. Over 20 years of research, Lafferty established that
there are certain personality styles which are ineffective, some marginal, some ade-
quate and some clearly associated with excellence. The LSI is a self-awareness,
self-development tool which enables individuals to identify areas they wish to
improve on and take action to become more constructive in their behaviours.
A third 360° assessment instrument is the CLS360 which is based on transforma-
tional leadership research and measures leadership behaviour [11, 12]. It identifies
eight leadership styles which form an ‘interpersonal circumplex’ arranged around
two main factors that are represented by two axes (agency and communion). The
charismatic or transformational style consists of four main behavioural and cogni-
tive dimensions: charisma, inspiring motivation, intellectual stimulation, and indi-
vidual consideration. These styles correlate highly with work factors such as
employee motivation, job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness.
A fourth instrument is the Personal Development Test which was developed to
assess an individual’s maturity on four scales: self-efficacy, coping skills, assertive-
ness, and locus of control [13]. Coping skills would now be referred to as resilience
[14–16]. Locus of control [17], an individual’s ability to exert internal control rather
than be influenced by external forces, has received little attention in recent years. An
individual’s degree of social integration is measured on scales of team membership,
sympathy, self-esteem and caring [18]. Sympathy, which is related to higher levels
of positive social and moral reasoning [19], would now be referred to as empathy
[20] or compassion [21, 22]. Caring continues to have meaning within the context
of unconditional positive regard [23]. Other skills that contribute to an individual’s
personal development include intrapersonal and interpersonal skills relating to their
ability to communicate effectively and build trusting relationships.
Personality profiling provides a ‘mirror’ for the client to see themself as others
see them, not as they think they are seen or want to be seen. When clients know
more about themselves and how others view their attitude and behaviour, they may
be ready to make changes that will lead them towards their goal of becoming the
person they want to be. Their desire for self-actualisation [24] is addressed in coach-
ing for personal development as coaches assist clients move forward to meet
this need.
Needs, Wants and Drives
Coaching for personal development starts with coaches working with clients to
identify their needs and wants and their individual motivations that drive change.
Focusing on individual differences allows the coach to take account of different
personalities and situations and understand why people do the things they do, for
example, what motivates them or causes them to remain in a situation where they
are unhappy. The coaching process guides clients towards greater self-awareness
and insight by identifying desires and aspirations and how these may be fulfilled.
Individuals have different needs and wants, and it is the coach’s role to help
clients identify what these are and the differences between them. A need arises
from an internal biological imbalance that occurs when people are deprived of
something. A want arises from an individual’s desire to progress towards self-
actualisation. The coach works with the client to make sure they have or can attain
everything they need and then works on moving them forward towards what they
really want. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs [24] provides a framework to under-
stand human motivation and why an individual strives to be a better person.
A drive is the urge to attain a need or want. Drive theories of motivation [25, 26]
propose that individuals are motivated to take certain actions to reduce the internal
tension that is caused by unmet needs. Drive theories explain behaviours that have
a strong biological component such as hunger or thirst. However, the problem with
drive theories is that behaviour is not always motivated purely by physiological
needs, for example, people often eat even when they are not hungry. Drive theories
suggest that there is no end to an individual’s level of arousal and motivation, that
is, drives constantly propel people from one goal to the next provided they have
been successful in fulfilling the previous need or want. Drive theory also suggests
that drives intensify and behaviours become more directed towards fulfilling needs
until they are satiated. For example, if a person is in the desert and parched, their
drive to find water would be their greatest concern. If they had enough water, their
drive would be to find shelter. A need is usually satisfied before a want but not nec-
essarily. For example, people with an addiction often satisfy a want (e.g. for drugs
or alcohol) before a need (e.g. for food or shelter).
Primary drives arise from the physiological characteristics of an organism, for
example, from the need for food, water and so on. They may also arise in response
to external stimuli, for example, to regulate body temperature, avoid pain, etc. A
secondary, or acquired, drive is one that is learned in response to social influences
(and becomes a want). These wants are generally learned through association with
primary drives. For example, the need to earn an income (primary drive) may lead
to a drive to accumulate wealth (secondary drive). Primary and secondary drives
may cause individuals to seek external validation from those in their immediate
environment. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators also propel individuals to achieve
goals either because they personally want or need them or because an external force
or person has dangled an attractive reward in their path. Identifying the client’s
coaching needs and motivational drives for change are important components of the
coaching process.
Self-Actualisation
During coaching, once an individual’s needs and wants are satisfied, they seek ways
to develop their potential, that is, the achievement of their global functioning [27].
Self-actualisation implies that a certain level of maturity has been reached in the
individual, that is, a level of both independence and interdependence [28].
Independence is an individual’s ability to be self-directed, self-controlled, and free
of emotional dependency. Interdependence has been redefined as ‘social integra-
tion’ [13], meaning that the individual understands the need to be socially respon-
sible, respects others as equals and subjugates their personal goals in the interest of
social goals when necessary.
Interpersonal Skills
The second major contribution from traditional psychological research relates to

findings concerning the interpersonal skills which make clients most personally
effective. These include primarily, communication and relationship skills, which
allow clients to develop personally enhancing and productive interactions with oth-
ers in their home and work environments, as discussed below.
Communication
The acquisition of effective communication skills is essential for clients who lack
the ability to have their needs met because of miscommunications with others.
Ineffective communication can lead to innuendo, mixed messages and confusion
which may generate a completely different response and lead to defensiveness.
During coaching, the coach works to assist clients become better listeners and more
assertive in their communication. People who communicate effectively take into
account three things: the message, which is about the content and structure of the
communication; the medium, where spoken is usually more effective than written;
and the audience - their age, gender, self-esteem, prior beliefs, etc. As a communica-
tion technique, assertiveness is distinguished from aggression and passivity princi-
pally by the way people deal with personal boundaries—their own and those of
others. Coaches encourage clients to use assertive communication which focuses on
the issue not the person, respects the personal boundaries of others and helps them
control their emotions. If clients notice themselves becoming aggressive, that is, not
respecting others’ boundaries or unable to manage their emotions, the coach reflects
these behaviours back to the client so they may better manage these situations.
Clients are encouraged to freely express their feelings, thoughts and desires, know
their rights and control their anger, and willingly compromise rather than always
wanting their own way to prevail. Coaches may use techniques such as broken
record, fogging, negative enquiry and I-statements to assist clients become more
assertive in their communication.
Some of the difficulty in communicating accurately may be caused by the stress

of the situation and its effect on the sender or receiver. Stressful situations evoke an
emotional response—the primal fight or flight, or freeze [29–31]—causing an
adrenalin rush which takes some time to dissipate through the body. During this
time, the mind may be distracted and disoriented. In this state, the person usually
reacts rather than acts. It is only after that initial, irrational period has passed that
the client can plan logical actions to correct the situation and communicate
effectively.
Relationships
In addition to acquiring effective communication skills, individuals who are person-

ally effective establish relationships with others built on trust and rapport. Rapport
is the ‘state’ that is developed between people when they are aligned in thought and
purpose—a feeling of being ‘in sync’ and ‘on the same page’ with the other per-
son—a feeling that suggests ‘I can trust you’ and implies there is mutual trust and
support. People in rapport feel that it will be alright to share their deepest thoughts
or concerns with others. No words need be said as there is an ‘understanding’ that
goes deeper than the surface words into the deep structure, unconscious cerebral
cortex connections. While rapport building comes naturally to some people, to oth-
ers it is one of the most difficult skills to master.
The coach helps clients develop better relationship skills by assisting them
observe both verbal and non-verbal communication cues. They encourage clients to
use the NLP techniques of matching and mirroring to respond to non-verbal cues,
noticing just the smallest shifts in body language. Paying attention to what’s hap-
pening in the interaction—‘in the moment’—strengthens the relationship. Through
modelling and role play, coaches can demonstrate how to respond appropriately
during an interaction to achieve the most positive relationship outcomes. Deep rela-
tionships don’t need to be built with all people—just with those whom the client
loves and respects. Trust develops when promises are made and kept. This is the
end-point that the client wants to achieve in each and every interaction they have
with others who matter to them—a trusting relationship based on rapport, meaning-
ful exchanges, and the achievement of anticipated or even better outcomes.
Equally important to personal development is the nature of the relationship
between coach and client. Rogers [32] identified the core conditions for meaningful
change as empathy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard. Happily, if
coaches do not possess these qualities, they can be developed. Coaches also need to
possess self-awareness, self-reflection and the ability to cope with uncertainty and
recognise the limits of their knowledge and skills [33].
Coaching is a process which unlocks an individual’s potential to maximise their

performance and life happiness [34, 35]. A fundamental tenet of positive psychol-
ogy coaching is that individuals are empowered to maximise their strengths and
release their potential, as discussed in the sections below.
Strengths
Strengths are the abilities individuals develop from consistent, near-perfect perfor-
mance in a specific task [36]. Patterns of routinised behaviours result from optimal
functioning in the pursuit of valued tasks and outcomes [37]. A strengths-based
approach to personal development maximises positive personal and interpersonal
traits such as character strengths and talents, positive relationships based on friend-
ship and love, and positive environments at home and work [38]. Over time, these
characteristics become integrated into the self and translated into everyday behav-
iours [39]. According to Bandura [40], developing strong self-efficacy beliefs in
terms of applying one’s strengths is an important next step after an individual has
developed awareness of their personal strengths. Robust strengths self-efficacy
beliefs [41] are theorised to motivate an individual to approach situations where
they can implement their strengths to influence task performance. To maximise
potential, a carefully designed plan to gain control and strategically implement indi-
vidual strengths across different roles and settings is critical. Research has found
that personal strengths are positively correlated with interpersonal and intrapersonal
strengths, affective strengths, adaptability, social skills and leadership [42].
Productivity, life choices, self-confidence, academic and career success are posi-
tively impacted by strengths development [41, 43]. Moreover, employee work
engagement and job satisfaction are enhanced when individuals apply their strengths
in their role [44].
However, strengths awareness alone is insufficient to promote change. Five foun-
dations of a strengths-based education have been proposed, namely, assessment and
measurement of strengths; individualisation of personal strengths to achieve per-
sonal goals; networking with others who recognise and affirm an individual’s
strengths; deliberate application of strengths; and intentional development to con-
tinue developing and maximising strengths throughout a career [45]. These strengths
are plastic (that is, invisible) until displayed in use [46]. The coach’s role is to rein-
force client strengths, talents, interests and passions and challenge them to achieve
their potential. Interventions that capitalise on existing assets and strengths are
highly effective in individual problem-solving.
The use of strength-based assessments stimulates client’s strengths awareness
and development. Two assessment instruments which may assist professionals pro-
vide effective strengths-based services to clients are the Values in Action tool [46]
and the Clifton Strengths Finder [47]. These instruments assess an individual’s
perception of their own strengths and provide a framework to classify these

strengths. More recently, the Strengths Self-Efficacy scale (SSES) was developed to
provide career counsellors, educators and researchers with an assessment instru-
ment which individuals can use to self-assess their perceived abilities and identify
additional strengths they would like or need to acquire [41]. These researchers
found that SSES scores were moderately related to self-esteem and life satisfaction
and weakly related to social desirability. Earlier, researchers had developed a
Coaching Skills Self-Efficacy Scale (CSSES) consisting of 24 items which
addressed the skills and competencies a coach should have and the challenges a
coach has to deal with during the coaching process, for example: ‘quickly establish
a close relationship with another person’ and ‘helping someone to clarify his or her
goals’ [48].
Self-Esteem
Research has found that individuals who apply strengths in their daily life experi-
ence increased satisfaction and happiness and display increased self-esteem [49].
Moreover, they demonstrate a commitment to repeat experienced successes to
maintain their self-esteem [50]. Self-esteem is a term used to describe how an indi-
vidual feels about themself and their self-worth [51, 52]. It is a judgment they make
of themself based on others’ perceptions and opinions of them, particularly those of
significant others such as parents, teachers and authority figures. Self-esteem is con-
structed from a combination of beliefs (e.g. ‘I am competent.’ ‘I am worthy.’) and
emotions (such as disappointment, distrust, fear and loathing). High self-esteem
flows into all areas of a client’s life. Once clients’ needs and wants are met, the
coach works to boost their self-esteem and increase their self-efficacy so that the
changes will be maintained.
It was Maslow [24] who first described the ‘need for esteem’ and divided it into
two aspects—the esteem for self (self-love, self-confidence, skill, aptitude) and the
need for respect from others (recognition, success, etc.). The latter he believed to be
more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem. According to Maslow, individu-
als with no or low self-esteem will be driven to find it and, until attained, will be
unable to grow and obtain self-actualisation. Self-esteem has been found to be an
influential predictor of outcomes such as academic achievement, exercise behav-
iour, and psychological wellbeing. It can apply specifically to a particular dimen-
sion (e.g. ‘I believe I am an excellent swimmer and I feel proud about that’) or to a
global concept (e.g. ‘I believe I am a thoroughly unlovable character and feel bad
about everything in my life’). Psychologists regard self-esteem as an enduring per-
sonality characteristic although variations can exist. Self-esteem is certainly a factor
that coaches focus on during coaching to increase the positive way in which clients
regard themselves. Research supports that self-esteem can be varied (increased)
through coaching [49, 53].
Individuals with a healthy self-esteem fully trust in their capacity to solve prob-
lems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when
they need it. They consider themselves equal in dignity to others rather than inferior
or superior while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige, or finan-
cial standing. They take for granted that they are an interesting and valued person to
know, at least to those with whom they have strong personal connections. They
admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative,
only revealing these drives to others whom they feel are trustworthy. They are sensi-
tive to feelings and needs of others, respect generally accepted social rules and
claim no right or desire to prosper at another’s expense. They can work towards
finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling themselves or others when
challenges arise and can effectively manage their inner critic—the negative internal
voice we all have.
Within a family situation, parents grow their children’s self-esteem by providing
freedom within limits which are clearly and jointly negotiated. They show children
unconditional positive regard and have high hopes for their future (Fig. 12.1).
Within a coaching environment, these principles are translated into behaviours that
the coach adopts to support the development of the client’s self-esteem. The coach-
ing process facilitates free-flowing conversation without judgement or bias, applies
limits to the content of the issues discussed (i.e. non-clinical issues only) and con-
tracts a partnership arrangement with the client that has been clearly and jointly
negotiated and agreed. The coach supports clients in achieving their highest
aspiration.
Resilience
A third major contribution to contemporary coaching practice from positive psy-

chology research is that of resilience which has been defined as an individual’s posi-
tive psychological capacity to recover from adversity, uncertainty, conflict or
negative change events [54]. In such circumstances, individuals feel out-of-control,
incapable of influencing an end-outcome. Researchers have found that individuals
with unrealistic control beliefs are more likely to persist in activities regardless of
the realistic or unrealistic nature of the problem they are facing [55]. There may be
situations in which such persistence is warranted. However, it is unhelpful when
Fig. 12.1 The factors

which promote self-esteem
unrealistic beliefs lead to unrealised expectations which may then result in anger
and depression. Individuals who possess self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resil-
ience [56] may not be as susceptible to these debilitating emotions as those who do
not. There is empirical evidence that positive emotions enhance resilience in the
face of negative events [57] and, as a developmental intervention, focus on positive
adaptation to maximise assets and minimise risk factors [58, 59].
Traditional and positive psychology research contributes to contemporary coaching

practice by utilising client’s strengths to maximise their potential, developing intra-
personal effectiveness by addressing their individual needs and wants, boosting
self-esteem to promote self-efficacy, and encouraging self-regulation of emotions
and tensions relating to stressful or conflictual situations. Coaching needs may be
identified by using personality, individual and strengths-based assessment instru-
ments. The ways that coaches utilise this knowledge during coaching is outlined in
the sections below.
Potential
In a safe, supportive, coaching environment, clients with high self-esteem learn to

utilise their strengths and unleash their potential in the present and to prepare for the
future. Self-knowledge is the first step in personal development. Uncovering hidden
aspects of an individual’s character and highlighting limitations for improvement
are the keys to realisation of untapped potential. The coach may use personality
profiling assessment instruments to identify individual strengths and limitations
which provide a comparison of the individual’s assessment results relative to nor-
mative data from relevant populations over time. The coach’s role is to interpret the
profile results so the client understands their variations from the general population
in relation to personality type, preferences and style. Then, through coaching, cli-
ents learn how to maximise their strengths and minimise weaknesses to develop
their potential.
Self-Regulation
The ability to monitor and self-evaluate thoughts and behaviour are essential com-
ponents of self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour [60]. Better knowledge and
understanding of self has been found to lead to corrective actions which reduce
stress and decrease depression [61]. In addition to becoming better communicators
and developing relationships based on trust, personal development involves devel-

oping self-regulation skills so that clients can manage situations that cause them
discomfort or stress and could potentially lead to conflict. Stress is typically a reac-
tion to change—from a routine, the expected, from that which is in our control.
When individuals are expecting a change, or engineering one, there is less stress
than when a change is thrust upon them. When this happens, they often react badly
and become stressed. It is the reaction to not being in control of the situation that
causes people to become stressed. The coach works with the client to identify the
factors that are causing them stress which may be associated with life events, work
overload, or interpersonal conflict.
Conflict occurs when a person (or a group of people) perceives that another per-
son or group is frustrating, or about to frustrate, an important concern. It involves
incompatible differences between parties that culminate in interference or opposi-
tion. The differences themselves are not the causes of conflict. Rather, conflict
resides in human reactions to such differences. Conflict can have either constructive
or destructive effects depending upon how it is managed. Coaches work with clients
to identify if their preferred mode of coping with conflict is to avoid a confrontation,
deny that there is a problem, or withdraw. Alternatively, they may go into ‘attack’
mode by snapping back a response, becoming angry or verbally abusive or, in the
extreme, physically aggressive. None of these reactions serves to resolve the situa-
tion. Hence, the coach supports the client to discover the most appropriate way to
manage different conflictual situations.
In summary, coaching for personal development aims to unleash the client’s
potential by maximising their strengths and only addresses their weaknesses when
they become barriers to forward movement. Having identified their wants and
needs, coaches work with clients to identify the motivational drivers that will result
in improved personal outcomes in home and work situations. Finding ways to utilise
the client’s strengths increases their self-esteem and supports self-efficacy to make
change. At times, skill development in communication and relationship building
may be an important component of the coaching process. As the client learns to self-
regulate their behaviour, thoughts and emotions, they develop resilience and coping
skills to function effectively in multiple life and work situations.
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Chapter 13
Coaching for Professional Development
This chapter addresses coaching for professional development. Professional devel-

opment research investigates how individuals acquire and develop new knowledge
and skills to become more effective in their current role and prepare for future job
opportunities. Content-oriented professional development activities successfully
transfer learnings back into the workplace when they are designed according to
adult learning principles which incorporate cognitive, affective and psychomotor
dimensions. Four key design elements include: a clear rationale for the content;
expert modelling of skills and practices; frequent opportunities for skills practice;
and opportunities for collaborative reflection regarding the application of new skills
and practices. When coaching is conducted following the professional development
activity, it significantly increases the transfer of learning rate. During coaching,
individuals identify their professional learning needs based on self- and other
assessment and constructive feedback, and craft a Personal Development Plan
(PDP) which they can immediately put into action. Another way that the transfer of
learnings is increased is by the use of job-embedded and competency-based profes-
sional development activities followed by expert supervision. These methods
involve multi-source observations and feedback which assist clients apply the learn-
ings from critical self-reflection back into the workplace to improve their perfor-
mance and professional effectiveness.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for professional development is con-
ceptualised, the motivations for professional development, the individuals who are
the recipients of coaching to develop their professional effectiveness, and how
coaching for professional development is delivered in community and organisa-
tional settings by external and internal coaches.
168 13 Coaching for Professional Development
Traditional psychology and education research has explicated how individuals learn
and provided adult learning theories and models to explain how skills are acquired
over time and transferred into professional practice. This research highlights the
importance of personal attributes and transferrable, generic skills being applied to
professional practice. Psychological research informs how individuals progress
through stages of learning as they access various levels of conscious and uncon-
scious cognitive activity. Reflective practitioners ponder experiential learning out-
comes and ways to transfer them into job-related activities. Positive psychology
research outlines the benefits of combining evidence-based approaches to profes-
sional development activities with individual coaching to transfer learnings into
job-related practices. The motivation for professional coaching is for clients to
become more professionally effective, expand knowledge by formal and self-
education, and gain new skills to enhance current and future roles. The recipients of
coaching for professional development are those who want to become more profes-
sionally effective, promote, or expand their career options.
Traditional Research Contributions
Professional development is the process by which individuals acquire and develop

knowledge and skills to become more professionally effective in their current role
and better prepared for future work options [1]. Traditional research on professional
practice originated from the disciplines of psychology and education.
Psychological Research
Psychological research regarding professional development has focused on how

adults learn, the stages of learning, and the psychodynamics of learning—behav-
ioural, cognitive and affective. Professional development activities are grounded in
adult learning theory [2, 3]. Psychological research informs understandings of how
individuals progress through stages of learning. Two models are useful to explain
how skills are acquired over time. Bloom’s Taxonomy identified three domains of
learning—cognitive, affective and psychomotor—each of which is broken down
into successive levels of objectives which individuals achieve as they progress
through the stages [4]. The Dreyfus model of skill acquisition describes six stages
an individual must progress through to achieve mastery, although these researchers
note that only a few experts achieve the final stage [5, 6].
During knowledge and skill development, cognitive attention requires individu-
als to access various levels of conscious and unconscious cognitive activity.
Conscious cognition is engaged at each level of learning as individuals participate
in new learning activities or take corrective/improvement actions based on feedback

until mastery is achieved. Cognitive psychology theory identified that automaticity
of thinking processes plays an important role in the development of expertise [7].
This is an individual’s ability to act or react based on non-conscious thinking [8].
After conscious engagement in a particular task or activity has achieved mastery,
automaticity (or unconscious cognition) takes over in relation to that situation or
task, and the mind shifts its conscious attention to other tasks and so on. This itera-
tive process of learning becomes an intuitive combination of theory and practice [9]
and a vehicle by which individuals reflect on their the ability to adapt to different
situations ‘in the moment’ [7, 10].
Educational Research
Professional development research in the educational field focused on how teachers

apply new instructional skills to support improved student outcomes. Researchers
found that professional development activities are meaningful and encourage posi-
tive growth only when teachers relate the new knowledge and skills to their immedi-
ate classroom needs and practice [11]. Teachers were found to prefer professional
development activities with a reform orientation over traditional workshops or
courses as they develop new skills [12].
Skills and Competencies
Skill development is either learned within the family of origin or acquired through
life and work experiences. Learning progresses through five distinct phases: acqui-
sition, fluency, maintenance, generalisation, and adaption [13]. Learners acquire a
new skill through systematic and direct interaction with a stimulus in their environ-
ment. With consistent practice, learners develop functional use of the new skill.
They sustain the skill by receiving ongoing support and reinforcement, and transfer
the skill to new settings where it is adjusted according to contextual factors. Learning
progresses through phases as skills are taught and modelled, opportunities provided
for guided and independent practice, and feedback given to reinforce successful
practice. Coaching activities are similarly developed and shaped to support profes-
sional development and the transfer of skills into the workplace.
Competencies are the demonstration of skills at a mastery level. The difference
between a skill and a competency is the amount of practice the individual has put
into the skill to achieve mastery. For example, the skills of effective communication
may be demonstrated as a competency by speaking professionally at conferences
and other large gatherings. The skill of relationship building may be demonstrated
as a competency by having trusted friends and colleagues to whom an individual
can turn for support as needed. Interpersonal skills may be demonstrated as a com-
petency by being able to relate to a wide range of people from diverse backgrounds
(education, ethnicity, gender). If the client has transferrable skills like
communication, relationship building and interpersonal skills, it may be simply the

knowledge and experience of a certain business or industry that they are missing
when applying for a job. There are four stages leading to the development of a com-
petency: unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious compe-
tence and unconscious competence [14]. The ten most common competencies in job
demand in 2016 were found to be: complex problem-solving, critical thinking, cre-
ativity, people management, coordinating with others, emotional intelligence,
judgement and decision-making, service orientation, negotiation and cognitive flex-
ibility [15].
Transfer of Learning
Seminal research by Joyce and Showers [16, 17] reported that 95% of training par-
ticipants transfer new skills and behaviours into the workplace when they receive
on-the-job coaching and feedback. They emphasised that training should be struc-
tured as a combination of theoretical grounding coupled with modelling, practice,
observation, and reflection on newly acquired and applied skills or strategies.
Without this post-program on-the-job element, just 19% of new skills and behav-
iours are transferred (Table 13.1). Other researchers have found that the transfer rate
is higher when the organisation has a positive workplace climate which facilitates
the transfer of learning back onto the job [18]. They noted the characteristics of a
positive work climate as prompting individuals to use new skills, rewarding new
skills implementation and remediating when necessary, and providing social sup-
port from peers and leaders via feedback.
Design of Traditional Professional Development Activities
Professional development in workplace settings has traditionally been delivered by

presentations, workshops or training programs. Experts focus on knowledge acqui-
sition rather than in-person practice [19]. Short-term training programs have
received negative criticism due to a number of factors. Critics believe that tradi-
tional methods of instruction may increase knowledge but lack depth and intensity,
Table 13.1 Program elements and transfer rates

Percentage transfer to workplace
Program element (%)
Presentation/description 10
Presentation + modelling 13
Presentation + modelling + practice 16
Presentation + modelling + practice + feedback 19
Presentation + modelling + practice + feedback + O-T-J 95
coaching
being often of just one day’s duration. Hence, the learnings rarely translate into
skilled implementation in the workplace [20]. Moreover, such events typically offer
limited interaction opportunities to build skills and provide feedback on practice,
and do not consider what systemic supports are required for implementation back
into the workplace [21]. Little improvement has been recorded in the educational
literature as a result of such professional development events [22]. Rather, studies
report the importance of continuity [21, 23] and opportunities for one-on-one inter-
action in professional development activities [24, 25].
Researchers have found that traditional professional development methods such
as one-time events do not promote sustained learning [26]. Rather, the content of
professional development activities needs to be substantive, intensive and topic-
driven, and consideration needs to be given to its frequency and duration [27]. Joyce
and Showers [16] described four key design elements of effective professional
development activities: a clear rationale for the content; expert modelling of skills
and practices; frequent opportunities for skills practice; and opportunities for col-
laborative reflection regarding the application of new skills and practices. In terms
of the logistics of conducting professional development activities, five factors have
been identified as having a positive impact on implementation of the new knowl-
edge and skills back into the workplace: the length of the professional development
activity—the longer the better; attendance by a number of colleagues to create col-
lective learning; a focus on content knowledge coupled with an active, inquiry-
orientated approach to the experience; and coherence with other reform activities
[12]. Other researchers concur that the most effective designs for trainings involve
intensive, ongoing exposure to new content with frequent opportunities to apply
what is being taught [28, 29].
Job-Embedded Training
Researchers then turned their attention to focus on the pragmatic, work-related

knowledge and skills required in the performance of a job. They suggested that
training programs need to address both the required knowledge and skills, and job-
embedded practice [29, 30]. Job-embedded professional development is specifically
focused on ongoing learning in the workplace. It uses real data observations, con-
versations, and evaluations to foster application of knowledge and skills to job-
related practices [30]. Employees are encouraged to reflect, self-identify, plan, and
create experiences as part of their daily routine to further their own professional
development [31]. They may engage in action research, either alone or with col-
leagues, to identify a discreet issue or propose a well-defined question about their
practice, and then systematically gather, analyse and interpret data to discover an
improvement solution.
A model of professional development which is frequently used in skills-based
occupations is that of competency-based instruction, especially in occupations
where outcomes matter such as medicine [32]. Competency-based professional
development activities focus on the acquisition of defined occupational
competencies specific to the field of endeavour. Skills are acquired via observation,
feedback, and monitoring of progress. However, instructional and training profes-
sional development activities alone have been identified as inadequate to meet the
characteristics of high-quality professional development. Coaching has been found
to facilitate transfer of learning back into the workplace following attendance at
structured professional development events [33, 34], and multiple researchers have
suggested that ongoing support in the form of coaching following the activity is
required to sustain long-term gains from the event [35–37].
Coaching to Support Delivery
Researchers have distinguished between supervisory and side-by-side coaching

[38]. Supervisory coaching is associated with job-embedded practice and
competency-based instruction. Supervision occurs when the employee’s perfor-
mance is observed, recorded, and monitored to ascertain progress and when targeted
feedback on strengths and opportunities for improvement is provided. Side-by-side
coaching occurs when the supervisor provides immediate feedback specific to accu-
racy of implementation of the job-related competency [38]. Coaching ensures that
strategies learned from the feedback have immediate impact back into the work-
place which increases the individual’s confidence to better perform in that environ-
ment [39].
The impact of both coaching methods (supervisory and side-by-side) following
a professional development training program has been investigated and reported as
superior when side-by-side coaching followed the training [40]. Researchers con-
cluded that side-by-side coaching may be a critical professional development com-
ponent necessary to support implementation of newly learned strategies [37, 41].
Moreover, and consistent with empirical evidence later provided, the impact was
considerably improved when a multi-tiered systemic approach was taken to the
implementation of the learnings back into the workplace [42]. In a recent study, the
role of coaching in facilitating the transfer of knowledge and practice from profes-
sional development activities into implementation was found to be significantly
enhanced when a multi-tiered support system bridged the gap from knowing-to-
doing [43]. These researchers used an evidence-based, behavioural coaching
approach which they considered critical to understanding, analysing and modifying
behaviour during school reform change efforts.
Contemporary research places increased emphasis on evidence-based approaches to

professional development activities coupled with coaching to achieve improved
learning and expected outcomes [44]. Evidence-based approaches include observa-
tion and feedback, high-quality training programs and practices which promote
experiential learning and the provision of coaching post-training to support the

transfer of learning back into the workplace.
Observation and Feedback
Since Borton’s [45] ‘what? so what? now what?’ framework was introduced to
guide how individuals think about and critically reflect on their actions, observation
and feedback has underpinned the development of client’s self-awareness and
change. Multi-source observations and feedback assist them apply the learnings
from their reflection to improve their personal effectiveness and performance [46].
In the workplace, employees need to be provided with opportunities to understand,
experience and reflect on their performance and ways to innovate. In the educational
environment, professional development that is on-site and experiential has been
identified as critical to motivating teachers to utilise different practices and change
curriculum in a more meaningful way [11, 17, 31, 47]. In the university sector, man-
agement education courses such as MBA curricula and executive education pro-
grams are encouraged to foster reflection and professional development [48].
High-Quality Design
Contemporary professional development activities incorporate elements which sup-

port the learner as an active participant in the learning process. High design of pro-
fessional development activities ensures clear linkages between theory and practice;
uses interactive, hands-on approaches to adult learning such as experiential learn-
ing; incorporates ongoing and personalised training and mentoring; and provides
opportunities for feedback and self-reflection [49]. These principles align with those
of sustained, individualised coaching which supports both process- and content-
oriented learning to deliver the required outcomes [50, 51].
Experiential learning in which the client is actively engaged in their learning
facilitates self-reflection which stimulates professional development. Individuals
learn to connect their existing knowledge, skills and experience with insights gener-
ated by the self-reflection. Individual learning styles impact the level to which indi-
viduals become more self-aware [52]. Those with a reflective style of learning
develop deeper self-awareness as they self-reflect [53]. Deeper self-awareness is
also developed by individuals with high-quality communication skills [54] and high
confidence [55]. Individuals who are more self-aware have been found to be more
responsible for their learning, more self-motivated, and independent learners. They
tend to become lifelong learners who are able to monitor their own learning and
performance [56]. Educational researchers have reported on a successful experien-
tial approach to professional development which allowed Spanish teachers opportu-
nities to improve their practice through demonstration, observation, collaboration,
fieldwork and reflection [57].
These research findings can be extrapolated into how professional development

activities are best conducted to facilitate continuous learning. Researchers have
identified five key strategies which promote continuous learning: a robust reflective
practice, external feedback, learning network, field contribution, and experimenta-
tion [58]. The establishment of professional learning communities to change prac-
tice and maximise learning outcomes has also been recommended [59]. Other
researchers have suggested an additional development strategy related to reflec-
tion—that of individual self-management training as a part of or following profes-
sional development activities, so that attendees can self-monitor their level of
implementation and make changes if necessary to achieve their goal [60].
Transfer of Learning
Professional development activities typically included cycles of learning, imple-

mentation, feedback, and reflection [61]. However, researchers have discovered that
professional development based on this cycle alone is insufficient to ensure sus-
tained learning and practice changes [20]. To bridge the gap between attendance at
professional development events and implementation in the workplace, coaching
has been proposed as the necessary addition to address barriers, improve impact and
promote sustained practice [62, 63]. Research findings from several studies have
shown positive outcomes from post-training coaching related to increased verbal
language development and literacy skills [33, 64], the sharing of teaching experi-
ences and cooperative planning [25] and improvements in teachers’ analytic think-
ing skills and self-assessment ability [65]. Without coaching applied post-training
or instruction, the professional development activity was fragmented and only iden-
tified surface issues [66]. In contrast, since coaching is a results-oriented,
relationship-based process focused on facilitating personal responsibility for attain-
ing professional goals [67], when applied consistently and especially systematically
post-training, it provides the individualised support teachers need following their
initial training to implement the new instructional skills back into their workplace
[38, 68]. Coaching was found to be successful in increasing teachers’ intervention
implementation frequency in 86% of the 29 studies reviewed in a recent research
study [69].
Other researchers have provided empirical support for the importance of provid-
ing coaching post-training to improve learner outcomes [69–71]. In recent years, the
coaching concept has inspired medical educators who seek to move away from
purely competency-based assessment towards more efficient and effective learner
approaches to professional growth and performance [72]. Medical residents’ com-
petence was increased through direct observations and feedback, facilitated reflec-
tion on actions related to ‘disorienting dilemmas’ surfaced by coaches, and the
implementation of targeted professional development plans [46]. When opportuni-
ties for learning are available within organisations through both formal coaching
sessions and informal coaching moments, organisations are moving towards devel-
oping a coaching culture [73].
Traditional and contemporary research findings have indicated the importance of

designing professional development activities which incorporate both content- and
process-oriented, interactive, experiential learning opportunities for participants to
gain new knowledge and skills. Demonstration of skills coupled with reflective
questioning support attendees’ skill acquisition and implementation especially
when valuable feedback is provided in a safe environment. The presenter’s personal
attributes and style, together with their effective communication and relationship
skills, are critical to the creation of a safe space in which learnings can grow.
Design and Delivery Principles
Traditional professional development activities were designed to deliver content

(i.e. knowledge) or develop skills. Contemporary professional development activi-
ties incorporate process-oriented skills in the delivery as well, to engage the learner
in active learning processes such as self-reflection and experiential learning. The
emphasis is on how learners learn rather than on how speakers present. The learner
is the centre of the professional development activity. Contemporary professional
development activities incorporate coaching as an essential component of the learn-
ing experience. Essential process factors which relate to the coach’s behaviours and
ability to support change in a learning environment include reflective questioning
and demonstration [74]. Delivery typically includes feedback following observa-
tions of behaviour. The feedback may be delivered in-person; in written form such
as email, graphs or charts which display and compare performance; or via video/
audio recordings. Indeed, use of internet technology enables traditional in-person
training to be advanced into online environments [75]. The capacity to learn online
has had a significant positive influence on teachers’ professional development [76].
Personal Attributes and Skills
Also important in the design and delivery of contemporary professional develop-

ment are the personal attributes and skills of the presenter. Heightened communica-
tion and relationship skills applied to professional development activities facilitate
interactive and collaborative sharing among attendees, similar to a process-oriented
coaching approach. The inclusion of process-oriented activities may require adjust-
ments to the usual program design and delivery practices such as sufficient time to
deliver and finesse the participant expertise; an enlarged repertoire of skills and
teaching strategies on the part of the presenter; and increased personal comfort of
the presenter which allows for self-reflection and revelation [77]. The degree to
which a presenter possesses these personal attributes and skills may be assessed as
outlined in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 Personal attributes and assessment options (adapted from Toohey 2002)
Area of consideration Possible assessment method
Personal insight, self-management and Self-assessment plus peer review
reflective practice Reflective writing on personal issues in learning
diaries and journals
Self-directed learning Self-selection of elective units for in-depth study
Negotiated learning contracts
Communication and teamwork Observation of client interactions with colleagues
Assessment of teamwork by supervisor and team
members
Coaching Applied Post-training
Finally, the outcomes of professional development activities are maximised when

coaching is delivered post-training. Coaching may be conducted individually fol-
lowing the training or as just-in-time learning in the workplace environment. The
aim is to embed the learning outcomes from the training into attendees’ perfor-
mance in their role. Just as learning occurs in an interactive, experiential environ-
ment, so coaching focuses on the dynamic nature of the change in a relational,
social environment. Coaching is a process of experiential learning [52, 78] com-
bined with reflection on a contextual experience in a safe environment [79].
Coaching unlocks individual potential by developing a trusting, collaborative,
working relationship between coach and client. Over progressive coaching sessions,
the client is provided with opportunities to experience and try out what they have
learned in a controlled environment, safe in the knowledge that mistakes may be
made and if so, will constitute further opportunities for learning.
In summary, professional development activities which are designed and con-
ducted according to adult learning principles and delivered by presenters with
heightened communication, relational and interactive skills are maximally effective
when coaching is applied post-training. Job-embedded training is supported by
observation and feedback so that the client masters the skills at the competency
level. Professional development activities based on a cycle of learning, implementa-
tion, feedback, and reflection sustain long-term learning and growth.
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Chapter 14
Coaching for Career Development
This chapter explores how coaching supports career development over life and
career stages. It distinguishes among the various theoretical approaches to a career:
boundaryless, protean, intelligent, kaleidoscope, chaos, customised, and portfolio.
Career development is the process by which individuals develop their strengths and
apply them to their career decision-making or job at work. Modern conceptualisa-
tions of career emphasise four key elements: the need for employability rather than
employment for life; flexibility to work from multiple locations; individual agency
in owning a career; and the desire to find meaning and purpose in the work that
individuals do. Employees want to know why the work they do is important and
whether it aligns with their personal values and motivations. They want to know
how their skills and capabilities contribute to the organisation’s human capital and
capability. They want to know who they will be working with and how their net-
works and personal connections will contribute to the achievement of organisational
objectives. Positive psychology research investigates individual strengths which
improve personal, professional and psychological health and wellbeing, and maxi-
mise capabilities and performance at work. Coaching assists individuals in transi-
tion overcome career ambiguity, construct a new career identity, and successfully
settle into a new career. Coaching clients identify their career goals and devise a
Career Development Plan (CDP) to achieve them.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for career development is conceptu-
alised, the motivations for career development, the individuals who are the recipi-
ents of coaching to develop their career, and how coaching for career development
is delivered in community and organisational settings by external and internal
coaches.
182 14 Coaching for Career Development
Traditional developmental psychology provides the foundational research for

understandings of life and career stages. Discussions on whether development is
continuous or discontinuous over stages have focused research investigations in this
area. Cognitive psychology informs an individual’s perceptions of their own worth
and ability to steer their career. Individuals who believe that they determine their
own future as a result of the choices and decisions they make act with agency to
secure a purposeful role which has meaning. Social psychology research situates
career choices within organisations or institutions which support career develop-
ment and progression. Positive psychology research addresses the concept of career
identity, career ambiguity and career transition as individuals navigate to meet their
emerging career needs. The coaching process assists individuals identify their career
goals and devise a CDP to achieve them. The motivation for coaching for career
development is for clients to promote within their current organisation or secure
employment in another. The recipients of coaching for career development are those
who seek a more meaningful and satisfying role at work.
Traditional psychology research provides theories about the nature of life and career
stages. A career has been defined as a sequence of positions occupied by a person
during the course of a lifetime [1] and more recently as a sequence of employment-
related positions, roles, activities, and experiences encountered by a person [2]. It is
useful to consider each individual as having only one career with many contrasting
episodes (jobs) within it. Viewed this way, a career can be characterised as the pat-
tern of work-related experiences that spans the course of an individual’s life, that is,
a sequence of positions or steps held within an occupation, in the context of mobil-
ity within an organisation or across organisations, but relating to the one unit of
analysis—the individual. An individual has common, generic skills that are often
apparent and tie seemingly unrelated job events together, helping them make career
transitions from one position to another over a period of their lifetime [3]. These
‘career episodes’ join together to form one whole, individual career.
Life Stages
Early conceptualisations of life stages took a lock-step, linear approach to an indi-

vidual’s progression through life. The world was more predictable then, and this
conceptualisation provided an accurate account of how things were in those times.
The Life Stages model was based on ages and stages of life progression [4]:
• Entering adult world (22–28)
• Thirties transition (29–33)
• Settling down (34–39)

• Mid-life transition (40–45)
• Entering middle adulthood (46–50)
• Fifties transition (51–55)
• Culmination of middle adulthood (56–60)
Career Stages
Researchers also attempted to define career stages as they related to career progres-
sion through the workforce. At that time, career development was seen as a lifelong
process in which an individual cycled through various stages or positions within the
same organisation [1]:
1. Exploration—finding a job (which they usually kept for life).
2. Establishment—becoming an expert in their field, recognised for their ability.
3. Mid-career—possibly promoting with the organisation.
4. Late career—holding onto their job because of their dedication and commitment
to the firm.
5. Decline—retiring from their position with a ‘golden handshake’ at age 65.
An example of career stages/positions is depicted in Fig. 14.1.
Today, career stages are different. They are often characterised by breaks in
employment either through voluntary choice (e.g. travel, study) or involuntary
Fig. 14.1 Traditional career stages/positions—a linear trajectory

causes (e.g. being fired or made redundant). Career progression may now be repre-
sented as follows:
• Early stage (first 3–5 years in the workforce).
• Mid stage (5–15 years in the workforce).
• Having a career break.
• Looking for employment.
• In education/re-educating.
• Re-entry (returning to work after a career break, maternity leave, or study).
• Part-time/full time/contractor/entrepreneur.
• Mature stage (more than 15 years in the workforce).
As individuals transitions across stages, different activities, relationships, and
psychological adjustments have to be made.
Career Theories
A number of theories about careers emerged in the academic literature from the late
1900s, each with their own special emphasis:
• Boundaryless careers [2]—individual agency
• Protean career [5]—individual agency and personal meaning
• Intelligent careers [6]
• Kaleidoscope career [7]
• Chaos theory [8]
• Customised career [9]
• Portfolio career [10]
A boundaryless career [2] was conceived as the opposite of an organisational
career (i.e. having a job for life and progressing in a predictable series of promo-
tions). The focus is on flexibility, mobility and marketability across professional,
technical and managerial careers (but not within the less-skilled occupations). The
theory proposed that individuals should steer their own career, engaging in network-
ing, continuous learning, and job enrichment in a range of settings—leading to the
concept of individual agency and individuals being the designer and creator of their
own career. Coupled with these concepts was the notion of boundary-crossing
careers which resonates with those individuals who have career goals, expertise and
networks that go beyond their current employer. A precondition for a boundaryless
career was said to be a boundaryless mindset, that is, a mindset of being open to new
possibilities and discovery. These concepts blurred the traditional career-related
structures and boundaries within organisations and beyond, and opened the way for
organisations to employ different types of employees—temporary, contract and
part-time workers.
A protean career [5] (named after the Greek sea-god Proteus who could change
shape at will) is one that is frequently changing due to changes in the person’s inter-
ests, abilities and values, and changes in the work environment. Employees accept
responsibility for managing their own career. There are no constraints on who they
work for, where (in what location), or in what position. Protean careerists are able
to function in this way because of changing organisational structures (flatter),
increased mobility (availability of national and international travel at an affordable
price), and an increasing number of flexible work practices and job structures (e.g.
job sharing). Employees who steer their own career are aiming for a better work/life
balance and more opportunities for growth and autonomy. Their career is self-
directed, with the goal of psychological success in relation to their work. Their
commitment is to their work and the profession, not to any organisation in which
they may work. Key elements of a protean career include:
• Values driven—the alignment of personal and organisational values, living and
working authentically.
• Relationship driven—enjoying the relationships that are forged with people at
work and the support that is offered from the manager and colleagues.
• Experience driven—opportunities exist to learn and grow and gain more experi-
ence [11].
Intelligent careers [6] are an extension of ‘intelligent enterprises’ [12] which
focus on the development and deployment of human resources rather than the man-
agement of physical assets, to create a knowledge-driven global economy. Whatever
organisation they are employed by, individuals engage with and contribute to (or
occasionally detract from), that organisation’s core competencies.
Intelligent careers involve the development of:
• Knowing why (culture), which refers to the extent to which the organisation’s
values and culture aligns with the individual’s personal values and motivations.
Individuals identify with organisations where there is consistency across per-
sonal values and beliefs, and work motivation (e.g. family-friendly, accepting of
other non-work commitments).
• Knowing how (capabilities), which refers to the skills and knowledge an indi-
vidual brings to an organisation’s overall knowledge and experience, including
both formal and non-formal occupational and non-occupational skills and
expertise.
• Knowing who (connections), which refers to the set of interpersonal relation-
ships an employee contributes to the firm’s networking activities (e.g. connection
links between customer and supplier, professional associates, old school friends)
(Fig. 14.2).
Kaleidoscope career theory [7] was conceived as an attempt to explain the ‘brain
drain’ of women from corporate executive roles. Women in challenging corporate
roles are forever juggling the complex interplay between work and non-work
demands. The lack of advancement opportunities for women at the most senior
levels, plus discrimination (e.g. pay inequity), has caused some to step out into their
own business as a way of giving expression to their ability to manage both family
and work dimensions. In general, women seek a more satisfying career that pro-
vides them with:
Fig. 14.2 Key components

of an intelligent career
• Authenticity—the ability to be true to themselves,

• Balance—the ability to satisfactorily manage both work and family situa-
tions, and
• Challenge—the desire and need to improve themselves personally.
Chaos theory [8] views careers as part of a complex, dynamic system in which
there is continual interplay of influences between stability and change. Four key
constructs are included in this theory. These include:
• Complexity: Careers are influenced by others and other factors in our environ-
ment (e.g. parents, teachers, labour markets, economy).
• Change: This may be minor or major, planned or unplanned.
• Chance: No one is able to predict and control what happens.
• Construction: Individuals can actively participate in constructing their own life
experiences as opportunities present themselves as being attractive or useful to
one’s own career progression.
A customised career [9] is non-orderly and non-traditional. Individuals who craft
such careers do so in response to their own and their families’ needs, values and
preferences, rather than according to normative expectations regarding work
involvement over their life. There are three core elements to a customised career:
• Work time—being able to choose the number of hours worked and when.
• Timing—being able to move in and out of work situations as individuals please
(e.g. to give birth, stay at home with the kids, and have ‘work episodes’).
• The nature of the employment relationship—the individual may become a con-
tractor rather than an employee.
Portfolio career theory [10] is based on the belief that careers need to be fluid and
varied throughout an individual’s entire working life. This ‘freelance’ career notion
was developed as a result of issues affecting women in a corporate environment
such as:
• Income versus hours of work.
• Dual careers and the burden of undertaking primary responsibility for domes-
tic tasks.
• Fighting the ‘old school’ mindset regarding female competence in senior roles.
• Women’s partner’s attitudes to child rearing.
Applying this theory in today’s world, the concept relates to both men and
women who wish to leave the corporate environment to ‘do their own thing’ or man-
age work/life balance. Today, a portfolio career is seen as an investment made by an
employee who seeks continuous improvement by undertaking a variety of assign-
ments as an expert in a particular field. As a result, the individual becomes their own
‘company’ with internal assets and resources, earning income from many sources.
In essence, individuals become entrepreneurs, understanding the implications of
organisational transitions while seizing opportunities in the competitive market-
place based on their skills and experience. Many individuals in this category start
their own business and may, at least initially, work in one or two jobs until they can
earn a living from the business sufficient to support their family.
Positive psychology contributes an emphasis on strengths utilisation as a way that

clients can move towards happiness and self-actualisation in their life. Career devel-
opment is the process by which individuals develop their strengths and apply them
to their career decision-making or job at work. The focus is on how an individual’s
strengths can lead to improvement in personal, professional and psychological
health and wellbeing. A strengths-based coaching approach which emphasises the
identification and utilisation of strengths within each individual to maximise their
capabilities and performance at work has increasingly gained attention within the
academic literature [13]. For example, a Career Cycles (CC) career counselling
framework has been developed which integrates and builds on elements of positive
psychology. It focuses on identifying client strengths, desires and future possibili-
ties and the degree of influence individuals and others have over their career choices
[14]. Coaching for career development uses a collaborative, holistic, narrative
approach in which clients identify ways they can attract, rather than search for,
career and life enrichment possibilities. It emphasises the construction of positive,
empowering statements of what clients desire, rather than focusing on barriers and
negatives to achieving career goals.
Modern Views on Career
Modern conceptualisations of career emphasise four key elements: the need for
employability rather than employment for life; flexibility to work from multiple
locations; individual agency in owning a career; and the essential need of individu-
als to find meaning and purpose in the work they do. Research has investigated four
key aspects of how conceptualisations of career have changed to inform what is now
called a ‘modern career’ [15]:
1. Time—What has changed over time in relation to careers?
2. Social space—How has the social space in which careers take place changed?
3. Agency—Who is in charge of an individual’s career?
4. Meaning—What does a career mean to an individual employee?
Each of these aspects is explained below.
Time The world of work has changed as employers grapple with an ever-expanding
ability to produce, distribute, and market on a global scale. This has impacted how,
when and where businesses operate to remain profitable. In turn, the concept of
employment for life has changed into an individual’s employability for life, with the
need to manage their own career.
Social space Social space is about the relationships between people and organisa-
tions. Organisations are less hierarchical than they were previously. They are flatter
and managers have a wider span of control often across global regions. The work-
force is dispersed, requiring the use of more extensive travel or alternate communi-
cation arrangements (e.g. video conferencing, internet-enabled work).
Agency These days employees are expected to own their own careers. An individ-
ual is the agent of their own destiny. Employers still provide essential training but
more rarely do they support an employee’s desire for further education except when
that employee is a talented member of the succession pool. It’s up to employees to
integrate their career expectations and objectives, and other life decisions, with
those of their employer’s expectations and objectives. Agency theory recommends
that individuals develop a set of career competencies (knowing how, knowing why,
knowing who) [2] to assist them understand not just the investment they are making
in work but also how work is embedded within their personal goals, challenges,
relationships, and responsibilities [16].
Meaning The meaning of going to work has changed. Employment meant earning
a living for life and the opportunity for the employee to be trained by the employer
and advance in their career within the organisation. As the employment contract has
evolved into an employability contract, the psychological contract between employer
and employee has shifted and become more prominent in the relationship [3]. The
traditional upward trajectory through an organisation, with employment for life in
exchange for loyalty and service, has been replaced by a succession of work experi-
ences determined by the employee as they align with their own internal career aspi-
rations. Career choices are now made according to an employee’s core values and
employability prospects.
In a contemporary work environment, the emphasis is just as much on the
employee being satisfied with their job and the organisation in which they work, as
it is on the employer continuing to employ them. Self-determination theory [17]
suggests that employees now expect that advancement opportunities will be made
available to those who work hard and that they will have some control over these
opportunities [18, 19]. Employees may look externally for another position if devel-
opment opportunities are not available to them within their current organisation.
The younger and older generations especially want flexibility in doing their job.
They like to feel that the work they do is meaningful, appreciated, and will lead to
some definite organisational (e.g. customer satisfaction) or personal (e.g. sense of
achievement, alignment with personal values, promotion) outcome. 360° assess-
ment feedback is frequently used as part of the career coaching process to assist
clients consider various developmental options open to them [20].
Globalisation has caused organisations to look not only at their employment
types but also at their employment practices because they want to keep employees
engaged and committed to the organisation. Lepak and Snell [21, 22] proposed four
different categories of employment in a globalised workforce: knowledge-based,
employees with expert knowledge in a particular field; job-based, employees who
fill the organisation’s need for productivity in routinised jobs; contractual-based,
staff whose work is time-based depending on the position and circumstances; and
alliances, with businesses and self-employed individuals who offer products or ser-
vices which are highly valued by the organisation but too specialised to retain in-
house. Within each of these categories of employment there are options for full-time,
part-time, contract work, job sharing, or working from home.
Career Identity
Developing one’s identity and finding a place in society is one of the key develop-
mental tasks and goals of adolescents and young adults. Career is a core identity
domain, promoted by well-meaning yet persistent questions from parents, teachers
and significant others such as ‘What do you want to be when you grow up’, ‘What
do you want to do when you graduate?’ and, particularly as an adult when meeting
others for the first time, ‘What do you do for a living?’ Everyone is expected to be
in paid employment or to have some viable means of supporting their families.
When a job is lost, the latter question cannot be answered in a concrete way, with
certainty and conviction, and insecurity sets in.
There is no doubt that there are certain aspects of identity (e.g. age, height, eth-
nicity) that cannot be altered from birth. Most other aspects relating to who we are
can be altered as a result of major life events such as marriage, the birth of children,
onset of serious illness, or by the life and work choices we make (e.g. enlisting in
the armed forces and serving in war-torn countries). Identity is a multi-level con-
struct comprised of individual identity, personal identity, social identity, profes-
sional identity, and career identity. Individual identity relates to who we conceive
ourselves to be. Personal identity is the ‘face’ we show to the world through our
relationships with other people. Individuals primarily act to achieve their own goals
and desires rather than as a member of a group or category. Social identity refers to
the way that an individual acts as a member of a group or organisation [23].
Professional identity has been defined as a socially constructed internalisation of

one’s occupational status and role [24]. It is revealed by how people present them-
selves in the workplace (e.g. dress, appearance, demeanour). Clothing may be for-
mal or informal. An employee may hang their qualifications on an office wall;
however these days, professional identity is increasingly constructed by posting
significant information like professional and industry credentials on social media
platforms such as LinkedIn (personal branding).
With employees in transition, coaches use a number of techniques to assist them
bridge the gap and construct a new career identity. These include de-identifying
with their previous organisation, exploring a range of possible selves and adopting
a few provisional selves, addressing career ambiguity, and career goal-setting until
the client finally transitions to their new career in a new organisation, as explained
in the next sections.
De-identification
From a change perspective, de-identification from the previous organisation needs

to occur before a coaching client can truly align with a new organisation. In Bridges’
[25] words, the client has to ‘let go’ before they can start a ‘new beginning’. The
coach needs to be cognisant of the fact that, if a new, strong self-identity has not
been created during the transition period (i.e. an identification with the individual
self), there is a likelihood that if job loss occurs again in the future, the client may
need to go through the process of de-identification again if they have automatically
identified with the new organisation. Researchers suggest that the stronger the iden-
tification with the previous organisation and the more time this identification is in
place, the more difficult de-identification will be [26]. The speed of transition to a
new position or career is determined by two personal factors (employability and
marketability) and two attitudinal factors (the client’s ability to de-identify with
their previous organisation and identify with their new organisation) (Fig. 14.3).
Multiple Selves
When a client is asked to describe who they are, their response will usually reveal a
combination of self statements—a personal sense of self, a social sense of self, and
a roles-based view of self [27]. For example, the client might respond: ‘I’m 42 years
old. I have a loving wife and two beautiful daughters aged 13 and 11. I used to be a
senior marketing executive but now I’ve been redunded because another company
bought out the business and sacked all the senior team but one’. This statement
conveys the essence of who they believe themselves to be personally, in relation to
significant others, and to the work situation. The coach works with these various
views of self to construct a new individual identity (where necessary) or reconnect
with a previous personal identity (where possible) to create a new career identity
(based usually on a re-constructed professional identity which becomes their new
Fig. 14.3 Factors affecting speed to transition
personal brand). The coach works with the client at each identity level so they are
no longer the father, husband or executive, but the integration and re-creation of
these different selves.
Possible and Provisional Selves
Ibarra [28] proposed the concepts of possible and provisional selves. Possible selves
are the cognitive manifestations of aspirations, hopes, dreams and goals of what
someone might become, would like to become and/or fears becoming [29]. They
incorporate images, values, emotions, and goals as well as strategies to actualise
those selves. Possible selves are not fixed [30]. They are contextualised and embed-
ded in cultural contexts and reflect developmental stages. They serve as important
energisers of career behavioural change [31]. Provisional selves are images of alter-
natives that the client may consider or adopt along the way to achieving their pos-
sible self. Periods of transitions are the opportunity to test out provisional selves
[28], and this is the territory in which coaches spend most of their time with the
client, once a number of possible selves have been explored.
Because identity is constructed, the client’s self image is developed through their
cognitive frames of who they are now and how they feel about their changed cir-
cumstances. Cognitive processes provide frameworks to develop and test possible
and provisional selves [28]. To shape their new identity, the coach may use tech-
niques such as asking the client to write narratives of their possible selves [32].
Stories shape and construct the narrators’ personality and reality. Clients get to
know who they are when they integrate roles, values and skills, and organise the
past and future into a pattern that takes the form of a story [33]. As the client con-
tinues to narrate their career identity to self and others, seeking self and social vali-
dation, formulation of a new career identity can be an adaptive, transformative
process. Thereafter, the coach may engage the client in role playing their provi-
sional selves in various work environments [28]. However, the role playing needs to
be carefully constructed as it may involve intense emotions and could lead to role
shock [34], that is, the realisation of the immediacy of their situation and the pos-
sible feelings of helplessness and stress because of this.
Career Ambiguity
Since individuals acquire work identities through practice, by taking action and
engaging in proactive behaviours, they can reposition themselves toward careers
well-matched to their talents, interests, value and activities. However, when they
experience major change by losing their past identity, they enter a state of identity
ambiguity in which nothing is clear and everything seems confused. This is espe-
cially true if the individual has identified strongly with their previous organisa-
tion—if, in other words, they have allowed themselves to be defined by their
organisational association [35].
Because people are different, they have different responses to job loss.
Understanding an individual’s internal dynamics allows the coach to ascertain the
degree to which that client is likely to ‘bounce back’ or need an extreme measure of
support. De-identification before there has been re-identification to a new identity
leads to feelings of loss of meaning, ambiguity and uncertainty, and necessarily
involves a sense of disequilibrium and pain [36]. There is an almost total lack of
clarity as to whether, how and when identification will be rebuilt. Clients will try to
recreate their previous state of equilibrium (i.e. organisational identification) as
quickly as possible. Hence, they may decide to take on any job as a provisional self,
even if it is not their preferred occupation, to maintain their self-esteem and bring
their equilibrium back to ‘near normal’ in the transition period. Research has pro-
posed that individuals tend to respond to identity ambiguity in predictable ways
depending on two factors: the strength of their identification with the attributes of
their previous organisation, and the degree to which they perceive the new organisa-
tional context to be prestigious and distinctive and having core values which match
their own personal core values [37].
Career Goal-Setting
During the transition period, the coach engages in career goal-setting with the cli-
ent. They start by understanding the client’s higher-order, core, personal values and
then explicating lower-order goals and actions that will achieve this end. Grant [38]
proposed a hierarchical model to represent how goals and actions align with
higher-order values. The model can be used in any coaching situation and is espe-
cially applicable in career development coaching when individuals are often con-
fused about their situation but not quite sure why and how to resolve it (Fig. 14.4).
Goal neglect occurs when an individual focuses their attention and actions on a
specific goal at a lower-level, which may have no associated benefit towards the
attainment of their higher-order goal [39]. The goal at a lower level becomes the
superordinate or dominant value in the cognitive system that drives behaviour at the
lower level [40]. For example, a lower-order goal to promote in their current posi-
tion (e.g. to team leader) may have nothing to do with their desired ultimate career
outcome (to become an expert in their technical field). As a result, individuals often
feel that they are ‘spinning their wheels’—frustrated and dissatisfied that they are
not achieving their higher-order goals. The role of the coach is to re-focus the cli-
ent’s attention and energy on what is really important to them (their higher-order
goal), reconnecting with their original purpose and intent, and revising their goals
and actions for internal consistency and congruence to achieve purposeful posi-
tive change.
Derived from self-determination theory [41], self-concordance refers to the
degree to which a goal is aligned with an individual’s intrinsic interests, motivations
and values [38]. Successful alignment is obtained when the goal is enduring rather
than transitory, their self is aware that the goal serves their interests not another’s,
and the goal is aligned with their internal needs and values or can be re-aligned if
necessary to meet changing situations [42]. Further, self-concordance proposes
alignment between the motivations for goal selection and goal strivings [43].
Integral to this concept is the degree to which the individual perceives that the goals
they set for themself are associated with their authentic self, rather than being deter-
mined by external forces.
Career Decision-Making
Traditionally career decision-making research has centred on person-job and per-

son–organisation fit [44]. Person-job fit takes into account the skills and capabilities
of the individual and considers whether these match the requirements of the role.
Person-organisation fit examines the degree of compatibility between applicants’
Fig. 14.4 Representation
of Grant’s 2012 model
personal values and goals or aspirations and those of the organisation, in an attempt
to identify whether the organisation has a culture similar to their own [45].
Nowadays, career decisions take into consideration not only the job- and work-
related aspects of a potential new position but also the effect on family and relation-
ships, and economic realities [46]. Work and non-work domains intersect and affect
each other, especially the relationships between key actors. Individuals look for a
sense of belonging, connectedness and inclusion in the new organisation. Employees
have been found (overwhelmingly) to choose positions paying lower salaries with
better working conditions over positions that were perceived to treat them in a less
positive manner. For example, research subjects reacted adversely to accepting a
position where a potential employer valued physical appearance over forward think-
ers, profits over corporate social responsibility, and long hours over community
service [45].
Career decisions are based on the individual’s core values. They also have a rela-
tional element, the context being influenced by partners or spouses, parents, friends
and others affected by the career decision. Whether these key actors are supporting,
affirming, and non-judgmental, affects the emotionality of the situation. Individuals
also look for the personal meaning that they hope will result from accepting an
offered role in a particular company. These factors combine within the decision-
making process as the client contemplates their readiness and willingness to accept
the new job. The role of the coach is to work with them through all of these elements
to help them discover if this job and organisation is the right fit for them. When the
environment is perceived as secure and supportive, the client is able to make a career
decision with confidence.
The degree to which individuals feel in control of their work situation affects
how they feel inside and their motivation to engage in a job search. Individuals can
be either just coping, in control, or adapting to their new situation. Coping is the
dynamic process in which a client struggles to make sense of the world and what has
happened to them. It involves both cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage the
internal processes and external events that currently challenge their stability and
sense of normality. Getting to a state of control provides some reassurance that all
is not lost—that they can get back to a ‘normal’ way of life. Once they accept this
proposition, they can become motivated to actively participate in restructuring their
own life, regulating and directing events in ways that support independence and
self-responsibility. Adaptation is the final stage in which clients regain their sense of
wellbeing, establish career goals, and develop strategies to achieve success [47].
Career Transition
Bridges [25] defined the stages in career transition as consisting of an end, a middle,
and a new beginning. He used the analogy of a high-wire gymnast letting go of the
safety of a trapeze, hurling himself into mid-air and thankfully catching hold of the
trapeze that was swung out to him by another on the other side. Transitions from one
situation to another are often marked by a significant ‘turning point’ which indicates
the start of the transition process (e.g. being fired, being made redundant, getting
sick). Transitions are the intervals in-between the periods of stability preceding and
following the change. Change events are catalysts for change and indicate the need
for a new direction or to do things differently. Changes may be planned (e.g. getting
married, having a baby, retiring), unplanned (e.g. being redunded, becoming seri-
ously ill, the premature death of a loved one), or anticipated yet unfulfilled—events
that were expected to happen but didn’t (e.g. expecting to get that next promotion
but not, the marriage ceremony that was called off at the last minute) [48].
If the change was voluntary and therefore anticipated, the individual may feel
elation, relief and success because they have determined their own future [19].
However, if the change was involuntary, the individual may spiral through the emo-
tions of change as adapted from Kubler-Ross’ [49] grief cycle: denial, anger, bar-
gaining, depression, acceptance and moving on. These stages may take several
months to play out—even years. The emotional processes that people go through
cannot be rushed. In fact, to force a premature acceptance of the change often just
sends the anger and bargaining underground, resulting in an extended time in
depression. At times, an individual may get stuck at a particular stage and never
leave it. This may lead to resentment in the workplace and anger at management
which may spill over to workmates, creating a potentially volatile work environ-
ment. Interventions which can assist individuals cope with these changes include
employee assistance programs, psychological services, voluntary early retirement,
career planning, and recruitment services.
The process of re-establishing a career takes time. It may be months before the
individual feels comfortable in the new environment. During the transition period,
they may have had to change their behaviour, learn new skills, and/or change their
mental mindset and attitude. However, all things considered, if they have ended up
in a space that they can live with and, even better, learn from, the transition has been
successful.
Career coaching is focused on identifying the client’s career aspirations and assist-
ing them make their next career move. Coaching for career development consists of
a number of steps to assist the client de-identify with their previous notion of self
derived from their previous organisational affiliation and identify with their desired
future self separate from any organisational affiliation. This process starts with de-
identification strategies, assessment of existing strengths and interests, establishing
career goals and action plans, and devising a CDP to transition from an ‘end’ to a
‘new beginning’.
De-identification Strategies
Strategies that the coach may use to work with a client to assist them de-identify
with an organisation involve both behavioural and cognitive strategies focused on
re-establishing a state of equilibrium, even during the transition period. This ‘near
normal’ period will be their mental and emotional ‘home’ for the period of the tran-
sition. If financial security is an issue, the coach discusses how the client can priori-
tise their spending so that the family manages during the transition period. Gaining
any form of work may be helpful even if it is not their desired position or in their
desired company. This is especially important since it is easier for the client to gain
a new job when they are currently employed. De-identification can be achieved
through a number of means such as asking the client to write identity narratives in
which they define and affirm who they are as a person and a professional, and the
value they bring to a new organisation [24, 32]. Once the client has de-identified
with their previous organisation, the coach concentrates on assisting them create a
self-identity as an individual and professional, separate from any specific company
or position [50].
Assessment and Feedback
To start the career development process, baseline data on the client’s personality and
possibly leadership style may need to be obtained using a commercially available
instrument. This data is best supplemented by multi-rater feedback to ensure its
accuracy and applicability to the client’s situation. If the client is unemployed, fel-
low workers who remain friends may agree to provide feedback. In addition, a
skills-based inventory may be used to determine what competencies the client
already possesses, and the skills they need to develop in order to progress in their
career. Skills-based inventories address values, interests, aptitudes, personality and
strengths, as a guide to what career the client would be most suited to. They reveal
gaps in the client’s knowledge and skills, and identify transferable skills which can
be applied across jobs.
Career Development Plan
An effective strategy for a client in transition is to devise a CDP. The Plan consists
of a number of elements that, together, reveal where they are now and where they
want to be. Following the assessment of their skills and competencies, the client is
now able to address the gaps in their development and begin to set career goals in
place. Reflection allows them to become aware of their strengths, qualities and
ambitions, as well as their weaknesses and limitations. They reflect on their skills
References 197
and competencies so that they know what jobs they are eligible to apply for and if
they meet the position requirements. Next, the coach works with the client and helps
them envisage their possible self, with a number of provisional selves along the way.
Creating a CDP will give the client a better sense of who they are and what they
want, allowing them more control over their future.
Setting career goals establishes the framework for the CDP. The coach’s role is
to help the client identify what they need to do to achieve their career goals. Having
clear goals that are challenging and SMART [51] allows clients to take focused
actions and measure progress over time. Vocalising their 5-year vision assists clients
commit to a desired future. Sub-goals may be identified and action plans put in
place to achieve their desired outcomes. The client works on achieving one goal at
a time, until their ultimate career goal is achieved.
Techniques to prepare clients for future roles, either within the same organisation
or in another, include participating in training programs to maintain their skills cur-
rency or acquire new skills; enrolling in educational programs to extend their cur-
rent expertise, or enable them to change direction in accordance with market trends;
gaining membership of a professional association in their field of expertise or
related fields; keeping up-to-date with organisational movements within the indus-
try; and engaging the services of a career coach to help them make the transition
from their current role into a future role. As the client enacts their CDP, the coach
congratulates them for taking personal responsibility for their career future. They
now know and accept that they have to ‘future-proof’ their career to maintain their
livelihood by upgrading their knowledge and skills, learning new knowledge and
skills and keeping abreast of industry developments.
In summary, coaching for career development is focused on facilitating personal
and professional transformative change. Coaching is optimally effective when the
client is able to de-identify with their previous organisation, maximise their
strengths, target areas for improvement, and create a CDP to ensure that their knowl-
edge and skills are kept up-to-date and they are not falling behind in their area of
expertise or the use of the latest technology.
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Chapter 15
Coaching in an Organisational Setting
This chapter addresses how positive psychology coaching is delivered in an organ-

isational setting, highlighting the key differences from how individual coaching is
delivered in a community setting. Individual coaching in organisations is driven by
dual motivations (personal and organisational), involves multiple stakeholders and
is conducted across multiple levels. The coaching relationship is triadic rather than
dyadic. Reporting relationships are to the client and sponsor, as well as to the
coachee. The roles played by key stakeholders (coachee, client and sponsor) are
explained, as is the role of HR professionals in arranging the ‘chemistry match’
[1–3] between coach and coachee. HR is responsible for selecting external coaches
to a coaching panel based on specific selection criteria. The stages in the ©AIPC
Organisational COACHing model are presented: contracting and preparation,
assessment and feedback, conducting the coaching session using the ©AIPC
COACH model, and evaluating the coaching. Organisational coaching has been
found to decrease workplace stress, increase job satisfaction and team morale, and
assist employees cope with and manage change. How to measure the success of the
coaching using formative and summative methods of evaluation are outlined.
Organisational coaching has its origins in the sporting arena. Since the late
1900s, executive coaching has been delivered as a developmental intervention
within business and corporate settings. Organisational coaching originally focused
on performance improvement for ‘failing’ employees. Coaching was used as a
remediation tool following direct observation of an employee’s poor performance.
With the focus on performance, in-depth, personal knowledge of the employee and
their situation was frequently lacking in conversations with their manager [4]. Since
then, coaching for performance improvement has taken a more positive direction,
being to provide timely feedback that the employee can reflect on and identify
Note: In this chapter and those that follow, the individual being coached in an organisational set-
ting is referred to as the ‘coachee’, as explained below.
202 15 Coaching in an Organisational Setting
avenues for behavioural and cognitive change. Coaches work with coachees to rein-
force what they are doing well, identify gaps in their knowledge or skills, and
develop strategies to bridge the gap. More recently, coaching is becoming a devel-
opmental tool to maximise the potential of all employees not just talented individuals.
Theoretical foundations for coaching in an organisational setting are based not only
on research findings from psychology and education disciplines but also from man-
agement research. Within organisations, Organisation Development (OD) is a field
of applied behavioural and social psychology that addresses organisational systems
and processes to achieve congruence and support planned change [5]. The aim of
OD is to ‘transform people, make them psychologically healthier … Then, through
the use of these improved interpersonal skills, people in the organisation would
develop more powerful ways to solve problems together, increase their participa-
tion, share power and decision making, get things done more effectively and effi-
ciently’ [6]. Originating in the seminal work of Kurt Lewin [7], more recent OD
practices are based on a newer, social constructionist perspective which has revived
the OD movement with stronger coherent theoretical underpinnings [8–10]. OD
interventions assist individuals make meaning of their experiences by using tech-
niques such as dialogue, action research, survey feedback, appreciative enquiry [11]
and narrative therapy [12] to acknowledge reality as socially constructed and
socially negotiated.
The boundaries between OD and what was then called HRM began to blur when
research identified coaching as being at the heart of managerial effectiveness [13]
and showed how leaders could better manage stress by being coached with compas-
sion [14]. Subsequently, research interest in the use of coaching in management
education and leadership development programs grew [15–17]. Definitions of
coaching within OD highlight the differences from coaching within the HRM envi-
ronment. Key dimensions of difference include the way that coaching is conceptu-
alised, the motivations and purposes for which coaching is conducted, the agenda
driving the coaching, the nature of the coaching relationship (dyadic/triadic), and
how coaching is delivered and by whom. These differences are explained in the next
section.
Defining Coaching in the OD Environment
Coaching in an organisational environment is a custom-tailored experience that pro-

vides the coachee with the time, mental space, support and guidance they need to
make sense of the information available to them and explore how to apply it most
effectively to their workplace situation [18]. The differences between coaching
within HRM and OD environments are highlighted by conceptual, motivational,

delivery and foci constructs. Motivation in the HRM environment is skills-based. In
the OD environment, it is focused on performance and development [19] to unlock
individual potential [20, 21]. The agenda is performance-driven, considering and
being responsive to the needs of both coachee and organisation [22]. The coach
using a range of cognitive and behavioural techniques to achieve mutually defined
goals that improve both personal and work-related outcomes and ultimately, the
effectiveness of the organisation [23].
The primary motivation for organisational coaching is frequently to enhance the
leadership and executive effectiveness of talented individuals who are included in
the organisation’s succession plan [15, 24–26]. As an experiential, coachee-centred,
action-learning process, coaching builds the leader’s capability to achieve both
short and long-term organisational goals by examining real-time challenges that
significantly impact their effectiveness. More recently, coaching has also been rec-
ognised as a developmental opportunity for team leaders to improve not only their
leadership skills but also the performance of their team [27, 28]. The distinctiveness
of the coaching process lies in the collaborative partnership between the coach and
coachee, aimed at enhancing the coachee’s personal and professional capabilities
and performance in their role.
A third difference is that coaching in an organisational setting is a triadic rela-
tionship involving the employee, manager and organisation for the purpose of pro-
viding feedback to achieve workplace goals and outcomes. This situation results in
dual accountability and reporting relationships that the coach needs to maintain
without infringing privacy or confidentiality boundaries. The client in a community
setting becomes the organisational manager (who is sometimes also the sponsor1).
The person being coached becomes the coachee to distinguish them from the client
(manager or sponsor).
Fourth, coaching in an organisational setting extends from individual application
to being conducted at all levels of the organisation [29]. The coaching is delivered
not only by employees specially designated as occupying a coaching role (usually
the HR or L&D specialist) but also by the ‘manager/leader as coach’ separate from
the execution of their daily duties [30]. Coaching may also be conducted informally
either by the leader in short, ‘laser coaching’ sessions or by peers who are trained in
coaching skills and conduct corridor coaching2 on a needs basis.
The fifth difference, and one which clearly positions coaching as a valuable
developmental intervention, is that it may be conducted as an important component
of a larger OD initiative, for example, a one-off program within a particular division
or an organisational consulting intervention [31]. Executive coaches are frequently
also consultants with management experience and expertise who advise
organisations regarding strategy, structure, systems, staffing, skills, style and shared
values [32]. A planned change intervention such as for transformational cultural
These relationships are explained in the key stakeholders section below.

1
Discussed in Chap. 17.

2
change may incorporate coaching for enhanced individual, team and group out-
comes as part of the change program. A necessary, accompanying activity is the
training of all organisational leaders in coaching skills, and ideally also of all
employees, so that they understand what coaching is, and how and why it is being
delivered for their benefit and that of the organisation.
Key Stakeholders
Organisational coaching is a process which involves the partnership of coach with

three key stakeholders: coachee (the employee, leader or executive), client (the
coachee’s manager), and sponsor (who may be the coachee’s manager or another
organisational representative). Whether the organisational coaching is delivered by
an external or internal coach, it is important that the coach identifies the key stake-
holders who have the ability to support or thwart the program. Coaching is most
successful when there is a clear link between the individual goals of the coachee and
the strategic goals of the organisation [33]. The triadic, developmental intervention
among coach, coachee and client aims to deliver the intended outcomes of coach-
ing [34].
In an organisational setting, the coach has two accountabilities—to the individ-
ual being coached (the coachee) and to the coachee’s manager as client (who may
also be the sponsor). The sponsor is any organisation’s representative who has the
authority to approve the coaching program and its funding, under a contract that
defines the responsibilities and expectations of both parties. They may be a senior
executive, the coachee’s line manager, or a transformational HR professional
(Table 15.1).
There are also two levels of reporting. The first is to the individual coachee. The
second is to the client who may be, or represent, the organisational sponsor. A for-
mal reporting meeting is usually conducted with the client once or twice during a
6-month coaching program. At this time, in addition to a brief overview of the out-
comes of the coaching sessions to date (which has been discussed and agreed with
the coachee beforehand), the coach may expand verbally on any areas of specific
Table 15.1 Definitions of coachee, client and sponsor

Definitions
• Coachee—the individual or team/group being coached.
• Client—the manager of the coachee (who may also be the sponsor).
• Sponsor—the organisational representative who has the authority to approve the coaching
program and its funding under an agreement or contract that defines the responsibilities and
expectations of each party. The sponsor may be a senior executive, the coachee’s line manager
or a transformational HR professional.
concern without compromising confidentiality. Ideally, these reporting meeting are

three-way involving the coachee as well. If the coachee wishes to report more
details to their manager, they can do so at any time.
Coachee
The readiness of the coachee to engage in organisational coaching is crucial to the

success of the coaching program. Coachees who embrace the opportunity for
improvement or to achieve their goals, and have a high level of commitment to the
coaching process, make the most gains from the coaching experience. But what
about coachees who are ‘sent to coaching’ by their manager and resist any attempt
to change their behaviour or performance? How does the organisational coach
manage their resistance? The answer is in the coaching process which allows the
coachee to engage in a conversation of their own making no matter what the topic,
and at their own pace, so that a trusting relationship can be established with the
coach. Only then will the coach be able to broach the subject that is of most con-
cern to them or their manager. Note that this coaching conversation is not a substi-
tute for a remedial or performance management process that may be put in place
by HR, leading to likely dismissal. It is a coaching conversation with a mediocre
performer who has potential, to discover what is holding them back from achieving
the desired outcomes of their role, and what can be put in place to help them
move forward.
The coach will encounter coachees of different personalities, values, beliefs, and
experiences. If coachees have a history of self-development and taking responsibil-
ity for their growth, they are more likely to experience a successful coaching out-
come. Developmental readiness is ‘both the ability and the motivation to focus on,
make meaning of, and develop new and more complex ways of thinking that posi-
tion [coachees] to more effectively assume leadership roles’ [35]. Developmental
readiness has been found to be a predictor of effective outcomes in leadership devel-
opment [36]. It includes elements of motivation, self-efficacy, ability to change,
willingness to experience discomfort during the change process, and awareness of
potential areas for coaching [37]. The readiness-to-change concept builds on the
stages of change proposed by Prochaska and DiClemente [38] who developed the
pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance stages of
motivation for change.
In addition, coachees may be at different stages in their career progression.
Leaders’ career stages no longer necessarily mirror their organisational responsi-
bilities [39]. Organisational coaching may be applied across multiple levels from
entry to executive. Consequently, the organisational coach must be flexible in allow-
ing coachees to express their concerns without prior knowledge of who they are,
their issue or situation.
Client
Organisational clients will be at varying stages in their readiness-to-support coach-

ing programs depending on the degree to which they understand the meaning of
coaching and are prepared to allocate funding and resources, facilitate access to
organisational data, and commit to program implementation. Managers who request
the introduction of a coaching program may have heard good things about coaching
but be unsure of exactly what coaching is and how it can benefit coachees.
Organisational coaches would be wise to expect to explain this when they first meet
with the client to establish the reason for their requesting a coaching program, the
expected outcomes, and their willingness to negotiate time for the coaching to be
conducted. The coach should also be alert to the fact that attitudes and motivation
levels of not only coachees but also of clients may change during the coaching expe-
rience depending on emerging circumstances.
Sponsor
Sponsors are those executives in the organisation with the designated authority to
approve the funding and resources necessary to conduct the coaching program. The
sponsor may be a transformational HR professional, senior executive, or Coaching
Champion. A Coaching Champion is best positioned within the senior executive
team so they can navigate organisational systems and overcome any barriers or
constraints to the implementation of coaching programs [40]. Expectations regard-
ing the outcomes of the coaching program, and any special conditions or circum-
stances surrounding its delivery, should be agreed upfront before commencement.
The client and sponsor (if different people) need to be aligned in relation to the
contractual obligations. A three-way conversation among coach, coachee and client
is essential before coaching begins to communicate and agree these expectations or
negotiate any exceptions if necessary.
Partnership Principles
At its most effective, organisational coaching is a coachee-client–sponsor partner-

ship with the coach in which they agree to work collaboratively to achieve the speci-
fied business outcomes and coachee’s learning objectives. The formal contract
incorporates agreed-upon ground rules, time frames, goals, and specific measures of
success. The partnership works best when all partners abide by pre-negotiated guid-
ing principles which include: a systems perspective, results orientation and business
focus; collaboration to build the competence and confidence of the coachee for the
mutual benefit of themself and the organisation; and a continual emphasis on the
integrity of each member of the partnership and of the coaching process [41].
Role of Human Resources
Within the business and corporate sectors, coaching is often conducted by HR pro-
fessionals who are trained as internal coaches [42–44]. In addition, Manager as
Coach or Leader as Coach programs may be conducted by HR or an external coach
to train line managers in coaching skills [40, 45]. Alternatively, an external coach
selected from an organisational coaching panel may be engaged to deliver the
coaching [3, 22, 26].
HR professionals play a vital role in enabling and supporting the conduct of
organisational coaching [46]. In preparation for delivery, HR meets with the coachee
to determine their real and felt needs for coaching and identify the most appropriate
internal or external coach to meet these needs. The prospective coach is then invited
to meet with the coachee and, once engaged, may shadow them to observe their
performance and interactions with others. Observations will showcase aspects of
the coachee’s behaviour to be discussed in coaching sessions [47]. The coach uses
the ©AIPC COACH model to conduct the individual coaching sessions.
A traditional HR professional may not know about coaching and understand its
value. Hence, they may pose a barrier to an organisation wanting to undertake a
coaching program. On the other hand, a transformational HR professional who is
passionate about coaching may have been coached and experienced its benefits.
Consequently, they may have trained to become a qualified coach so that they fully
understand and appreciate the value and benefits that accrue from coaching [48]. If
a number of HR professionals within an organisation are trained as coaches, they
may form an internal coaching team which supports the development of a coaching
culture across the organisation. These trained coaches may be called upon to deliver
individual coaching programs at any level, and design coaching skills workshops to
be conducted within and across business units. Frontline staff trained in coaching
skills may then engage in peer coaching to support each other achieve improved
performance outcomes.
In a coaching culture organisation, a nominated Coaching Champion, who may
be a transformational HR professional or a member of the senior executive team, is
responsible for ensuring that all key stakeholders know and understand the value of
coaching and how it can be used to uplift all business relationships and transactions
both internal and external to the organisation [49]. Program success and longevity
often depends on a transformational HR professional’s ability to promote the value
of coaching throughout the organisation [50].
Coach–Coachee Match
The organisational coach needs to be well-matched to the coachee they will be

coaching. A ‘chemistry match’ needs to exist for the coaching to be successful [1–
3]. Matching for age, gender and context are easy; matching for the pace of intel-
lectual rigor is really where coaching becomes a success [51]. Most executives are
smart, process information quickly, and impatient with slow analysis that does not
rapidly get to the bottom line. They value a smart, fast-paced, practically-oriented
coach who likes coachees to take action and achieve results. For executives who are
more careful and contemplative thinkers, the coach needs to deliver the coaching at
a matched pace [31].
Criteria for Selecting an External Coach
Organisations typically appoint a panel of external coaches to deliver executive

coaching for senior organisational leaders. Research has informed the selection cri-
teria by which external coaches are appointed to these panels. The coach’s academic
background in psychology has been positively related to executive coaching effec-
tiveness as evidenced by increased work performance and coachee self-awareness
[52]. Personal qualities that executives look for in an executive coach include integ-
rity, empathy, caring, personability, approachability, flexibility, empowerment and
trustworthiness [53–55]. In addition, organisations seek executive coaches who can
motivate and encourage, challenge and confront, be creative, resourceful, and
accountable. Critical moments in coaching precipitate new realisations which may
appear implicitly or explicitly as the coaching proceeds [56]. To coach effectively,
executive coaches may also need to possess or have access to requisite skills such as
communication and relationship building, negotiation, assessment and feedback,
organisation, planning, and goal-setting.
Coachees at the executive level tend to place importance on the executive coach’s
experience, knowledge, qualifications, and certifications as the value-adding fea-
tures to referrals and testimonials. Coach qualifications typically valued include
graduate education in behavioural science, business or psychology. Knowledge of,
or experience in, the client’s industry contributes significantly to the executive
coach’s credibility and expertise in the eyes of the coachee [22]. Table 15.2 sum-
marises the personal qualities, coaching styles, skills, experience and knowledge,
qualifications and certifications, that organisational leaders look for when selecting
an executive coach to deliver coaching in their organisation.
Table 15.2 Selection criteria for an executive coach

What coachees and organisations look for in selecting an executive coach
Personal qualities Integrity, empathy, caring, personable, approachable, flexible, empowering,
and trustworthy.
Coaching style Ability to motivate and encourage, challenge and confront, be creative,
resourceful, and accountable.
Skills Communication, relationship building, negotiation, assessment and
feedback, organisation, planning, and goal-setting.
Experience and Experience in, and knowledge of, the client’s industry contributes
knowledge significantly to the executive coach’s credibility and expertise in the eyes of
the coachee.
Qualifications Graduate education in behavioural science, business or psychology.
Certifications ICF credentialing to at least the level of Associate Certified Coach (ACC).
Application to Organisational Coaching 209
Application to Organisational Coaching
The individual coaching process in an organisational setting involves in-person

interactions focused on work-related issues, informed by 360° feedback on the
coachee’s strengths and weaknesses. During the coaching, coachees self-reflect on
how they are perceived by others and gain a deeper understanding of their areas of
discontent, emerging opportunities and their strengths related to personal and per-
formance issues and imperatives [57, 58]. The coach unconditionally listens and
reflects, guides attention, assists the coachee to envision better outcomes, and sup-
ports the adoption of new behaviours and experiences. The coaching process equips
coachees with the tools, knowledge and opportunities they need to develop them-
selves and become more effective [59]. The following section outlines how an indi-
vidual receives coaching as part of an organisational initiative, for example, to
change the organisation’s culture.
©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model
The ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is a four-stage process that places

two important stages in front of the ©AIPC COACH Model (at Stage 3). It consists
of four components (Fig. 15.1):
Stage 1: Contracting and preparation
Stage 2: Assessment and feedback
Stage 3: Conducting the coaching
Fig. 15.1 ©AIPC
Organisational COACHing
Model
Stage 4: Evaluating the coaching
Contracting and Preparation
The first stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is Contracting

and Preparation. Just as in a community environment, and whether the coach is
internal or external, the coach meets with the client to discuss the coachee’s needs
and that of the organisation. The purpose of this meeting is to ascertain the current
situation in relation to the request for coaching and what has been done to address
it. The coach gains an understanding of the factors that have led to the need for
coaching. This is a particularly important step, especially when the coachee is val-
ued yet experiencing leadership or performance difficulties which are inconsistent
with their potential. For example, organisational leaders frequently need support
when moving into a new leadership role and many require assistance managing
change projects.
The coach then meets with the coachee to ensure that there is a ‘chemistry
match’. Once confirmed, a three-way conversation is conducted with their manager
(the client) to determine the details of the coaching program. The purpose of this
meeting is to ensure that all parties are ‘on the same page’ in terms of their under-
standing of coaching and what coaching can do for the coachee. This meeting pro-
vides the opportunity for the manager to explain to the coachee their concerns and
the purpose for the coaching and, if not already communicated, reveal the evidence
to support the coaching request. For example, when there is a performance issue, the
manager may have documented evidence over a period of time and in different situ-
ations to show that the coachee is not performing adequately in accordance with
their role (e.g. over budget, behind time on key projects). They may have moved the
coachee into a different area of responsibility, without any noticeable improvement
in performance. Any other evidence that shows a lack of improvement over time
should be shared and discussed with the coachee, who may provide additional or
alternate information. The coachee may offer valid reasons why their performance
is not reflective of their capabilities, for example, they may not have all the informa-
tion and resources they need to perform in their role. The coach, coachee and man-
ager then agree on the desired outcomes of the coaching program and how, and by
whom, data on these success indicators will be collected and monitored.
Once the purpose, goals, and measures of success have been determined, the
logistics of conducting the coaching program are agreed. Logistics to be consid-
ered include the duration of the coaching program, the frequency of sessions, and
the time and place for the coaching to be conducted. Once these logistics are
signed off, the coach meets with the coachee to cement the psychological contract
between them which will result in the development of a trusting working relation-
ship [60].
Assessment and Feedback
The second stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is Assessment

and Feedback. The provision of honest, constructive feedback to the coachee on
how others perceive them and their performance is one of the essential elements
contributing to the success of a coaching program. Feedback explains the ways in
which their behaviours are effective or ineffective, quotes specific examples and
allows the coachee to comment on the feedback—all the while maintaining their
self-esteem [61]. The purpose of providing feedback is to develop the coachee’s
self-knowledge, self-awareness and insight based on both self-report and other-
report of their strengths and weaknesses. Any discrepancies between self- and
other-rater reviews become the basis for a coaching conversation and the motivation
for change. The process starts with developing an understanding of where the
coachee is now (from baseline data) and then gains agreement on expectations for
future performance results and standards.
A 360° assessment conducted prior to coaching is recommended so that the
coachee can experience a reality-check before the coaching begins. Commercial
multi-rater 360° assessment instruments are frequently used to gain an objective
measure of the coachee’s capabilities and ensure there are no ‘blind spots’ in the
diagnostic process [62]. The multi-rater approach circumvents any self-report bias
and ensures the range, breadth, representativeness, and objectivity of the feedback.
This kind of assessment provides insight into the coachee’s current and future
development needs and identifies discrepancies between known, established and
stretch requirements or goals. Together the coach, coachee and client determine the
types of assessments that will provide the most appropriate data, as well as how and
from whom the data will be collected (e.g., multi-rater 360° assessments, personal-
ity inventories, biographical or work histories, interviews, shadowing) [22]. From
feedback, coachees obtain information about the similarities and differences
between their work and the expected quality or standards in order to generate targets
for improved work performance [63]. Coaching success is predicated on accurate
feedback that propels the coaching conversation beyond intention to action to
improve performance [4].
Profiling
There are a wide range of commercially available leadership and personality profil-
ing instruments that coaches may access such as the DISC Leadership Profile, the
Leadership Circle Profile, Human Synergistics Circumplex, and the Integrity and
Values Leadership Profile. These instruments highlight the coachee’s strengths and
weaknesses in relation to leadership ability, communication and relationship skills,
and other key variables. The results provide the baseline evidence of how the
coachee is functioning right now. If a profile has been completed within the last
12 months, the coach may request a copy of the report to inform the coaching needs.
If an assessment has not been completed, the coach may request that the manager
arrange an assessment through HR as soon as possible so that the results can be
debriefed before the first coaching session begins.
To administer a profiling instrument, the coach must be accredited in its use so
they can give accurate and meaningful feedback to the coachee and highlight the
recommendations for development from the report. If the coach is not accredited,
they may ask a colleague who is accredited to conduct the administration and feed-
back the results to the coachee. Often, a member of the organisation’s HR function
is accredited in one of the leadership and/or personality profiling instruments.
Indeed, some organisations have developed their own 360° feedback instrument.
It can be confronting if others see the coachee as different from their self-
assessment or how they would like to be seen. Coachees who over-rate themself
may risk de-railing their career. Those who under-rate themself may be overly self-
critical and perfectionistic. Alternatively, they may be sceptical of the evidence that
others perceive them to be more effective than they see themselves [64]. It is impor-
tant that, as a result of the coaching, visible differences in behaviour and/or leader-
ship ability, performance, or goal achievement are observed so that the coaching
program is considered successful.
Baseline Data
Informal assessments from others in the organisation contribute a more personal

view on the impact of the coachee’s leadership style or personality in an operational
role. Informal feedback may be obtained from the coachee’s immediate manager,
direct reports, colleagues and possibly also suppliers and customers. Baseline data
collection particularly applies to coaching programs where there is a leadership
development, performance improvement, or change management purpose for the
coaching. To monitor if progress is being made on a month-by-month basis, and to
gauge the overall success of the program, the coach needs to collect pre- and post-
baseline data as an indicator of change. To begin this process, the coach asks the
client for a copy of any pertinent information relating to the coachee’s behaviour or
the required change, e.g. performance report, job satisfaction survey.
In general, there are two types of measures that can be used to record changes in
behaviour or the required outcomes from coaching—hard and soft data. Hard data
include information relating to KPIs of the coachee’s role. It is sufficient to select
just one or two important KPIs that can be easily measured and reported on (e.g.
sales performance, number of new customers per quarter, number of staff com-
plaints). Soft data is measured differently based on KPIs in the coachee’s role which
relate to leadership ability, communication skills, relationships and other indirect
indicators of performance. Soft data information indicates how the coachee per-
forms in their role as self-assessed and perceived by others. It is not easily measured
except by survey rating scales which objectify subjective responses. Table 15.3 pro-
vides an example of goal-setting based on hard and soft data.
Table 15.3 Example of goal-setting based on hard and soft data

Position: Sales executive
Hard KPIs:
KPI 1: Sales revenue, currently $30,000 per month; goal $90,000 per month within
12 months; data to be provided by Finance Department.
KPI 2: Cost of sales, currently 30% of revenue; goal 15% of revenue within 3 months; data
to be provided by Finance Department.
Soft skills—Goal improvement in:
‘Soft’ skill 1: Leadership
‘Soft’ skill 2: Communication
‘Soft’ skill 3: Change management
‘Soft’ skill 4: Innovation
‘Soft’ skill 5: Interpersonal relations
Short-term action plan (within 12 months)
GOAL ACTIONS WHO WHEN RESOURCES
1
One way to measure soft data is on a monthly basis using Likert scales (1–10)
completed by, say, eight reviewers close to the coachee who can make a valid assess-
ment of their progress in relation to the survey items. These may be the coachee’s
manager, colleagues, or direct reports who agree to provide anonymous responses.
The average of their scores is collated and shared with the coachee at the next
monthly coaching session so they can compare the other-report average with their
own self-report score. Discrepancies between the two scores are discussed and the
coachee determines what actions they need to take as a result of this new information.
Identifying the Need for Coaching
After conducting the leadership and/or personality profiling and collecting the base-
line data, the coach is in a position to identify the coachee’s coaching needs. These
needs may relate to personal shortcomings in communication or interpersonal rela-
tionships, or ability to manage conflict or utilise the diversity of team members. The
coachee may want to improve their leadership style, be supported in their career
aspirations, and position themself for promotion. Commonly, leaders request to be
coached so that they can become more responsive to the personal needs of their
direct reports and improve team and team members’ performance. They may want to
become more flexible in the work environment or better manage change events.
Preparing their team to become more resilient as external changes impact their
internal environment may be an issue for coaching. From an organisational perspec-
tive, the coachee may be an exceptional performer whose development needs relate
to targeted future positions within the organisation.
Beginning the Coaching
To work most effectively with the coachee, the coach must first check if there are
any immediate barriers or possible obstacles to their progress. These may include
any pressing concerns or immediate issues that the coachee wants or needs to work
on first so they can clear their mind and focus on the ‘bigger picture’ issues and
goals and how to achieve them (e.g. conflict with their manager, insufficient or inad-
equate resources). Whatever the coachee presents, this is where the coaching begins
because this is where the energy to do work resides. Formal coaching sessions have
a clear beginning and end and are conducted almost exclusively in ‘coaching
mode’ [40].
Conducting the Coaching Program
The third stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is Conducting

the Coaching Program. In this stage, the ©AIPC COACH Model of individual
coaching is used to bring about self-awareness and insight, leading to new learn-
ings, growth, and behavioural change. The coaching is dynamic and interactive, and
seeks to maximise the positive transfer of learning to the coachee’s workplace by
embedding the learning so that the coachee and others can see positive results
immediately [65]. The coaching may focus on one or more of the following areas
for development depending on the purpose for coaching and the coachee’s needs:
• Performance improvement (Chap. 16)
• Leadership development (Chap. 17)
• Executive development (Chap. 18)
• Organisational learning (Chap. 19)
• Transformational, cultural change (Chap. 20)
Coachees may only be able to meet monthly over, say, a 6- or 12-month
period (the longer the better). Because each coaching session usually lasts for just
one hour, the coach and coachee need to establish rapport and a trusting relationship
quickly so they can get down to the real work issues and business at hand. The coach
needs to care as much about the business of the coachee’s organisation as the
coachee does. Effective coaching sessions flow fluidly between strategic business
issues and micro-level tactics as well as address any interpersonal and communica-
tion difficulties [31]. Hence, organisational coaches need the ability to step back
from coaching conversations about the day-to-day business operations and dive into
personal ‘moment-by-moment’ insights into what the coachee can do differently for
improved effectiveness.
Evaluating the Coaching Program
The final stage of the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing Model is the multi-
source evaluation of coaching outcomes which is the ‘gold standard’ in organisa-
tional coaching evaluation [62]. Not only does the multi-source evaluation overcome
the limitations of self-report data, but it also specifically targets those who should be
positively impacted by the coaching intervention. Evaluation of the coaching pro-
gram asks the question: Have the program learnings been transferred into real,
visible and sustainable outcomes in the workplace? To answer this question, a num-
ber of formative and summative evaluations are conducted during and following the
coaching program.
Formative evaluation is the coach’s assessment of the coachee’s satisfaction
with, and reactions to, the coaching as it is being conducted. It addresses what is
working in terms of coaching delivery and what could be improved in future ses-
sions [66]. During the coaching, moment-by-moment as the coach tailors the coach-
ing session to meet the coachee’s development needs, they keep in mind:
• Is the agenda coachee-driven, with no predetermined outcomes?
• Is the coachee actively participating in the session?
• Are they willing to experiment with new strategies and approaches?
For many years, the Kirkpatrick model dominated the literature in terms of the
evaluation of training outcomes [67]. Applied to coaching, the four levels relate to
coaching as follows:
Level 1—The coachee is satisfied with the coaching.
Level 2—Coachee learnings accrue including self-knowledge, improved under-
standings, insights, beliefs, and attitudinal changes.
Level 3—The coachee experiences behavioural change, increased personal capabil-
ity, and/or performance improvement.
Level 4—Organisational objectives from the coaching have been achieved.
Summative evaluation assesses the outcomes of the coaching program after it has
been completed especially as these translate into workplace practice. Kirkpatrick’s
formative evaluation framework can be expanded to include [22]:
Level 1—The coachee’s perception of the coach’s competence and their satisfaction
with the coach–coachee relationship.
Level 2—The coachee’s increased self-awareness and level of behavioural flexibility.
Level 3—The coaching remains focused on behaviours, and outcomes are incorpo-
rated into a pre- and post-coaching 360° feedback process.
Level 4—The coaching remains focused on results but also includes the impact on
peers, direct reports and other stakeholders as well as measuring ROI.
In relation to Levels 1 and 2, the coach can self-evaluate by asking themself the
following questions [62]: During the coaching session did I…
• spend time building rapport?
• inspire confidence that I could assist you?
• really understand your role and industry?
• seem committed to your development?
• achieve a balance of challenge and support?
• hold you accountable for your actions?
In relation to Level 3, the 360° multi-rater leadership or personality assessment
instrument can be repeated post-coaching but this is not usually done until 12 months
post-first administration. In relation to Level 4, an internal 360° multi-rater assess-
ment tool can identify any immediate areas in which the coachee still needs devel-
opment. The coach should be aware, however, that the results may not be entirely
attributable to coachee actions but may be dependent on organisational factors
which may be assisting or hindering the situation (e.g. an organisational or team
restructure, new change initiative, etc.).
The impact of the coaching program on the coachee may be discovered by ask-
ing questions like [62]: Did the coaching…
• enhance your knowledge of leadership?
• bring a new awareness of your strengths?
• generate greater positivity and optimism?
• provide greater flexibility and innovation?
• facilitate the empowerment and development of others?
• promote greater commitment and engagement?
In addition, the coach would hope that the coaching program has had a posi-
tive impact on the team that the coachee leads [62]. The coach may ask of the
coachee: Did the coaching…
• generate a positive climate in your team?
• clarify the team’s vision and purpose?
• promote greater role clarity?
• improve stakeholder management?
• help motivate team members?
In summary, coaching in an organisational setting incorporates additional con-
siderations in relation to conceptualisation, purpose and motivation, the nature of
the coaching relationship and how and by whom coaching is delivered. Organisational
factors that may impinge on the coaching program must also be considered, such as
organisational leaders’ understanding of coaching and their readiness for change.
Using the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model, coaches identify barriers to
coachee progression as well as organisational support-systems that spur them on to
new learnings. The outcome is that the developmental needs of coachee and sys-
temic organisational needs are both satisfied, resulting in tangible and intangible
benefits for all employees.
References 217
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Chapter 16
Coaching for Performance Improvement
This chapter focuses on how coaching is delivered for performance improvement. It

examines motivations for employee performance, the work, job and organisational
factors that may hinder performance, and ways to reduce barriers causing job dis-
satisfaction and stress at work. Coaching has become an important developmental
activity that represents the value the organisation places on employees. Performance
coaching assists reasonably well-functioning yet mediocre performing employees
reach their potential and become valued team members, retain talented individuals
within the succession plan, and bring increased productivity benefits to the organ-
isation. The leader’s role is to create a positive work environment which supports
individual strengths and values individual differences and diversity. Concepts that
have been derived from the positive psychology movement are those of psychologi-
cal capital, a psychological resource created by empowering self-efficacy, hope,
optimism and resiliency; positive organisational behaviour, the study and applica-
tion of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities;
and positive scholarship, the study of that which is positive, flourishing and life
giving in organisations.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for performance improvement is con-
ceptualised, the motivations for performance improvement, the individuals who are
the recipients of coaching for performance improvement, and how it is delivered at
any level in an organisational setting.
Traditional behavioural psychology significantly informs coaching for performance

improvement since success depends on the demonstration of positive behavioural
change. Cognitive behavioural psychology techniques stimulate the coachee’s need
for change as the coach works with them to reframe their perspective and restructure
222 16 Coaching for Performance Improvement
their mental model. Self-efficacy is evoked to overcome limiting beliefs about their
ability to change. Unless these variables can be modified by coaching, there is little
chance of a successful outcome. Management research findings in relation to job
satisfaction, stressors at work and organisational factors that promote and inhibit
performance at work inform the behavioural change process. Positive psychology
research adds the importance of psychological capital, positive work environment,
positive organisational behaviour and positive scholarship to the coaching conversa-
tion. The motivation for coaching for performance improvement is for coachees to
enjoy greater job satisfaction and happiness at work. The recipients of coaching for
performance improvement are employees who are underperforming compared with
their ability and capable of doing more to achieve their potential.
When coaching was first introduced into organisations, it was used to ‘fix’ perfor-
mance deficits perceived in employees. It was a short-term intervention based on
reward or punishment—improve or be fired! The manager’s style was command and
control to ensure compliance and regulate work production. There was often a skills
development component to ‘fixing’ a performance deficit as well as an operational
component. Stimulus response behavioural theory [1–3] proposed that people are
motivated by the prospect of rewards when certain actions are performed. This
‘carrot-and-stick’ approach in an organisational setting is rarely motivational and
can, at times, become punitive. For example, an employee performs their job well
and gets a reward (e.g. public acknowledgement, leaves work early, extra time for
lunch). They fail to deliver and get a reprimand (e.g. stay back and finish the report).
Hence, employees learn to behave in ways that will get the boss’ attention and
favour so they can get a reward or avoid punishment. When this ‘motivational tech-
nique’ fails to deliver the expected reward (i.e. the employee doesn’t get to leave
work early), the system fails since the employee often reverts to mediocre perfor-
mance as soon as they realise that the reward is not forthcoming. On occasions, their
work may significantly deteriorate, and their behaviour become quite negative.
Unfortunately, this ‘carrot-and-stick’ approach is still the basis on which many
managers operate today. The result is often a stress-filled workplace in which there
is little job satisfaction, happiness or motivation to perform.
If managers choose to motivate staff by using rewards, they need to pair an
extrinsic (external) reward with an intrinsic (internal) reward so that the behaviour
is repeated even after the external reward has been withdrawn [4–6]. The behaviour
will then be repeated purely because of the intrinsic reward the employee gives
themself (e.g. pride in a job well done, job satisfaction). Rewards may be minor,
such as going for a cup of coffee or having a break from work for half an hour.
Major rewards, which may be saved for end of week, are things like movies tickets
or a restaurant voucher. If a social occasion is valued by the employee, pairing the
reward with a team event reinforces the behaviour since it signals social acceptance
and belonging within the team [7]. When employees associate changes in their
behaviour with rewards that they have given themself (intrinsic rewards), the man-
ager knows that they have incorporated the new behaviour into their repertoire of
behavioural routines.
Over the years, traditional psychology has developed a number of motivational
theories that inform how well an employee performs at work. Factors which moti-
vate employees to perform to their potential include intrinsic and extrinsic motiva-
tors, primary and secondary drivers, individual ability, level of job satisfaction,
quality of relationships with the manager and co-workers, and alignment of per-
sonal goals with organisational values and direction, as discussed in the following
sections.
Individual Motivators
If an employee becomes stressed or overloaded with work, dissatisfaction can lead

to consequences for both the individual and the organisation. The coach works with
the coachee to identify the key factors contributing to their job dissatisfaction and
identify ways to assist them regain their motivation at work. The coach investigates
their intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, primary and secondary work drivers and fac-
tors relating to their ability and opportunity to improve their performance in the
workplace.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators
The first way that individuals may become more motivated at work is by the use of
intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. Intrinsic motivation has been studied by social
and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. It refers to the pleasure that is
derived within the individual as a result of their interest or enjoyment in the task
they are performing rather than from any pressure to perform from external sources.
Research has found that intrinsic motivation is associated with high educational
achievement and personal enjoyment in the task [8]. Individuals are likely to be
intrinsically motivated if they attribute their performance to internal factors over
which they have control such as the amount of effort they put in, believe that the
results are not determined by luck but rather that they can be effective agents in
reaching their goals, and are interested in mastering a topic rather than just rote
learning to achieve good results.
Extrinsic motivation is the result of pressure being applied from external sources
outside the individual. Common positive work-related extrinsic motivators include
salary and pay increases. Negative extrinsic motivators include threats, coercion,
controlling behaviours, bullying, harassment and punishment. Competition is a
negative extrinsic motivator if it encourages employees to win at all costs without
the benefit of any intrinsic reward. A crowd cheering on an individual and trophies
awarded to the winner are also extrinsic motivators. Social psychological research
has found that extrinsic rewards, when applied progressively, can lead to over-
justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation [5]. However, self-
determination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the
individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfil
their basic psychological needs [4]. Table 16.1 summarises these motivational cat-
egories and their inclusions.
Primary and Secondary Drivers
The second way that individuals may become more motivated at work is by appeal-
ing to their internal drivers of performance. McClelland proposed a motivation dis-
position theory which distinguishes three motives that guide human behaviour: the
need for achievement, affiliation or power [9]. Individuals develop these internal
motivational drivers as a result of childhood experiences [10]. The disposition the-
ory emphasises the strength of a motivational need rather than suggesting the drivers
are innate as does self-determination theory [11]. The focus of McClelland’s theory
was on the actions that individuals take in their environment to meet their motiva-
tional need. For example, the need for achievement—to meet and exceed high stan-
dards of excellence—builds on an individual’s need for competence. Hence, an
individual with a high strength motivational need for competence would benefit
greatly from a challenging work environment that offers opportunities to satisfy
their need for achievement.
McClelland proposed three motivational dispositions: n-ach, n-pow, and
n-affil. The n-ach person is ‘achievement motivated’ and seeks the attainment of
realistic yet challenging goals and advancement in the job. They have a strong need
for feedback and a sense of accomplishment. The n-pow person is ‘authority moti-
vated’. This drive produces a need to be influential, effective and make an impact.
They have a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. They also feel the need
to increase their personal status and prestige. The n-affil person is ‘affiliation moti-
vated’, has a need for friendly relationships, and is motivated towards interaction
Table 16.1 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators of work performance

Intrinsic motivators in the workplace Extrinsic motivators in the workplace
• Skill variety • Pay
• Task identity • Promotion
• Task significance • The work itself
• Autonomy • Physical conditions
• Feedback from job • Management attitudes
• Dealing with others • Co-workers
• Motivating potential • Social status
• Work involvement/commitment • Security
• Achievement • Rapid career progress
• Creativity
• Recognition
with other people. The affiliation driver produces a need to be liked and held in
popular regard. These people are team players (Fig. 16.1).
These motivations drive employee behaviours on a daily basis. They are influ-
enced by how comfortable the individual feels within themself and their level of
self-esteem. If they have a healthy self-esteem, employees are less in need than
someone with a low self-esteem. These three motivational needs are found to vary-
ing degrees in all people including employees and managers. An individual’s mix of
primary and secondary motivational drivers shapes their behavioural response to a
manager’s request to improve their performance.
Performance Equation
A third way that individuals may become more motivated at work is by addressing
internal and work-related performance variables. Performance theory states that
individual performance is a function of the individual’s ability, motivation and
opportunity to succeed in a specific context. This context is influenced by factors
such as the quality of the resources available to them and their ability to participate
in management decisions [12]. The Performance Equation is P = f (A,M,O) where:
• Ability includes both declarative knowledge (what we know about things i.e.
facts, principles, goals and self-knowledge) as well as procedural knowledge and
skill (how we actually go about things i.e. cognitive, psychomotor, physical, self-
management and interpersonal skills).
• Motivation is the degree to which an employee contributes discretionary effort
as opposed to required effort to a task. It’s a combination of choice to perform,
level and persistence of effort, and degree of employee engagement at work. If
the work output is minimal or low, this is a sure sign that things are not going
well and intervention is necessary. Sometimes it’s about the work, sometimes
about the people, and sometimes about perceived organisational constraints.
Whatever the cause, the employee is looking for connection, meaning and pur-
pose. Being able to express their feelings in a supportive, organisational environ-
ment is the first step to taking corrective action.
• Opportunity is related to the organisational environment. Ideally, the context
allows access to appropriate resourcing, favourable team members, and good
upward and downward communication for optimum performance to occur.
Fig. 16.1 McClelland’s
motivations that drive
behaviour
Organisational Motivators
In addition to these personal motivational factors that drive individual performance,

there are external factors which impact an employee’s ability to perform as they
would under optimal workplace conditions. These include factors relating to other
people, the design of the job, and workplace conditions.
People Factors
Research has shown that one of the most important factors impacting an employee’s
ability to do well in the workplace is their relationship with their manager and team
members [13–15]. If these relationships are based on trust, mutual respect, and
mutual dependency while allowing opportunities for individual achievement based
on unique strengths, knowledge and expertise, employees will feel secure and that
they belong in an environment which supports their work efforts. The manager’s
role is to convey the divisional goal to their team and either work with the team to
divide up the load or allocate tasks according to employee skills and expertise. In
doing so, they must be careful to spread the workload evenly and fairly so that it is
possible for everyone to be involved and contribute in an important way. Managers
are encouraged to value the diversity within their team and make allowance if neces-
sary (e.g. for language difficulties, disability needs) but not to the detriment of other
employees. Direct reports who are treated equally and fairly without prejudice, dis-
crimination or favouritism will perform to their best. Once the team tasks have been
allocated and the manager is confident that everyone has the information and
resources they need to do the job, they should step back and monitor the overall situ-
ation not micro-manage. Skilled and experienced team members who are micro-
managed feel that they are not trusted and quickly lose confidence in their manager.
Working towards a common goal is a highly motivating factor which keeps all
employees ‘on track’ and engenders a feeling of ‘mateship’ within the team. If there
are hidden agendas, cliques or groups, these may have a disruptive influence on the
overall harmony of the team. The manager’s role is to ensure that these cliques/
groups support each other so that everyone feels part of the bigger team. Otherwise
a sense of isolation and separation from the team may result in some individuals
leaving the team because of these factors. The manager ensures that the team shares
its information and resources collectively and specifically to those who need them.
Managing the communication flow is essential so that some team members don’t
feel ‘left in the dark’ which can cause resentment and bad feelings.
Job Design Factors
The second factor to consider in terms of its ability to motivate individual perfor-
mance at work is the way that the job is designed. The Job Characteristics Model
[16] provides a framework for the coach to examine how the design features of the
coachee’s job may be contributing to their performance at work. The model pro-
poses five characteristics that can be adjusted to bring improved performance at
work—skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
Employees seek to utilise their skills in the pursuit of performance goals. The task
they perform must have meaning and significance in its own right. Team and organ-
isational objectives need to be clear and achievable, and aligned with personal goals.
Any misalignment, vagueness or ambiguity can lead to confusion. If there are unre-
alistic timelines to achieve the task that has been set for them, laziness or disinterest
may set in and interfere with performance. Employees often value having the
authority to make decisions within their accountability limits in relation to the tasks
they perform. If not, continually seeking manager approval could prove demoralis-
ing or create a dependency relationship. In addition, employees need access to all
the resources they require, in a timely manner, to successfully complete the task.
Finally, feedback on task performance needs to be immediate and constructive to
guide correction and improvement. Table 16.2 summarises all these features of the
Job Characteristics Model.
Workplace Constraints
A third way that the coach can work with a coachee to bring about improved perfor-
mance is to look at their perceived and real organisational constraints. Organisations
typically have policies and procedures relating to who has access to what level of
information and resources. Are they followed? What is the consequence of breaking
them? How are they communicated and reported on? Is there a system to let employ-
ees know of any changes? Generic communication systems keep employees and
other stakeholders informed of developments. Who monitors/manages them? Do
these systems work?
Particular factors pertaining to the work environment serve to motivate employ-
ees to perform at their best. The Motivator-Hygiene theory of job satisfaction [17]
concluded that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction. However
these factors, if absent, don’t necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction but rather to no
satisfaction. Motivator factors are those influences which cause the employee to do
more and make a significant contribution to the organisation. Hygiene factors are
Table 16.2 Job characteristics model [16]

• Skill variety—the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities.
• Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable
piece of work.
• Task significance—the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or
work of other people.
• Autonomy—the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the
individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
• Feedback—the degree to which the individual obtains direct and clear information about
the effectiveness of their performance.
those elements that must be present in the work environment for the employee to do
their job. Without these elements, employees either leave or take over the organisa-
tion—chaos reigns. The name ‘hygiene factors’ is used because, like hygiene, their
presence will not make an employee healthier but absence can cause (employee)
health deterioration (Table 16.3).
If any of these factors impact an employee’s ability to deliver optimal perfor-
mance, they may become unmotivated, dissatisfied, and experience stress. The
coach’s role is to help the coachee remove any work-related ‘roadblocks’ to their
progress and performance. If the problem persists, or if a number of team members
are experiencing the same problem, it may be time for the coach to have a confiden-
tial discussion with their manager about how they can improve relationships at
work, alter job design factors, or remove organisational barriers that hinder perfor-
mance. Table 16.4 summaries the signs and possible consequences of job
dissatisfaction.
Continued job dissatisfaction can lead to stress-related symptoms being dis-
played at work. In addition to poor job performance, managers may notice a lack of
energy, negativity, social isolation and increased work absenteeism in some employ-
ees. Burnout is the result of constant stress over a period of time during which the
employee feels they have little or no control over their situation and cannot influ-
ence the outcome to relieve themself of that pressure. If untreated, it can lead to
emotional exhaustion, reduced resistance to physical illnesses, and mental illness
Table 16.3 Motivator and hygiene factors

Motivator factors Hygiene factors
• Achievement • Organisation policy and administration
• Recognition • Supervision—technical
• Work itself • Salary
• Responsibility • Supervision—personal
• Promotion • Working conditions
• Growth
Table 16.4 Signs and consequences of job dissatisfaction

Signs of job dissatisfaction Consequences of job dissatisfaction
• Fatigue • Withdrawal behaviours
• Headaches • Lateness
• Sweating • Turnover
• Mental health • High performers
• Turnover • Low performance (functional turnover)
• Longevity • Early retirement
• Absence • Absenteeism, which depends on:
• Grievances – Motivation to attend, and
• Poor performance – Ability to attend
• Sabotage
• Not meeting deadlines
from which they may never completely recover. Family life may suffer as a conse-
quence of poor job performance/attendance/dismissal and consequent financial dif-
ficulties. From a personal perspective, the employee may suffer sleeplessness,
experience anxiety attacks and increased heart rate, possibly leading to excessive
smoking, drinking or depression. In these instances, the coach recommends referral
to a medical practitioner. Medical examination may reveal high blood pressure and/
or high cholesterol which could possibly lead to more serious consequences.
To restore an employee’s motivation and satisfaction at work, the coach engages
with the coachee to identify the stressors they experience at work and what triggers
them in the first place. Self-awareness is important so that the employee, as a result
of the coaching, is able to behave differently next time in relation to the stressor. It
is just as important to identify the positive triggers that will motivate the coachee to
perform well. These are the powerful forces that keep individuals striving to do bet-
ter. Identifying these triggers and being able to manage them maturely makes all the
difference to how an employee operates in the workplace and the degree to which
they can regain optimal performance. When the factors leading to their under-
performance have been identified, the coach helps coachees develop strategies to
deal with these stressors one at a time, until the desired performance level is
regained. Table 16.5 summarises categories of stressors and indicators of stress that
may be experienced in the workplace.
Table 16.5 Categories and indicators of stress in the workplace

Categories of stressors Indicators of stress
Intrinsic to job • Poor physical working conditions
• Work overload
• Time pressure
• Physical danger
Role in organisation • Role ambiguity
• Role conflict
• Responsibility for people
• Conflicts regarding organisational/divisional
boundaries
Relationships at work • Poor relations with manager, supervisor or colleagues
• Difficulties in delegating responsibilities
Career development • Promoted beyond competence
• Passed over for promotion
• Lack of job security
• Thwarted ambition
Organisational structure and • Little or no participation in decision-making
culture • Restriction on budget, access to information
• Office politics
• Lack of effective consultation
Positive psychology research builds on findings from traditional psychology in rela-

tion to the factors that motivate and influence employees at work and contribute to
job satisfaction. These studies add understandings of how employees can experi-
ence greater happiness and satisfaction at work and increased levels of self-
confidence, self-esteem and wellbeing when they use their strengths and expertise
to self-manage their performance. Key concepts from positive psychology research
that inform contemporary coaching practice are those of psychological capital, pos-
itive work environment, positive organisational behaviour, and positive scholarship.
Performance coaching as we know it today is focused on helping employees who
are reasonably well-functioning in their role do even better and achieve their poten-
tial. In contrast to the traditional approach which required the coach to ‘fix’
employee deficits, performance coaching from a positive psychology perspective
focuses on ways to fully utilise the employee’s strengths and discover what’s going
right that they can improve on. It is a developmental process in which the coachee
learns more about themself and how they can unleash their potential for their own
and the organisation’s benefit. The coach recognises that there are a number of other
factors affecting performance in the workplace that the coachee has no control over.
Hence, before coaching commences, they meet with the manager to identify the
factors that may be preventing the employee from achieving the goals that have
been set for them in their role. Coaching is then conducted to improve the coachee’s
performance in their role over a specified period of time, usually between a few
weeks and 1 year [18, 19].
Coaching for performance improvement often addresses both ‘people’ and ‘task’
issues as they are raised by the coachee or indicated by their manager prior to coach-
ing commencement. Personal issues may also be addressed during the coaching,
such as ways to communicate more effectively, improve interpersonal effectiveness,
or manage stressful situations. The work-related ‘pain points’ that coachees experi-
ence in relation to their performance may involve concerns such as relationship
issues with their manager or colleagues which may lead to interpersonal conflict;
inadequate requisite knowledge, skills, information or resources to competently
perform in their role; overwhelming demands on their time and level of expertise;
and pressures relating to lack of information, blurred boundaries or unrealistic
workload expectations. The coach’s role is to help coachees resolve the work barri-
ers that are causing them distress and identify any organisational barriers that they
may need to raise for discussion with their manager.
Positive Work Environment
A significant way to increase an employee’s motivation at work is by creating a

positive work environment which supports individual strengths and values individ-
ual differences and diversity [20]. In a positive work environment, conflict is
handled constructively. It is acceptable to display emotion since positive emotions

may assist organisations ‘avoid stagnation and achieve harmony, energy, and per-
haps even prosperity’ [21]. In a positive work environment, the number of positive
experiences outweighs the negative experiences. The workplace is psychologically
safe, that is, there is a sense of personal security and safeness, colleagues can be
trusted, and personal boundaries are not crossed [22]. Employees feel a sense of
purpose and belonging and that their work has meaning. As a result, employees are
more highly engaged and committed to ‘going the extra mile’. They welcome the
opportunity to contribute to the organisation’s vision, mission, values and goals.
They feel emotionally connected to something or someone in the organisation.
The manager is responsible for shaping the working environment to support job
satisfaction and productivity. When contemporary work practices are put into place
within teams, employees are motivated to engage in work activities to the best of
their ability. Realistically however, because of individual differences and prefer-
ences, it is impossible to provide work conditions that suit all employees. The APA
has recommended that ‘organisations can become healthy by incorporating health
promotion activities, offering employee assistance programs, having flexible bene-
fits and working conditions, treating employees fairly, and offering programs for
employee development, health and safety, and the prevention of work stress’ [23].
Psychological Capital
Performance in the workplace has been shown by a number of studies to be strongly

linked with the concept of psychological capital [13, 24, 25]. Psychological capital
is the store of psychological resources that an individual has built up over time to
reinforce and maintain their psychological health and wellbeing [26]. It has been
defined as ‘an individual’s positive psychological state of development character-
ised by: (1) having confidence (efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to
succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about
succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering towards goals and, when neces-
sary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by
problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience)
to attain success’ [27]. Hence, psychological capital is a multidimensional, abstract
construct [28] which is relatively stable over time [29].
Psychological capital has been linked with employee psychological wellbeing
[30] which is defined as a relative presence of positive feelings and emotions com-
bined with a relative absence of negative feelings and emotions [26]. It is a subjec-
tive experience in which individuals are ‘well’ to the extent that they believe they
are, although their feeling of wellbeing may fluctuate over time. The positive rela-
tionship between psychological capital and employee wellbeing strongly suggests
that organisational interventions geared to developing efficacy, optimism, hope, and
resilience may lead to more psychologically healthy employees [26].
Psychological capital has been found to be a key predictor of performance [31,
32], even better than individual factors such as self-efficacy, resilience, optimism,
and hope [13]. It has been positively related to problem-solving [33], innovative
behaviour [34], and task focus [35]. Employees with high psychological capital are
more emotionally invested in their work and experience more positive emotions at
work [36], exhibit increased authentic and transformational leadership ability [20,
37, 38] and adaptability to organisational change [39], and are more committed to
the organisation and remain longer [40, 41]. They express a greater sense of wellbe-
ing, satisfaction and enthusiasm for work, and experience an elevated quality of life
[42–46]. Psychological capital has been found to significantly mediate and moder-
ate the effects of emotional labour strategies on job burnout [47]. Collective psycho-
logical capital has been found to significantly relate to group performance [48].
Positive Organisational Behaviour
The positive psychology movement led to a resurgence of interest in positively-

oriented micro-organisational behavioural studies with a focus on individual posi-
tive strengths and psychological capabilities. It introduced the concept of positive
organisational behaviour which has been defined as ‘the study and application of
positive oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be
measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in
today’s workplace’ [49]. The focus of positive organisational behaviour is on state-
like strengths that can be developed, rather than on fixed, trait-like characteristics
and virtues [50]. Researchers in this area seek to identify the role of organisational
climate and HR practices such as selection, socialisation, and norms in fostering
authenticity, continuous self-improvement, and sustained performance [51].
Positive Scholarship
Positive scholarship is the overarching term applied to all categorises of research

relating to positive psychology [52]. Positive scholarship researchers take an empir-
ical approach to exploring collective and organisational concepts such as social
responsibility, positive leadership, positive inclusion, positive relationships, posi-
tive change processes, positive emotions, empowerment, and thriving [52, 53]. In
positive organisational research, the focus is less on individual traits and subjective
states [50] and more on positive institutions and communities at both micro- and
macro- organisational levels. Research findings may assist organisations develop a
safe, positive work environment which stimulates individual and organisational
transformation.
Positive organisational researchers recognise the competitive nature of the busi-
ness environment, often characterised by unrest, conflict, self-serving behaviours,
and a ‘winning at all costs’ attitude. Instead, they choose to focus on elements of
organisational environment that research has identified as leading to job satisfac-
tion, improved performance, and positive work environments. They recognise that
employees today want to be surrounded by managers and colleagues who show
appreciation, demonstrate collaboration, and foster fulfilling social relationships

[54]. Employees seek a compassionate workplace [55] in which aspirational state-
ments complement and align with bottom-line indices. Both hard and soft measures
of performance are evaluated as legitimate forms of success. A positive scholarship
framework organises findings from current research on positive states, outcomes,
and generative mechanisms in individuals, organisations and societies. The frame-
work categorises individual and collective strengths into attributes and processes
which generate insight into how strengths enable goodness, generativity, growth,
and resilience to promote human flourishing [56].
Coaches who conduct ‘pure coaching’ are able to coach anyone, anywhere, any-
time, to help them achieve their goals. However, in an organisational setting, when
a performance issue needs to be resolved, this is called ‘performance coaching’—a
situation in which there is a pre-determined agenda and outcomes that meet organ-
isational needs as well as individual needs. The need for individual performance
coaching may have been recognised as a result of deficits identified in a perfor-
mance review [19]. Positive psychology coaching takes a broader, strategic approach
to individual performance, dealing not just with performance improvement but also
with ways that the coachee can develop personally and professionally in their cur-
rent role and in preparation for future roles.
Contracting
The first step in coaching for performance improvement is to ascertain the appropri-
ateness of coaching to resolve the performance issue. The coach meets with the
coachee’s manager to clarify that the coaching program will not be addressing any
performance or disciplinary issues that may lead to dismissal. Rather, these serious
issues should be referred to the HR function where they can be appropriately
addressed. Instead, contemporary coaching for performance improvement is con-
ducted with employees who are not currently performing to their potential. The aim
is to assist the coachee lift their performance from ‘middle-of-the-road’ to higher-
level performer where their skills are fully utilised and their potential fully realised.
To develop an understanding of where the coachee is now, the coach gathers
evidence of the manager’s concerns in relation to the coachee’s performance based
on observations of their work and evaluation against performance expectations.
Discussing the evidence for coaching is particularly important when the employee’s
performance is inconsistent with expectations given their potential. Valuable
employees may need nurturing to retain their talent within the organisation. The
manager is pressed to provide evidence that a performance issue exists by asking
questions such as the following:
What exactly is the problem? e.g.:

• Key project ran over-time and over-budget.
• Investors concerned about loss/reduction in anticipated returns.
• May have to go back to the market for additional funding.
How do you know there’s a problem? What’s the evidence? e.g.:
• Three months behind in project targets and deadlines.
• Investor meetings characterised by intense/heated discussions.
• Spending overruns of 20%.
What’s your assessment of the employee’s coaching needs? e.g.:
• How to meet targets and deadlines as per the project plan.
• How to respond to investors in a way that alleviates their concerns.
• How to manage the project budget to bring it in on target.
Once these facts are ‘on the table’, the coach is able to determine if the issue is
broader and requires a different form of intervention such as training in a specific
skill or access to certain resources.
Data Collection
Next, if not already revealed, the coach shares with the coachee the hard and soft
baseline data taken from their position description KPIs as well as the average of,
say, five soft data items collected from say, eight, multi-rater reviewers supported by
summarised rater comments as appropriate. The coachee may provide additional
information and share any goals they would like to achieve.
As the coaching proceeds, progress towards goal achievement is recorded by the
coachee and monitored by the coach. If a dashboard software program is used, the
coach will have immediate access to actions taken by the coachee as they occur.
Alternatively, the coachee can forward a weekly email to the coach as proof of prog-
ress. At least twice during the coaching period, the coach meets with the manager to
ascertain their views on how the coaching program is proceeding. The key is to
schedule the meetings as the need, target, or goal dictates and to be flexible with
these arrangements if other pressing matters take priority.
Conducting the Coaching
In an organisational setting, coaching for performance improvement follows the

©AIPC Organisational COACHing model outlined in Chap. 15. Coach, coachee
and client (manager) agree on the goals to be achieved from the coaching program,
making sure they are SMART [57]. The goals should relate to key areas of the
coachee’s responsibility in their role, taken from their position description. If there
are numerous goals, these are prioritised and action planned over several sessions.
Agreement is reached on expectations of performance standards and the indicators
by which the client will know that the coaching program has been successful. Before
the coaching begins, it should be agreed who is the best person to monitor the
coachee’s performance over time. Usually this is the manager’s role but, on occa-
sions, some other person may be the best person to report on progress, for example,
an assigned mentor or a supervisor of the new knowledge or skill. The coach should
not accept an active supervision role.
During the coaching program, coaches may discuss with managers a range of
strategies that they can use to motivate their employees to maintain or improve their
performance including recognising good performance when it occurs, reviewing
performance regularly so that it can improve, and rewarding excellent performance
in ways that employees appreciate. Recognition for excellent work may take various
forms ranging from a smile or nod of the head, through to a public announcement in
front of the whole staff, with a range of reinforcing behaviours in-between such as
positive feedback, certificates, mention in the staff newsletter, etc. When recognis-
ing and rewarding staff for a job well-done, it is important for the manager to
remember that reinforcers are unique to each individual. What works to reinforce
the behaviour of a socially-oriented individual will not be effective with an employee
motivated by achievement. Rewards must be clearly related to controllable behav-
iours—things that can be seen, observed, or measured. For example, it is not suffi-
cient for an employee to tell their manager that they have completed the task; they
must hand them the final report at the same time. The timing of rewards is very
important. Not only should they be linked to a specific task or outcome, but the
reward must be presented as soon as possible after the event to be most effective. In
this way, the behaviour will tend to be repeated. After a while, once the new behav-
iour is established, the reward can be presented less frequently—enough times for
the employee to continue behaving in this way.
Although usually conducted in an organisational setting, in some instances an
individual may approach an external coach for assistance. For example, their man-
ager may have let them know that they are considered to be under-performing and
their job may be threatened. Hence, they may contact an external coach to help them
come to terms with their situation and gain coaching on how to turn the situation
around. The coach’s role is to support the coachee return to their former perfor-
mance so that their manager regains confidence in their ability to perform well in the
role, and their livelihood is no longer threatened. In this case, the manager would
not be involved in the private coaching arrangement.
Evaluating the Coaching
Finally, the coach is encouraged to conduct both formative and summative evalua-
tion of the coaching program to ensure that the coaching remains ‘on track’ and that
the desired outcomes are achieved. In the extreme, if trust wanes between the
coachee and their manager, this may indicate that the psychological employment
contract has been broken. The job may no longer hold meaning and purpose for
them, and they may no longer be able to commit to performing their best. The
coachee may feel under-valued and under-appreciated and unable to subscribe to
the organisation’s ideological perspective. The affective component of belonging to
a team and being able to count on the team for emotional support and assistance
may also have been broken [58]. With these cumulative feelings, the coachee may
no longer desire to work in that division or even within that organisation. When this
occurs, it’s time for them to look elsewhere for a position that better suits their needs
and supports their career aspirations.
In summary, coaching for performance improvement involves ascertaining the
coachee’s motivation for performing well in their job, taking into consideration
organisational factors that support or hinder performance improvement, and apply-
ing positive psychological factors that cement the coachee’s intentions to do better
at work. The coaching process cycles through stages of contracting with the
coachee’s manager, getting clear on performance expectations and standards, and
monitoring progress to verify the success of the coaching program. Employees who
feel valued and supported will improve their performance and remain longer in the
organisation.
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Chapter 17
Coaching for Leadership Development
This chapter addresses how coaching for leadership development has evolved from
traditional models of management which relied on reward and punishment tech-
niques and command-and-control practices, to be based on transformational models
of leadership. The emergence of emotional intelligence highlighted the importance
of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social skills in effective
leadership practices. Management skills are still required in organisations to plan
and budget, organise and staff, control and problem-solve and stabilise the business.
However, research has identified that effective leadership practices require manag-
ers to also establish direction, align people, motivate and inspire employees, and
produce change. To assist managers develop these contemporary leadership prac-
tices, coaching has been identified as a valid developmental intervention. Manager
as Coach programs are increasingly being introduced into organisations to assist
managers change their traditional management style into a coaching leadership
style. Coaching may be delivered either formally by HR professionals or leaders
who have trained to become a fully qualified coach, or informally by managers and
peers who use coaching skills to conduct coaching, feedback or corridor conversa-
tions with their direct reports.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for leadership development is con-
ceptualised, the motivations for leadership development, the individuals who are the
recipients of coaching for leadership development, and how it is delivered in an
organisational setting.
The theoretical basis for leadership development was derived from the findings of
psychology, education and management research. Traditional behavioural psychol-
ogy identified the traits and behaviours of managers and later, the characteristics of
240 17 Coaching for Leadership Development
those who adopted a transformational leadership style. Cognitive behavioural psy-

chology revealed the emotional competencies that managers need to acquire to
motivate and inspire their direct reports. Positive psychology research has recog-
nised coaching as a valid developmental approach to transform managers into lead-
ers. Coaching can be conducted formally in scheduled sessions or informally as
coaching, feedback, or corridor conversations. The motivation for leadership coach-
ing is for organisational leaders to become more inspiring and motivational, coach
their direct reports, model coach-like behaviours, and adopt a coaching leadership
style. The recipients of coaching for leadership development are existing managers
or leaders who want to become more effective in their role, have been newly
appointed to their role, or seek promotion into a senior role. Delivery of leadership
coaching may be by internal or external fully qualified coaches, or by HR profes-
sionals or line managers trained in coaching skills. Increasingly, team leaders at any
level of the organisation may receive leadership development coaching especially if
they are talented individuals destined to be included in the organisation’s succes-
sion plan.
Coaching for leadership development is “about helping leaders to identify and
define their specific goals, then organise themselves to find a way to attain them” [1]
so that they may become a more effective leader [2–4]. With its focus on work-
related issues [5], leadership coaching has become the most common form of coach-
ing in organisations today and its prevalence continues to rise [6, 7]. Coaching for
leadership development is the formal, in-person, collaborative relationship between
a coach and coachee which promotes and supports the leader’s growth and develop-
ment [8]. When skills enhancement is required, a combination of interventions such
as individual coaching and training is most effective [9–12]. Leadership coaching
affects cognitive and behavioural change to translate individual learnings into team
learning. Shared group-level beliefs support the implementation of change efforts
[13]. Sustained change is achieved when the leadership coaching satisfies employee
needs for autonomy, relatedness and competence [14]. The coach and coachee col-
laborate to assess and understand the coachee’s needs in relation to their leadership
development tasks. The coach challenges current constraints and explores new pos-
sibilities. The coachee is responsible for taking action but both are accountable for
getting results [15].
Early theories of management were based on the traits of managers and the behav-
iours they exhibited in certain situations. Thereafter, researchers investigated man-
ager’s concern for production (task-orientation) as opposed to their concern for
employees (people-orientation). Managers with a task focus concentrated on
designing tasks and reward structures, driven by the need for power and control,
reward or punishment. Under this regime, employees performed but were largely
disengaged, unmotivated, and dissatisfied. Later theories of management
investigated styles which have an equal focus on task and people, conditions of
work and how these conditions contribute to a more productive workforce, as
explained in the next few sections.
Trait Theories
Traits research investigated the characteristics and qualities of managers in the per-
formance of their role [16]. The belief was that effective managers share a number
of common personality characteristics or traits such as integrity, empathy, assertive-
ness, good decision-making skills, and likability. While trait theories helped to iden-
tify characteristics and qualities that are helpful when managing others, none of
them—separately or in combination—was found to guarantee success as a manager.
Since traits are the external representations of an individual’s innermost assump-
tions and beliefs, researchers now know that it’s these mental thoughts and pro-
cesses which are more important to understand than traits when coaching employees.
After trait research, attention turned to investigating manager behaviours. What is it

that managers do to be successful? How do they behave in relation to their team?
Building on the work of Pavlov [17], Watson [18] and Skinner [19], Autocratic-
Democratic theory [20] proposed three types of managers:
• Autocratic managers are those who make decisions without consulting their
teams. This style is appropriate when decisions need to be made quickly, when
there’s no need for team input and when team agreement isn’t necessary for a
successful outcome, as well as in emergency situations that threaten life and limb.
• Democratic managers are those who encourage team members to provide input
before making a decision although the degree of input can vary from manager to
manager. This style is important when team agreement matters but it can be dif-
ficult to manage when there are differing perspectives and ideas.
• Laissez-faire managers are those who are reluctant decision-makers. They pre-
fer others to make the decisions. This approach works well when the team is
highly capable, highly motivated, and doesn’t require close supervision.
Reluctant decision-making behaviour can arise because the manager doesn’t
accept responsibility for the team, is not held accountable for the team’s out-
comes, and is generally lazy or distracted—all of which may result in disastrous
consequences.
The overall conclusion of behavioural researchers was that none of these three
styles could be consistently applied to all work situations.
A second body of researchers began investigating groups of behaviours. The
Managerial Grid [21] identified two important manager variables—concern for pro-
duction and concern for people. The model proposed five different management
styles based on these concerns: country club, team, organisation man, impover-
ished, and authority-obedience management. Two other management styles were
added to the grid later on-opportunistic and paternalistic. These researchers found
that the most effective managers were those with behavioural flexibility who could
adopt different behavioural styles depending on their concern for production or
concern for people.
Contingency Theories
A third group of researchers investigated managers’ behaviours by noticing their

reactions in certain situations—a contingency-based approach to management. The
first contingency-based model was called Situational Leadership [22]. It is a classic
framework which links manager style with the maturity and skill levels of individ-
ual team members. The model suggests that there is no single ‘best’ style and that
the most successful managers are those who can adapt their style to the maturity and
skill level of the team or team member they are attempting to influence. Maturity is
defined as the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness and ability to
take responsibility for the task, and relevant education and/or experience of the team
or team member to complete the task. According to this model, performance also
depends on the specifics of the task, job, or function to be accomplished. These
researchers characterised manager styles into four different categories based on the
degree of Task Behaviour and Relationship Behaviour exhibited to followers:
S1: Telling—characterised by one-way communication in which the manager
defines the role of the team and team member and provides the what, how, why,
when and where to do the task.
S2: Selling—the manager determines the direction of the team but uses two-way
communication and provides the socio-emotional support which allows the team
and team members being influenced to buy into the process.
S3: Participating—there’s shared decision-making about how the task is to be
accomplished. The manager displays less task behaviour while maintaining high
relationship behaviour.
S4: Delegating—the manager is still involved in decisions but, because team mem-
bers are skilled and mature, the process and responsibility are delegated to them
to organise the work and get the required results. The manager plays largely a
monitoring role.
Of these styles, the researchers suggested that no one style is optimal for manag-
ers to use all the time since effective managers need to be flexible and adaptable
according to the situation. Styles should be varied in response to different situations
and to meet changing priorities. The manager’s style should also take into account
the differing needs and skills of team members as well as the requirements of the
task and workplace.
A second contingency-based management approach is path–goal theory [23, 24]
which states that a manager’s behaviour is contingent on the satisfaction,
motivation, and performance of their subordinates. Managers need to engage in dif-

ferent types of behaviour depending on the nature and demands of a particular situ-
ation. The manager’s role is to assist employees achieve their own goals as well as
provide the direction and support they need to ensure that these goals are compatible
with the organisation’s goals. The theory proposes that a manager’s behaviour is
acceptable to subordinates when viewed as a source of motivation and one that
rewards effective performance. The original path–goal theory identified four types
of goal-oriented behaviours:
• Directive behaviour, which refers to situations in which the manager lets follow-
ers know exactly what is expected of them and tells them exactly how to perform
the task. This behaviour has the most positive effect when the follower’s role and
task demands are ambiguous and intrinsically satisfying. However, it is not well-
received by mature and skilled employees because it takes away any ability to
use their discretion or autonomy to perform the task.
• Achievement-oriented behaviour, which refers to situations where the manager
sets challenging goals for followers, expects them to perform at their highest
level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. This type of
manager behaviour is well-received by mature and skilled followers.
• Participative behaviour, which involves managers consulting with followers
and asking for their suggestions before making a decision. This behaviour is
effective when followers are highly and personally involved in the work. They
experience a sense of ownership and greater engagement with the outcome of
their work efforts.
• Supportive behaviour, which is directed towards the satisfaction of followers’
needs and preferences. The manager shows concern for their psychological well-
being. This behaviour is especially effective in situations in which tasks or rela-
tionships are psychologically or physically distressing.
These four contingency-based styles are fluid and managers can adopt the most
appropriate style depending on the situation and any particular demands provided
they have the required behavioural and cognitive flexibility to effect these adapta-
tions. The revised version of path–goal theory suggested that managers engage in
behaviours that complement subordinate’s abilities and compensate for their
deficiencies.
A third contingency-based theory is Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) [25]
which proposes that team effectiveness depends on an appropriate match between a
manager’s style and the demands of the situation. The proposition is that situational
control (the extent to which a manager can determine what their team is going to do)
is the primary contingency factor in determining the effectiveness of their behav-
iour. Management style is measured on a Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) scale, an
instrument for measuring a manager’s orientation in relation to subordinates and
others in the workplace. The LPC scale asks a manager to think of all the people
with whom they have ever worked and then describe the person with whom they
have worked least well using a series of bipolar scales from 1 to 8, such as Friendly–
Unfriendly, Supportive–Hostile and Cooperative–Uncooperative. The responses to
these scales are summed and averaged. A high LPC score suggests that the manager
has a ‘human relations orientation’ while a low LPC score indicates a ‘task orienta-
tion’. Managers who are relationship-motivated tend to describe their least preferred
co-worker in a more positive light and rate them higher on the LPC scale than do
their co-workers even though Fiedler theorised that, on average, all co-workers are
about equally pleasant or unpleasant. On the other hand, managers who are task-
motivated tend to rate their least preferred co-worker in a more negative light,
assigning them lower LPC scores. Fiedler proposed that there is no such thing as an
ideal manager because both low-LPC (task-oriented) and high-LPC (relationship-
oriented) managers can be effective if their management orientation fits the situation.
In summary, contingency-based management theories pay attention to the con-
text in which teams and team members operate. The manager’s behaviour is contin-
gent on the satisfaction, motivation, and performance of their subordinates.
Managers’ role modelling of flexible managerial behaviours is critical to team
members accepting that their behaviour also needs to change according to the situ-
ation. Team effectiveness depends on an appropriate match between the manager’s
style and the demands of the situation. Since personality is relatively stable, the
contingency-based models of management suggest that improving manager effec-
tiveness may, at times, require changing the situation by ‘job engineering’ or ‘job
restructuring’ which may increase or decrease task structure and position power.
Training and team development may also be used to improve manager–team mem-
ber relations.
Emergence of Leadership
Shortly after the development of contingency-based theories of management,

researchers began to investigate the construct of leadership as opposed to manage-
ment. James MacGregor Burns [26] investigated the differences between these two
constructs and claimed that they relate to the characteristics and behaviours of the
manager. He introduced the concept of ‘transforming leadership’ in his descriptive
research on political leaders. According to Burns, transforming leadership is a pro-
cess in which managers and followers help each other advance to a higher level of
integrity and purpose. The transforming approach creates significant change in the
life of employees and organisations as it redesigns perceptions and values, and
changes expectations and aspirations. Unlike the traditional management style, the
transforming leadership style is not based on a ‘give-and-take’ relationship between
manager and follower but on the manager’s personality, traits and ability to make a
change through example, as well as their ability to articulate an energising vision
and challenging goals. Transforming leaders are idealised in the sense that they are
a moral exemplar of working towards the benefit of the team, organisation and/or
community. Burns theorised that transforming leadership and traditional manage-
ment styles were mutually exclusive.
Transformational Leadership
Bass [27] extended the work of Burns by explaining the psychological mechanisms
that underlie traditional management and transforming leadership styles. He helped
to explain how transforming leadership can be measured as well as how it impacts
follower motivation and performance. Transformational leaders offer followers some-
thing more than just working for self- or organisational gain. They provide them with
an inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity. In return, followers trust,
admire and respect them, and are willing to work harder than might be expected.
According to Bass, transformational leaders transform and motivate followers through
their idealised influence (a.k.a. charisma), intellectual stimulation, inspirational moti-
vation, and individual consideration. In addition, they encourage followers to initiate
new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and alter the environment to support
success. In contrast to Burns, Bass suggested that leaders can display traditional man-
agement and transformational leadership styles simultaneously [28, 29].
Kotter [30] succinctly defined the differences between management and leader-
ship. He proposed that management is about the logical, ordered things that people
in positions of authority do on a day-to-day basis (the tasks), whereas leadership is
about both the ‘head’ and ‘heart’ considerations (the tasks and people). He outlined
the responsibilities of managers to include planning and budgeting, organising and
staffing, controlling and problem-solving, and stabilising the environment. In con-
trast, he proposed that leadership responsibilities included the ability to establish
direction, align people, motivate and inspire staff, and produce change. Specifics of
these responsibilities are included in Table 17.1. Kotter theorised that leadership
and management responsibilities are not mutually exclusive, that is, for leaders to
be successful they need to be able to perform both sets of responsibilities.
In summary, the transformational leadership style incorporates characteristics of
both management and leadership theory. In a world of rapid change, the focus of
transformational leaders is on managing change so that their organisation can com-
pete in emerging global markets. An inspirational focus is coupled with recognition
of the value of treating employees as people, understanding their needs, and appre-
ciating how much more they can contribute to achieving the organisation’s goals
when motivated to perform. Employee opinions are valued and sought and, as a
result, processes and production changes may be implemented. So, while there is
still a need to think managerially, there is also a need to appreciate the value of get-
ting employees on side, and listening and responding to their valuable ideas and
suggestions.
The expansion of literature and research into workplace coaching since the 1990s
coincides with the growth and demand for coaching worldwide in the last two
decades [31–33]. This growth has led to a diversification in the types of coaching
Table 17.1 Differences between management and leadership [30]

Management responsibilities Leadership responsibilities
Planning and budgeting—establishing Establishing direction—developing a vision
detailed steps and timetables for achieving of the distant future and strategies to deliver the
needed results and then allocating the changes needed
resources necessary to make that happen Aligning people—communicating the direction
Organising and staffing—establishing a by word and deed to those whose cooperation
structure to accomplish plan requirements, may be required to influence the creation of
staffing that structure, delegating responsibility teams and coalitions that understand the vision
and authority for carrying out the plan, and strategies, and accept their validity
providing policies and procedures to help Motivating and inspiring—energising people
guide staff, and creating methods or systems to to overcome major political, bureaucratic and
monitor implementation resource barriers to change by satisfying very
Controlling and problem-solving— basic, but often unfulfilled, human needs
monitoring results vs. planning in some detail, Producing change—often to a dramatic
identifying deviations, and then planning and degree, and having the potential to produce
organising to solve these problems extremely useful change (e.g. new products that
Stabilising—producing a degree of customers want, new approaches to labour
predictability and order, and having the relations that help make the organisation more
potential to consistently produce key results competitive)
expected by various stakeholders (e.g. for
customers, always being on time; for
shareholders, being on budget)
offered by external organisational coaches and internal line managers who coach
[34]. The types of coaching offered within organisations, while often used inter-
changeably [35], have specific characteristics that best serve the groups which are
the target of the coaching. Fundamental to organisational coaching is the desire to
achieve behavioural and performance changes to support productivity improve-
ments [36, 37]. As the benefits of individual coaching started to impact the organisa-
tion, decision-makers began to wonder if individual learnings could be captured at
the team level and better managed by an internal coaching presence such as manag-
ers coaching their direct reports.
Coaching for leadership development encourages organisational leaders to draw
on their inner knowledge, skills, and strengths to help them become more effective
[38–44]. Leaders discover better ways to communicate, problem-solve, make deci-
sions, and build trusting relationships. They develop cognitive agility and emotional
intelligence which motivates and drives them towards changed behaviours and
improved performance. Limiting beliefs and assumptions are replaced by positive,
motivational intentions that result in more optimistic outcomes based on their newly
revealed personal insight. Leaders learn how to become more constructive in their
feedback, resolve conflict more amicably, and promote commitment based on col-
laborative relationships.
Research has examined the impact of coaching on leadership development [38–
44], personality traits [45–47], self-identity [48, 49], compassion [50], and work-
place behaviour [6, 51–54]. Psychological variables are also impacted by coaching
such as metacognition, mental health, and goal attainment [55–61]. Goleman [62]
attracted attention when he released his theory on why emotional intelligence (EQ)
matters more than intelligence (IQ). He identified coaching as one of the four styles
associated with effective leaders and a positive contributor to organisational climate
[63]. Subsequent associations with like-minded researchers saw coaching acknowl-
edged as an area of research to support not only leader development but also the
creation of emotionally intelligent workplaces [64, 65]. Coaching to develop man-
agers’ emotional intelligence soon infiltrated leadership training and graduate man-
agement education programs [57, 65, 66] and shortly thereafter entered the
organisational space [67, 68].
Emotional Intelligence
When the emotional intelligence (EQ) construct exploded into leadership literature
in 2000 [63] it brought into focus the development opportunity for leaders to exam-
ine their behaviour and interaction with others. Emotional intelligence is the ability
to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively and consists of four funda-
mental capabilities: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social
skill. Each capability, in turn, is composed of specific sets of competencies and their
corresponding traits. In addition, Goleman proposed that there are six leadership
styles each of which is associated with different organisational outcomes. The
leader who is emotionally intelligent has mastered the art of utilising each of these
styles as they are appropriate given the situation. Leaders who have mastered four
or more—the authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles—were
found to have the best organisational ‘climate’ (which we now call ‘culture’) for
achieving business performance. Moreover, he concluded that the most effective
leaders switch flexibly between these four leadership styles.
Emotionally intelligent leaders are exquisitely sensitive to the impact they have
on others and seamlessly adjust their style to get the best results. These are leaders
who, for example, can read in the first minutes of conversation that a talented but
underperforming employee has been demoralised by an unsympathetic ‘do-it-the-
way-l-tell-you’ manager and needs to be inspired through a reminder of why their
work matters. Or, an emotionally intelligent leader might choose to re-energise
employees by asking them about their dreams and aspirations and find ways to
make their jobs more challenging. Or, an initial conversation might signal that a
particular employee needs an ultimatum: improve or leave. Few leaders have all six
styles in their repertoire and even fewer know when and how to use them. In fact, as
Goleman and his associates have brought the findings of their research into many
organisations, the most common responses have been, ‘But I have only two of
those!’ and ‘I can’t use all those styles. It wouldn’t be natural’. Such feelings are
understandable and in some cases the solution is relatively simple. The leader can
build a team which includes members who have the important styles they lack.
What Goleman was proposing revolutionised the way people looked at leader-
ship and leaders. Researchers began to notice and observe personal traits that con-
tributed to how leaders operate in the workplace as well as how they interact socially.
The onus was on leaders to become skilled not only in the ‘doing’ part of their job
(producing results) but also in the ‘being’ part as well (more self and other aware,
and socially skilled). Goleman noted that the basis of self-knowledge is self-
reflection—the ability to step back and look at yourself (as if through the rearview
mirror) and at how others view your attitude and behaviour. He encouraged leaders
to self-reflect and utilise the feedback from others to improve their performance and
development both as an individual and as a leader. In addition, he encouraged lead-
ers to identify those situations in which they tend to react rather than act. The sign
of maturity in a leader is their ability to adapt and adopt different behaviours in
response to once-provocative situations. That is how leaders learn.
In terms of its effect on organisational culture, Goleman’s team found that all six
leadership styles have a measurable effect on organisational ‘climate’. Further,
when they looked at the impact of culture on financial results such as return on sales,
revenue growth, efficiency, and profitability, they found a direct correlation between
a positive leadership style and these measures. Leaders who used styles that posi-
tively affected the ‘climate’ had decidedly better financial results than those who did
not. That is not to say that organisational ‘climate’ is the only driver of performance.
Economic conditions and competitive dynamics matter enormously. But their anal-
ysis strongly suggested that ‘climate’ (a.k.a. ‘culture’) accounts for nearly a third of
results—and that’s simply too much of an impact to ignore. Goleman and Cherniss
[65] compared the predominant leadership styles of the times with those found to be
the most effective in promoting a healthy organisational culture and found that
coaching is one of the most effective leadership styles.
Coaching Leadership Style
From a positive psychology coaching perspective, in addition to specific work-

related outcomes required as a result of coaching for leadership development, the
two main personal outcomes desired are that the coachee develops a heightened
level of emotional intelligence and a coaching leadership style. Managers are
encouraged to adopt a coaching leadership style so that, rather than focusing just on
work-related goals and activities, they become more inspirational and motivational
with their staff. When managers adopt a coaching leadership style, they become
leaders who enable and empower their direct reports to improved work performance
and other personally-related outcomes. The result is that employees become more
highly engaged and enthusiastic about their work, use their initiative, and look for
innovative ways of performing in their day-to-day job.
Coaches realise that for leaders to get the most out of their employees, patience,
tolerance, and a supportive leadership style is required. Staff need opportunities to
express their thoughts and feelings and it is the leader’s role to make sure that the
team understands these thoughts and feelings. In addition, individuals need to under-
stand the effects that their behaviour and emotions have on others in the team.
Leaders who role-model self-managing their behaviours and emotions encourage
employees to develop their own emotional intelligence which, in turn, builds pro-
ductive working relationships and maximises workplace engagement.
Employee Engagement
Findings from positive psychology research add to our understandings of how

employee engagement is increased as a result of leadership development coaching
and leaders adopting a coaching leadership style. The research has found that
increased employee engagement correlates with key concepts underpinning positive
psychology as evidenced when the following conditions are present within the team
or organisation:
• Positive leaders: Employees feel empowered by working with leaders who value
their individual strengths, quickly address negative behaviours that may arise in
the team, and create a positive work environment.
• Psychological contracts: The psychological employment contract is no longer
about having a job for life (i.e. a transaction where effort and loyalty is exchanged
for pay and security). It is about the job being important and having meaning—a
defined purpose that the employee aligns with and to which they subscribe—an
ideological perspective. In addition, employees now expect a relational benefit
from work—an affective component that says they can count on their line man-
ager and work colleagues for emotional support and assistance [69].
• Self-determination: Employees now want to have some control over their job,
work environment and career progression [70, 71]. They expect that opportuni-
ties for advancement will be made available to them or, if not, they may look
externally for a position that better meets their development needs. They like to
feel that the work they do is appreciated and will lead to some definite personal
or organisational outcome (e.g. promotion, customer satisfaction).
• Organisational justice: In a litigious society, employees need to know that jus-
tice is done (e.g. in recruitment and selection decisions). In addition, they need
to see that these three forms of justice have been done:
–– Distributive justice: “Who has what?” and “Is that fair?”
–– Procedural justice: “Was the process fair?”
–– Interactional justice: “Were interpersonal interactions fair?”
• Cultural diversity: Managers need to be aware of the different cultural dimen-

sions that individuals in a particular cultural community subscribe to, as opposed
to those present in the wider community.
• Ethical management: Business practices are under increasing scrutiny to ensure
that all employees are treated with respect, the employment experience is posi-
tive, and there is mutual benefit in employment transactions.
Manager as Coach
Managers and leaders play an important role in supporting employee growth and
development [6, 72–75]. They are increasingly being held responsible for many
human resource, career, and developmental practices including acting as mentors,
trainers, and coaches to support team members improve their performance and
advance in their careers [76–81]. Recognising that not all managers would want or
need to become fully qualified coaches, training programs in coaching skills began
to emerge in organisational practice to change the way that managers behave and
interact with their direct reports. These Manager as Coach or Leader as Coach
programs aim to introduce a coaching leadership style into organisations to increase
employee engagement and wellbeing at work [75, 82–84].
The impetus for Manager/Leader as Coach training programs can also be attrib-
uted to the desire of organisations to develop an internal coaching capability rather
than engaging external coaches at considerable expense. Providing internal
employee coaching improves performance more quickly and retains talent as organ-
isations grow and leaders spread the benefits of coaching further into the business to
achieve business targets [36, 85–88]. Organisations are increasingly being encour-
aged to stipulate tangible, measurable outcomes from coaching as a business inter-
vention, to clearly display the benefits of enhanced employee growth and
development on performance outcomes [34, 89].
Coaching has been identified as a powerful intervention to support leadership devel-

opment [42, 90, 91]. It provides immediate feedback to leaders on their perfor-
mance and assists them learn, grow, and develop in their role. Leaders who have had
the experience of being coached may welcome the opportunity to become fully
qualified coaches themselves or to be trained in coaching skills through Manager as
Coach or Leader as Coach programs delivered by the organisation. Thereafter, they
may adopt a coaching leadership style and deliver coaching formally and infor-
mally to their direct reports and others in the organisation.
Formal Scheduled Delivery
When coaching for leadership development is delivered by internal or external

coaches, it follows the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model outlined in Chap.
15. The starting point is the collection of baseline data which may be derived from
the results of a 360° multi-rater commercial assessment instrument plus feedback
from internal multi-rater reviews. The coachee determines which area for develop-
ment they would like to work on first which is usually the one that is of most interest
to them given the 360° feedback or as the result of any special circumstances they
may be experiencing such as moving into a new leadership role. A focus on coach-
ing new leaders to integrate multiple identities—line manager, confidante, trainer,
supporter, coach—highlights the latest developments in the field [92]. Two styles of
leadership coaching—guidance and facilitation—have been reported in the litera-
ture [93].
During coaching, the coach’s role is to challenge the leader’s underlying beliefs,
assumptions, or actions that are not serving them well and assist them make more
appropriate behavioural choices. Opportunities for development are prioritised as
topics for coaching conversations. The goals for the coaching program are identified
and the coaching commences. Leaders who have not been coached before, or who
are reluctant participants in the coaching process, may decide to start slowly and
address a small issue first. Once resolved, trust is established, and even a reluctant
coachee usually decides to become fully involved in the coaching process thereafter.
Each week, the leader records the actions they have taken and may email progress
steps to the coach. Actions that the coachee has taken are reviewed at the beginning
of each coaching session until all their goals are achieved and the coaching program
completed.
Informal Coaching
In addition to formal coaching sessions conducted for leadership development by

fully qualified coaches, a number of informal coaching approaches assist employees
meet their coaching needs. Coaching conversations, feedback conversations, and
corridor conversations may be delivered by leaders trained in coaching skills to
improve employee performance and engagement at work. Peers may also infor-
mally coach others provided they have attended the training. These forms of infor-
mal coaching differ in their purpose but follow the same coaching process, as
explained in the sections below.
Coaching Conversations
Informal coaching conversations support employee personal and professional

growth, and empower coachees to do even better when they direct their energy and
resources to achieving a particular goal [6]. Goal-directed activity not only serves to
improve employees’ performance but also to increase the overall productivity of the
organisation. Coaching conversations can occur at any level of the organisation, for
purposes motivated by the coachee, aimed at driving the business forward even
more quickly towards the achievement of strategic objectives.
Leaders use coaching skills to engage their direct reports in coaching conversa-
tions as and when needed, initiated either by themself or the employee. The focus of
the coaching conversation is driven by the coachee and can cover a range of topics
(except performance, which is called a feedback conversation [see later], or when a
formal coaching session needs to be arranged). Coaching conversations take the
form of the ©AIPC COACH Model but are conducted over a shorter period of
time—even just minutes. The aim of the coaching conversation is to assist and sup-
port direct reports by helping them find an immediate solution to a problem or pro-
vide direction in terms of, say, a particular resource. After each coaching
conversation, the direct report feels that the leader has heard what’s on their mind,
asked constructive questions, and helped them discover the solution by themself.
Peer-to-peer coaching conversations may also be conducted by those trained in
coaching skills.
Feedback Conversations
Feedback conversations are designed to provide immediate feedback on what an

employee is doing well and address the reasons why their performance may not
have delivered as expected. This is an opportunity for an open, honest conversation
without justification or blame, to uncover what went wrong and, together, decide
ways to get the employee’s performance back ‘on track’. A coaching leadership
style supports personal endeavour and learning. It encourages the employee to take
action to correct their performance and make the error ‘one-time’ learning. The
feedback provided allows employees to re-orient, start-over, and move in the right
direction. They now have the information they need to guide their new behaviours
and performance objectives. When leaders have feedback conversations with their
direct reports, the employee’s performance flourishes from the time and attention
the leader has invested in them. Peers trained in coaching skills may also provide
immediate feedback to colleagues based on evidence from observations or experi-
ential learning activities, or in a supervisory capacity.
In a feedback conversation, the leader provides immediate feedback which is
specific and descriptive, without necessarily waiting for a scheduled review. The
evidence for what needs improvement is conveyed and acknowledged by the
employee. The focus is on how things can be changed—to what standard and by
when. Feedback is always constructive. A feedback conversation may also have a
References 253
positive agenda. When an employee does exceptional work, this is the trigger for the
leader to show recognition for their skills, abilities, attitudes, etc. Like all motivat-
ing systems, it is far better to recognise and reward great performance when it
occurs (the positive approach) rather than focus on poor performance (the negative
approach). Leaders are encouraged to actively seek opportunities to notice and
reward good performance on a daily basis with positive feedback.
Corridor Conversations
Corridor conversations address issues or concerns that occur ‘on the run’ to support
employees make quick decisions so they can get on with their work in the most
effective and efficient way. The ‘coach’ (leader or peer trained in coaching
skills) may answer an employee’s question, provide some immediate feedback on
an idea, or check the validity of an approach. These conversations occur naturally,
utilise coaching skills, and are generative and supportive of employees whilst lead-
ing them towards their own solutions. The employee is energised to take the next
step, knows what to do, has a particular course of action confirmed, and is commit-
ted to achieving the new or revised outcome. Ten minutes in the corridor (or a meet-
ing room, or on the plant floor, or in the employee lounge) is where the majority of
corridor coaching occurs with no scheduled agenda. The corridor conversation is
employee-led, and the leader or peer uses their coaching skills to assist the employee
move forward.
In summary, coaching for leadership development has evolved from early con-
ceptions of management into a way for leaders to develop a coaching leadership
style. Leaders who have been coached are particularly amenable to receiving train-
ing in coaching skills, or even becoming a fully qualified coach themselves. Using
coaching skills, they can better assist their direct reports and others in the organisa-
tion achieve performance and developmental goals that move them professionally
forward while also supporting an organisational agenda. Leaders and peers trained
in coaching skills may conduct informal coaching, feedback, or corridor conversa-
tions with others to support their personal and professional learning and growth.
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Chapter 18
Coaching for Executive Development
This chapter focuses on coaching at the most senior levels of an organisation for
executive development. Coaching at senior levels is usually conducted by executive
coaches external to the organisation to improve executive performance, resolve per-
sonal issues affecting their ability to achieve business targets, improve intra- and
inter-personal effectiveness, and align personal aspirations with organisational
expectations. Executive coaching traditionally addresses issues of power, influence,
and decision-making. Contemporary coaching practice also addresses the responsi-
bilities of executives and the competencies they require to function effectively in a
volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous environment. Organisations have
downsized, removed management layers, increased spans of control, and created
cross-functional and virtual teams in efforts to increase shareholder value.
Employees have increased in age range, functional backgrounds, nationality, and
cultural diversity. Global recruitment has enabled sourcing the most talented execu-
tives into senior organisational positions but also presented challenges in terms of
inclusion, acceptance, communication, and team functioning. Coping with these
challenges adds to the essential aspects of an executive’s role and may impact on
their ability to deliver to their potential. The executive coach acts as a co-learner
with the executive and a role model for challenging assumptions and meaning per-
spectives, as well as examining fundamental value judgments and expectations.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for executive development is concep-
tualised, the motivations for executive development, the individuals who are the
recipients of coaching for executive development, and how it is delivered in an
260 18 Coaching for Executive Development
Traditional behavioural psychology research informs how executives have changed

their behaviour over the past two decades, replacing a technical skills-base with
strategic thinking to become more business-like, and transferring their learnings
into leadership effectiveness to achieve business targets. Cognitive behavioural psy-
chology research has informed how psychodynamic concepts such as metacogni-
tion, mental health, and compassion may be translated into effective workplace
behaviour. Other research has informed understandings of personality traits, indi-
vidual differences, employee engagement, goal attainment, power and influence,
and the various ways that strategic decisions can be made depending on their impor-
tance and the degree of employee involvement. Positive psychology research adds
the dimensions of strengths utilisation and an expert orientation rather than control
by authority or power to exert influence on others. The motivation for coaching for
executive development is for executives to become more personally and profession-
ally effective in their role. The recipients of coaching for executive development are
individuals at the senior level who want to improve their strategic thinking and
decision-making skills and ability to become more professionally influential as a
member of the executive team.
Members of the senior executive team usually receive executive coaching auto-
matically when they assume a senior role. Executives are responsible for the perfor-
mance of their division and hence they may need guidance in settling into a new role
(e.g. determining priorities, getting to know other members of the senior team, and
how best to exert their influence within the team). Senior executives make signifi-
cant decisions relating to organisational direction, strategy and goals, strategic busi-
ness targets, organisation positioning, and reputation.
Executive coaching emerged in the 1990s as an intervention specifically focused on

changing the behaviour of middle- and senior-level managers [1]. It has been
described as ‘a helping relationship formed between a coachee who has managerial
authority and responsibility in an organisation and a consultant who uses a wide
variety of behavioural techniques and methods to help the coachee achieve a mutu-
ally identified set of goals to improve his or her professional performance and per-
sonal satisfaction and, consequently, to improve the effectiveness of the coachee’s
organisation’ [2]. Organisations originally engaged executive coaches to address
toxic leadership behaviours [3] by improving executives’ leadership and work per-
formance, their ability to motivate and inspire direct reports and others in the organ-
isation, communicate effectively upwards and across all levels of the organisation,
and build trusting relationships with key stakeholders. Executive coaches were also
engaged in an attempt to ensure that business targets were met.
Research to separate the key factors influencing executive coaching outcomes

from those of psychological interventions identified significant factors as the range
of techniques available to the coach, perceptions of working relationships, coachee
self-efficacy and, most importantly, the coach–coachee relationship [4], findings
which have been subsequently supported in large-scale research [5]. The coach’s
academic background in psychology has been positively related to executive coach-
ing effectiveness as evidenced by increased work performance and coachee self-
awareness [6]. Critical moments in coaching precipitate new realisations which may
appear implicitly or explicitly as the coaching proceeds [7]. Two key areas that are
informed by traditional psychology research and which coaching for executive
development typically addresses are ways that the coachee can become more pow-
erful and influential in the workplace, and how they can make better decisions based
on available data and strategic thinking.
Power in Organisations
Traditional psychology research has addressed the concept of how executives gain
power and influence within organisations. Researchers have investigated the ways
that executives exert power to get things done and the leadership styles that emerge
as a result. The most well-known of these frameworks is French and Raven’s [8] five
forms of power. These researchers defined three types of positional power—legiti-
mate, reward and coercive—and two sources of personal power-expert and referent
(an individual’s personal appeal and charm). Later a third was added—informa-
tional power. This typology suggests that the use of personal power is a better alter-
native to the exertion of command-and-control techniques and proposes that
executives work on building their expert power base (the power that comes with
being a real expert in the job) because this is the most legitimate source of personal
power. Different forms of power affect leadership and workforce success [9], as
explained below.
Legitimate power is held by an individual who occupies a formal, positional role
and has the ability to administer rewards or punishments by virtue of that role.
Employees traditionally obey the executive with an authoritative power base solely
because of their role, position, or title rather than because of their leadership style,
characteristics, or abilities. Reward power resides in executives who have the ability
to grant others the things they desire, or to remove or decrease the things they do not
desire. This type of power is based on the premise that employees are more prone to
do things and do them well when they get something from their efforts. The most
popular forms of reward are offering raises, promotions and recognition. Coercive
power is based on the use of threats, bullying, and even abuse in the workplace.
Often, the coercion includes the threat of being fired or demoted for
non-compliance.
Expert power is held by individuals with specific expertise or skillsets (e.g. doc-
tors, lawyers, teachers). Their power is based on the fact that they know and can do
what others don’t know and can’t do—the ability to provide information,
knowledge, or expertise. As a consequence of their expert power or knowledge, an

executive is able to convince subordinates to trust them. Referent power is attributed
to an executive by an employee who has a sense of personal connection with them
or wants acceptance or approval by them based on a relationship or association with
them. Referent power is commonly held by individuals in political and military
positions although celebrities can be attributed this form of power as well.
Informational power is based on an executive’s potential to utilise facts and rational
arguments to persuade others, manipulate information, or create a power base.
An executive can possess each of the six bases of power to varying degrees.
Formal power bases (legitimate, reward and coercive) have a potentially greater
impact on employees’ immediate behaviour but do not necessarily produce agree-
ment and/or create increased commitment. Informal power bases (expert, referent,
and informational) have a greater capacity to affect overall employee satisfaction
and performance at work. Executives with formal power bases tend to remain in
their positions of authority longer than individuals who rely on informal power
bases because informal power bases are more easily eroded. In general, informal
power resides in the person, formal power in the position.
Politics
Organisational politics refers to those activities focused on acquiring, developing,

and using power and other resources to obtain preferred outcomes in a situation in
which there is uncertainty or disagreement about choices [10, 11]. Such situations
typically arise when resources are scarce, decision-making is unstructured, tasks are
interdependent, and power is unevenly distributed throughout the organisation.
Moreover, there are usually parochial and conflicting perspectives at play.
Negative political tactics employed within organisations include strategies such
as ingratiation whereby a person uses compliments, favours, or social reciprocity to
influence a situation and coalitions where networks are formed with people in pow-
erful positions, to promote a particular cause, or negate another’s stance. Other tac-
tics include the withholding of information, besmirching another’s reputation (e.g.
on social media), and casting doubts on an opponent via underhand means (e.g.
starting a rumour). Politics may be used in the hiring and firing of staff which is why
the recruitment and selection process needs to be transparent. Organisational poli-
tics are evident when selected staff are given developmental opportunities, trans-
ferred to a lucrative position on secondment, or given a new assignment that will put
them in front of senior executives.
To deal with organisational politics, executives need to treat all employees with
respect, set an example by not engaging in power plays, actively confront game
players, and call attention to inappropriate behaviours. In this way, wrongdoings are
brought out into the open for discussion and potential harm is reduced. The influ-
ence of coalitions and cliques can be eliminated by strategies such as job rotation,
transfer, performance management, or dismissal. It is the executive’s responsibility
to ensure that the work environment is supportive of open conversations, collabora-

tive and cooperative, and free from all forms of discrimination and harassment.
Influence
In addition to the use of their positional power, executives may gain greater influ-
ence in an organisation by using their informal power bases (expert, referent or
informational). These methods are generally more subtle and inclusive yet possibly
less reliable than using formal power bases, since they often rely on in-person inter-
action. However, personal interaction can be equally, if not more, effective depend-
ing on the issue and the degree to which the dispute has escalated.
The best way for executives to exert their informal power bases is by learning
and knowing more (becoming an expert), making individual contributions to the
executive team that others are not capable of making (having the necessary informa-
tion or resources), and referring to others who have additional knowledge, access,
or ways to support organisational priorities (referent power). Having information
pertinent to areas of organisational concern may enable the organisation to take the
initiative ahead of competitors in the marketplace. Executives can then support their
staff to influence others by: encouraging, valuing, and rewarding individual and
team effort and contributions; promoting accountability for work undertaken; com-
municating their roles, responsibilities and expectations clearly; and showing posi-
tive acceptance and support for performance improvements [12, 13].
Decision-Making
The second area that coaching for executive development typically addresses to
enable executives become more influential is that of strategic decision-making.
Decision-making in organisations has been informed by traditional psychology
research in terms of both how decisions are made and who makes them. Early
Decisional Balance theory [14] proposed that a simple way to make a decision was
by investigating the pros and cons of choosing one action over another. These bipo-
lar scales allow the choice of different reference points along the continuum result-
ing in different outcomes. An associated way to make a decision, which is still
utilised today, was proposed as using a Decision-Tree [15]. This was a popular
management tool to support “What if?” scenario planning. Starting with a central
question, e.g. ‘Should we recommend the introduction of a new product line into the
market?’, the decision-maker answered ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to the question which sparked
the next question, e.g. (if Yes) ‘At what price?’ The same method continued until a
final decision was made. This is a rational way to determine an outcome based on
all the available facts, since a ‘people’ element is not involved in the decision-
making process.
However, decisions made purely on facts alone may lead to discontent because
of the way they are communicated to employees or the pressures they may put on
employees to execute the decisions. Hence, once decisions are made, communica-
tion processes should be implemented to inform key stakeholders of the decision
and any resulting actions, particularly those which affect significant employee
groups and others both internal and external to the organisation. In this way, support
can be engendered for the changes rather than having the decision railed against.
Two key decision-making processes which executives typically utilise with their
teams and other key stakeholders, consciously or unconsciously, are the Root–
Branch typology and Participative Decision-Making frameworks, as explained below.
Root–Branch Decisions
The Root–Branch typology [16] is a framework used to determine how important a

decision is to make and at what level of authority it should be made. It distinguishes
root, trunk, branch, and leaf decisions by their level of importance. This determina-
tion impacts the level at which the decision is made and the authority the leader at
each level of the organisation has to approve it.
Root decisions are those made jointly by the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and
senior executives with input from many people. They are the decisions that, if poorly
made and implemented, could cause major harm to the organisation and tarnish
relations with customers, suppliers, and key stakeholders. These decisions need the
approval of the senior executive to proceed. Trunk decisions are important because
they may have ramifications for the operation of business processes and systems
including how the organisation interacts with customers. These decisions can be
made one-level down from the senior executive but, because these are significant
decisions, they should be reported on as intended actions before any action is taken.
Branch decisions are those that can be made at the lowest level and acted upon.
However they need to be reported on, on a regular basis—daily, weekly or monthly.
Leaf decisions are those that can be made quickly at the lowest levels. Managers and
staff can make the decision and act on it. There is no need to report on the action taken.
Participative Decision-Making
The second way that executives typically make decisions in organisations is by

involving employees in the decision-making process. Depending on the situation,
Participative Decision-Making [17] may involve employees across all levels of the
organisation. The process is based on consideration of key questions relating to
decision quality, commitment, problem information, and decision acceptance as
well as the degree to which employees can or would like to be involved in making
the decision. A model that illustrates the participative decision-making process is
the Normative Decision Model.
The Normative Decision Model [18] identifies five different decision-making
styles depending on the situation and level of employee involvement. It specifies the
level of authority to make decisions and by whom. Strategic decisions are made by
the CEO and senior executive team [19]. Other decisions may be made on the shop
floor because they are more operational in nature. Some other decisions can be put
to general employees because management is not attached to the outcome, for
example, ‘On what day should our staff awards night be held this year?’ Participative
decision-making may even be used in developing, implementing, and reviewing the
work of the group and the distribution of responsibilities. Table 18.1 explains the
various processes used at each level of decision-making depending on the type of
decision to be made and the degree of employee involvement desired. A modern
version of a participative decision-making process is included in Table 18.2.
Contemporary psychology research has identified executive coaching as one of the

most important approaches to executives’ professional development and a distinct
methodology for creating purposeful positive change in executive and management
populations [20]. Since executives have a major influence on business performance
and organisational sustainability, executive coaching is recognised as one of the key
developmental interventions by which to build executives’ capabilities [21] and fos-
ter managerial flexibility [22]. It may be used to support high-potential executives in
the performance of their role by assisting them improve their performance, develop
more effective executive behaviours, address organisational issues, support broader
organisational initiatives, and enhance business prowess and career [23, 24]. Any
Table 18.1 Normative decision model [18]

Type of
decision Explanation
Autocratic The executive makes their own decision using information that is readily
type 1 (AI) available at the time. This type is completely autocratic.
Autocratic The executive collects the required information from employees, and then
type 2 (AII) makes the decision alone. The problem or decision may or may not be informed
to employees. Employees’ involvement is just the provision of information.
Consultative The executive shares the problem with relevant employees individually, seeks
type 1 (CI) their ideas and suggestions, and then makes the decision alone. Employees do
not meet each other and the executive’s decision may or may not reflect the
employees’ influence. Employees’ involvement is at the level of providing
alternatives individually.
Consultative The executive shares the problem with relevant employees as a group, seeks
type 2 (CII) their ideas and suggestions, and then makes the decision alone. Here the
employees meet each other and, through discussions, they understand other
alternatives. But still, the executive’s decision may or may not reflect the
employees’ influence. So, the employees’ involvement is at the level of helping
as a group in the decision-making process.
Group-based The executive discusses the problem and situation with employees as a group
type 2 (GII) and seeks their ideas and suggestions through brainstorming. The executive
accepts any decision the group makes and does not try to force a particular
outcome. The decision is accepted by the group as the final one.
Table 18.2 Steps in a modern, participative decision-making process

1. General discussion:
• What is the problem/issue? How significant is it? Has it occurred before?
• How does it impact on stakeholder groups e.g. customers, suppliers, shareholders?
• What will happen if we don’t do anything? Will the issue go away? Will it get bigger?
What is the cost of doing nothing?
2. Having decided to do something, gather all relevant information:
• What outcome do we want? (be specific)
• What data is currently available on the issue/problem e.g. how, when, why and where did
the issue start? How fast has it grown? What is the current impact and on whom?
• What has been done to try to resolve this issue or address this problem? With what
outcome?
• What other options are available to achieve the desired result?
• What is the cost of each option? And the impact on stakeholder groups?
3. Make a decision:
• Is this a leaf, branch, trunk, or root decision? Act accordingly to report the decision and/
or take action.
• Given all the relevant information, make a decision.
negative workplace events present opportunities for executives to learn more about
themselves and their work [25]. Executive coaches may also be engaged to assist new
executives as they transition into their role. Key stakeholders who have the power to
influence the delivery of coaching include the executive’s manager, HR profession-
als, and any other executive development professionals within the organisation [26].
Executive coaching involves a highly confidential partnership between an execu-
tive and a coach focussed on resolving intra-personal and inter-personal issues to
achieve organisational outcomes [27, 28]. It is a practical, goal-focused form of
personal, dyadic learning and development for busy executives—a targeted, pur-
poseful intervention that helps executives maintain positive change in their personal
development and leadership behaviour [29, 30]. Through self-awareness and learn-
ing, the coachee undergoes behavioural and performance change which contributes
to individual and organisational effectiveness [27]. The intention of coaching is not
for the coach to take action on behalf of the executive but rather to promote and
support their own learning and change over time [31].
In an organisational setting, executive coaching is characterised by high levels of
content and contextually sensitive information plus input from a number of key
stakeholders all with different motivations and expectations which may directly
affect the coaching outcomes [32]. The coaching typically starts with an initial
needs analysis, contracting, data gathering, coaching, goal-setting, measuring and
reporting results, and transitioning to a more long-term development plan for the
executive in relation to their role [26]. During this time, the coaching relationship is
established, data gathered (about the coachee and the organisational environment),
feedback presented (from observation, assessment, and multisource data), goals set,
and periodic coaching sessions conducted. Finally, the coaching program is evalu-
ated to determine progress toward the original, agreed goals [1]. Professional issues
that executive coaching typically address are those of strategic leadership [33–35],
the development of core executive competencies including strategic decision-
making [19, 36], and talent management [37–40].
Strategic Leadership
Strategic leadership capability is developed when executives understand the respon-

sibilities of their role and possess the competencies to implement them. The respon-
sibilities of an executive leader include:
• Financial viability: to ensure the sustainability of the organisation.
• Advanced technology: to utilise technological advances where practical and
financially viable to do so.
• For-purpose structure: to structure the organisational operations in the best inter-
ests of the business.
• Strategic partnerships: to develop strategic partnerships and collaborative busi-
ness ventures with companies where there is mutual benefit.
• Transformational change: to implement organisational transformation when it is
deemed that cultural change is required to take the organisation forward.
Financial viability of the organisation is the first responsibility of executives—to
make a profit on behalf of shareholders as well as ensure that the business sustains
into the long term. However, financial performance is not the only area that organ-
isations need to focus on for success and sustainability. Kaplan and Norton [41]
turned the spotlight onto four critical predictors of financial success that organisa-
tions need to focus on and measure, when they designed the Balanced Scorecard.
By nurturing all four areas, organisations are more likely to remain profitable and
sustain longer. The four areas are:
• Customers: Are customers satisfied with the product? Did we maintain an effec-
tive relationship with them? Is our brand strong?
• Internal Processes: Are our business processes effective? Are our learning and
development strategies generating innovation? Are we contributing positively to
our community?
• Learning and Growth: Are we developing our human capital? Are we supporting
the growth and retention of our information capital? Are we enhancing our
organisational capital (culture, leadership, teamwork)?
• Financial: Are we providing a competitive return on investment for shareholders?
Knowledge of advanced systems is the second responsibility of executives so that
they can utilise the latest technology where practically and financially viable to do
so. Advances in technology and cloud-based services allow organisations to conduct
business globally. Understanding for-purpose structure is the third responsibility of
executives who need to organise the business in the best interests of the firm. Different
categories of staff have been proposed by Lepak and Snell [42–44] as a typology of
alternate employment arrangements to ensure that organisations have the capabilities
they need available to them at the right cost and at the right time, depending on the
type of expertise they require in a particular category of employee. Developing stra-
tegic partnerships is the fourth responsibility of executives. They arrange strategic
partnerships and collaborative business ventures with companies where there is
mutual benefit, to ensure the organisation remains responsive to competitive condi-
tions and challenges in the external environment. The ability to implement
Fig. 18.1 Strategic
responsibilities of
executives
transformational change programs is the fifth responsibility of executives. They

need to be able to implement organisational transformation when it is deemed that
cultural change is required to take the organisation to the next level (Fig. 18.1).
Executive Competencies
Organisations view executives as a critical resource and exploit their core compe-
tencies for competitive advantage. Executives appreciate the opportunity to learn
new knowledge and skills, and experience greater involvement with the organisa-
tion when engaged in their own development. In the global economy, significant
investment is required for the organisation to derive full competitive benefit from
the development of its executives as its key human capital.
Executives need to think critically about a range of factors operating in the exter-
nal market and strategically position the organisation so that it is at the forefront in
meeting customer needs as well as remain profitable. They also must ensure that the
work employees do is significant and purposive, important and ethical, and brings
meaning to their lives. The core competencies that executives need to possess
include strategic thinking, critical analytical ability, strategic decision-making, cre-
ative and innovative thinking, and ethical and moral judgement (Fig. 18.2).
Fig. 18.2 Core competencies of strategic executives

Strategic thinking [45, 46] is required to determine the direction and strategy of
the organisation. Executives’ ability to monitor and analyse the global market and
identify industry trends is critical to the successful positioning of the business.
Competitor analysis helps to differentiate the organisation’s competitive market
position and create its unique selling proposition relative to other firms.
Critical analytical ability is the second competency an executive needs to pos-
sess [47]. Increasingly, big data is being collected by global firms and authorities.
The ability to interrogate this data and comprehend the trends shaping the business
world is critical to maintaining the performance and sustainability of the organisa-
tion [36, 48]. There are three types of big data. Executives with the capability to
understand and interpret these types of data and how to use this information will
have delivered a substantial competitive advantage to their organisation over their
competitors (Fig. 18.3).
Fig. 18.3 Three types

of data
• Descriptive data analytics is the most basic form, providing a retrospective view
of what happened and laying the foundation for turning data into information. It
asks the question: ‘What has happened?’
• More advanced uses of big data incorporate predictive data analytics (i.e.
advanced forecasts and the ability to model future results). It asks the question:
‘What could happen?’
• Prescriptive data analytics is the top-tier of analytics that leverages machine
learning techniques to both interpret data and recommend actions. It asks the
question: ‘What should we do?’
Strategic decision-making is the third competency an executive needs to possess
[19, 49]. This is the ability to make decisions not just on the current available infor-
mation but on where the organisation is likely to be in the future (based on prescrip-
tive data analytics). For example, manufacturing and production line processes
continue to seek reduced costs and many organisations have moved their operations
into developing nation locations. Research and development is typically continued
in the developed nation, thus ensuring market leadership while gaining cost effi-
ciencies from offshore operations.
Creative innovative thinking is the fourth competency that an executive needs to

possess [50–52]. Innovation is a core business process that significantly contrib-
utes to an organisation’s competitive advantage. Executives must develop and
maintain a culture of enquiry, creativity, and fearless innovation as well as nurture
curiosity and adventure which underpins an innovative, agile and sustainable
organisation.
Ethical and moral judgment is the fifth competency an executive needs to pos-
sess [53, 54]. Ethical leadership is a business imperative. Without the exercise of
ethical and moral judgment, an organisation is at significant risk of imploding.
Executives who misrepresent their organisation’s position to the marketplace, fail to
reveal information material to shareholders, or acknowledge a situation where
wrongdoing has been committed, may be susceptible to allegations of fraud or other
legal improprieties that could cause a significant dent in the organisation’s
profitability.
Talent Management
The third area that coaching for executive development addresses is how coaching
can be used to identify the future career aspirations of its most talented executives
and enhance their short- and long-term prospects within the organisation [55].
Targeted employees typically experience coaching as a rich, holistic developmental
process for releasing their potential [56]. Talent management has become one of the
main strategies to enhance and grow the human capital of an organisation and secure
its competitive advantage [57–60]. One of the most important benefits of coaching
for executive development is the retention of valuable staff within the organisation’s
succession plan [37, 38, 61–64].
Coaching may also focus on the executive’s intentions to remain within the
organisation and how they can become more engaged and committed by developing
their skills and abilities to a level sufficient to allow them to promote into other posi-
tions or opportunities within the business [65]. Executives who receive coaching
appreciate the personal attention that is given to their development and tend to have
extended loyalty to the organisation. Executive coaching can also assist coachees to
reduce stress, interpersonal conflict, and team dysfunction, and re-focus on the
essential elements of organisational success.
Talent management has been investigated across a range of industries [66–68],
professions [57, 62], generational groups [69], and socio-economic levels [70] as an
essential component of the succession planning pipeline [71, 72]. Global talent
management has been increasingly explored in the cross-cultural literature [73–76]
especially in relation to the management of expatriates [77], the search for global
leadership talent [61, 78], organisational success [65, 79], and organisational repu-
tation [80].
Coaching for executive development follows the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing

model outlined in Chap. 15. There are four main personal and professional reasons
for conducting coaching for executive development: intra- and interpersonal effec-
tiveness, to improve the executive’s personal effectiveness in communicating with
and relating to, others in the organisation; executive leadership, to encourage the
executive to adopt a more effective leadership style; strategic decision-making, to
assist the executive improve their strategic decision-making ability; and power and
influence, to assist the executive become more powerful and influential in the organ-
isation. Executive coaching is typically delivered in-person although at times, phone
or virtual delivery can prove to be the best option especially over large distances or
in extreme market conditions.
Intra- and Inter-personal Effectiveness
The first way that coaches enhance executive development is by assisting the execu-
tive become more effective as a communicator. Communicating effectively is an
invaluable skill especially at the executive level when work is so busy and unpre-
dictable. Executives are intent on doing their best in their authority area and it
requires a concerted effort on their part to coordinate the work of their team. If they
know what’s happening in all areas of the business they can also avoid duplication,
confusion and potential team rivalry. Hence, communicating clearly with other
executives as well as with their direct reports is critical to the smooth operation of
the business. Many of the most powerful, influential, and successful people through-
out history became so because they were such artfully persuasive communicators.
Communicating effectively is fundamental to convincing others to develop peak-
performance and achieve the desired organisational outcomes. Executives who
communicate effectively take into consideration the message, medium, and audi-
ence. When these three factors are used to customise the communication, they facil-
itate trusting relationships to be formed.
When communication and relationship skills are lacking, this weakness is often
identified in coachees by evidence of adverse incidents involving the executive’s
direct reports or others in the organisation. Incidents trigger the need for in-depth
assessment of the executive’s interpersonal skills. A 360° assessment may be con-
ducted so that the executive coach can debrief the results with the executive and
coach them into developing more effective ways of behaviours and interacting in a
workplace environment.
Executive Leadership
The second way that coaches enhance executive development is by increasing their
executive leadership capability. Executive leadership is about maintaining the
organisation’s competitiveness and profitability in a globalised environment, pre-
serving its reputation, operating ethically and responsibly, and developing and
retaining talent [34, 35]. Executive leaders must be mobile, flexible, and resilient,
and operate at speed in order to capture market opportunities or fend off possible
threats. However, executives do not always possess these characteristics. In fact, in
the last century, managers were rewarded for being stoic and commanding respect.
They viewed employees as a resource to be exploited. They operated primarily
within a domestic market and were totally outcome-focused, work flows being
determined by the management hierarchy without question.
In contrast, executive leadership today operates in a global market in which tech-
nology has enabled production in all parts of the world, resulting in a diverse work-
force with a greater understanding of their rights and obligations as employees. In
addition, there is increased customer awareness of product quality and pricing,
bringing more competition to bear on organisations to deliver above and beyond
consumer expectations. In a globalised environment, executives must be able to:
manage and operate the organisation ethically and responsibly to maintain profit-
ability and sustainability; lead people so they subscribe to the organisation’s vision
and mission, and work hard to be an intrinsic part of its success; and be a role model
for emotional and social intelligence.
Executives’ ability to manage things and lead people is considerably enhanced
when they have personal charisma forged on a base of emotional intelligence, cou-
pled with the constructive and productive wielding of power and influence.
Executives who are emotionally intelligent possess four fundamental capabilities:
self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social skill [81], each of
which is composed of a discrete set of competencies. Goleman [81] defined six
leadership styles each derived from different components of emotional intelligence.
The styles that most positively influence culture are authoritative (setting direction),
followed closely by affiliative, democratic and coaching.
To coach a non-strategic executive, or develop strategic ability in a newly
appointed executive, the coach debriefs a commercially-available assessment instru-
ment to bring to the executive’s attention the areas they need to concentrate on for
their future development. Then, by providing examples and practice scenarios, they
assist coachees discover their own ways to strategically lead under different
circumstances.
Strategic Decision-Making
The third way that coaches enhance executive development is by assisting execu-
tives develop their strategic decision-making ability. Strategic decisions are those
that affect the financial viability of the organisation and hence its ability to survive
and thrive into the long-term [82]. Strategic decisions are made by the CEO and
senior executive team on behalf of the Board, acting in the best interests of share-
holders and considering all likely scenarios internal to the business as well as in the
external, competitive marketplace. Making a decision within an organisation
involves gathering and organising information relevant to the issue under consider-
ation, determining which stakeholders to involve in the decision-making process
and at what level, and communicating effectively with these stakeholders so they
are or feel involved in the final decision. It is then up to the accountable executive to
take action and measure performance outcomes to gauge the success of the decision
that was made. Executives choose the most appropriate type of decision-making to
determine what to do, depending on the situation in which the organisation finds
itself and the degree of consultation they wish to engage in—decision balance/deci-
sion tree, root–branch–trunk–leaf, or participative/normative decision-making.
Power and Influence
The fourth way that coaches enhance executive development is by increasing their
power and/or influence within the organisation. At the executive level, power derives
from control over a resource, technical skill, or body of knowledge that is critical to
the organisation’s functioning. The executive’s role is to remain vigilant to possible
threats and opportunities in the external environment and create responsive scenar-
ios for consideration by the senior executive team. At a divisional level, the execu-
tive’s power increases to the extent that their division solves problems for other
areas of the business. For example, their division may use coping approaches that
cannot be duplicated elsewhere in the organisation. It may maintain strong organisa-
tional communication links and networks internal and external to the organisation.
It may perform tasks that are so essential to organisational success that major dis-
ruptions to workflow occur if these tasks are not completed. Hence, the most power-
ful divisions within an organisation are those which manage the critical
contingencies—the sources of uncertainty—in the external environment.
The executive may increase their formal power base by promoting into a more
senior position or being seconded to a project of importance. Their informal power
base may be boosted by gaining knowledge or skills which expand their expertise,
associating with colleagues in more powerful positions, or gaining access to infor-
mational sources that can provide or deliver business outcomes more quickly or at
less cost. To coach an executive who uses a command-and-control style with
employees, the coach relies on evidence of the impact of such behaviour in the
workplace. Evidence may be accrued from staff complaints and, in serious situa-
tions, from employee voluntary exits. The coaching session is conducted tentatively
at first, presenting the evidence and asking for the executive’s explanation of events.
In the extreme, the support of a higher-up executive may need to be secured to bring
home the seriousness of the situation and break down any resistance to change. The
executive may simply be behaving as they have always done and been rewarded for
in the past. However, in a positive work environment, coercive behaviours are
unacceptable.
In summary, an executive’s effectiveness is facilitated by developing their intra-
and inter-personal skills so they better communicate with colleagues and establish
stronger, professional relationships in the workplace. Professional effectiveness is
enhanced when coaching supports executive development and improved strategic
decision-making ability. Embracing an expert powerbase gives an executive the
credibility they need to influence others to accept their point of view. The upsurge
of coaching for executive development is aligned with the emergence of transforma-
tional and systematic change in corporate settings.
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Chapter 19
Coaching for Organisational Learning
This chapter explains how the learnings from individual coaching can be harnessed
at the collective, systemic level to inform and support organisational learning.
Organisational learning enables organisations to adapt and transform in response to,
or in anticipation of, change. Early explanations of how organisations learn were
based on individual learning principles. Later conceptualisations highlighted sys-
temic ways of thinking and doing that were transformative beyond individual learn-
ing and resulted in organisational learning. As individuals learn, they enact new
behaviours which others intuit, interpret, integrate, and institutionalise at the organ-
isational level. New knowledge is acquired or created, distributed and integrated
among organisational members based on individual learnings. Collective learning is
captured by the enculturation of individual learnings through shared behaviours,
rituals, systems and procedures which become entrenched in the organisation.
Organisational learning can also occur as the result of exploratory and exploitative
innovation in the workplace.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for organisational learning is concep-
tualised, the motivations for organisational learning, the individuals who are the
recipients of coaching for organisational learning, and how it is delivered in an
Traditional behavioural psychology research supports the enacting of new behav-

iours surfaced through coaching. Cognitive behavioural psychology evokes indi-
vidual cognitions which transfer new learnings into new or revised organisational
procedures, policies and processes via feed-forward cycles. Social psychology
research reveals that individuals socialise new behaviours and cause the assimila-
tion of new learnings across group and organisational levels. Positive psychology
280 19 Coaching for Organisational Learning
research has found that changes in mental models result in the transfer of individual
learnings into the collective conscious. The motivation for coaching for organisa-
tional learning is to harness collective learning to develop human capital and
improve policies and procedures, business process and systems, thereby gaining
competitive advantage for the organisation. The recipients of coaching for organisa-
tional learnings are executives who want to capture and maximise the outcomes of
collective learnings in their area of responsibility. Coaching for organisational
learning is typically delivered by external executive coaches.
Interest in organisational learning was stimulated by Peter Senge [1] in his seminal
book: The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organisation. Based
on the belief that the top-heavy, hierarchical prevailing system of management had
destroyed people, Senge sought to re-balance organisations by harnessing the col-
lective genius within them to establish an integrated system of generative learning.
Within such a system, leaders adopt new roles as designers, teachers and stewards
who create a tension between the organisation’s vision and the current reality,
develop a shared vision based on communication and support, blend intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation, and balance inquiry and advocacy to test mental models which
identify espoused values as opposed to values-in-use [2]. In a learning organisation,
employees are responsible for their own learning, leaders are responsible for con-
tinually expanding the capabilities of their direct reports by breaking the traditional
authoritarian command and control hierarchy to merge thinking and acting at all
levels [3], and the organisation is responsible for recognising the emotional, social
and political context in which learning takes place [4].
Early explanations of how organisations learn were based on individual learning
principles which underpin the coaching process [2, 5]. In a workplace setting, the
coach invites the coachee to critically reflect and identify a disorienting dilemma
and then addresses the resulting discontent to evoke learning [6]. Coaching practice
delivered across all organisational levels transforms individual learnings into trans-
formative, behavioural change. Organisational learning enables organisations to
adapt and transform in response to, or in anticipation of, change [7–9]. It is a pro-
cess ‘whereby individual learning is shared at an organisational level … [to achieve]
organisational goals’ [10]. The process acquires or creates, distributes and integrates
knowledge among organisational members based on individual learnings [11, 12].
The intentional use of learning processes such as coaching builds the organisation’s
capability to integrate and apply knowledge to create new markets and niches, sus-
tain its competitive advantage, and achieve organisational success [13–15].
Later conceptualisations of coaching highlighted systemic ways of thinking and
doing that were transformative beyond individual learning and resulted in organisa-
tional change. Researchers came to understand that, at the collective level, learning
takes place through individuals whose actions are based on shared models of values
and expected behaviours, transmitting and integrating them into practices [2]. They
also discovered that collective learning is the result of developing socially con-
structed cultural elements such as rituals and stories. Commonly held values and
beliefs create negotiated roles and norms as by-products of the enculturation and
socialisation process [16].
When organisational learning is ‘beyond language’ and ‘recursive’ [17], triple-
loop learning results from addressing underlying assumptions, beliefs, social
norms, and ‘taken-for-granted’ expectations [18, 19]. Triple-loop learning is the
continual reflection on the learning process, the contexts within which learning
occurs, and the assumptions and values motivating the learning and influencing its
outcomes [20]. This ‘higher-order’ learning extends Argyris and Schön’s single-
and double-loop learning by uncovering underlying purposes and principles [19].
This extension beyond double-loop learning resembles Bateson’s [17] original lev-
els of learning whereby ‘members question and challenge the assumptions about the
existence of the organisation’ [21]. Building a learning organisation is an attempt to
influence and integrate collective learning into the fabric and culture of the organ-
isation [22].
Influential individuals or groups at any level within the organisation, who are
dedicated to building new organisational capabilities such as coaching, can instigate
organisational learning [23]. The processes involved in the transfer of individual to
collective learning have been identified as intuiting, interpreting, integrating, and
institutionalising [24]. Organisational learning is mediated by psychological and
social processes which combine individual cognition and behaviours with the devel-
opment of organisational procedures, policies and processes. Collective learning
occurs when feed-forward cycles assimilate new learning across individual, group
and organisational levels and feedback cycles are based on the use of existing
knowledge [24]. Feed-forward processes include sharing through visioning and the
use of metaphors to articulate commonalities or highlight contradictions which can
be resolved through analogy. Collective learning becomes entrenched in the organ-
isation through shared behaviours, rituals, systems and procedures. Learning also
occurs when organisational members gather, interpret, and apply information from
external sources to promote continuous, proactive, and efficient adaptation to chang-
ing needs and conditions [25]. Collective learning may occur deliberately via con-
tinuous learning at the systemic level [26] or suddenly as the result of major change
through crisis or a threat to survival [27, 28].
There is broad agreement in the academic literature that coaching is an intervention

that can help people achieve their goals and improve performance [29, 30]. Further,
there is clear evidence that coaching cultures promote organisational learning,
adaptability to change and encourage collaborative learning [31]. When organisa-
tional leaders develop and apply coaching competencies, positive psychology
research has found that the benefits to individuals, teams and organisations include
increased motivation, happiness and job satisfaction, improved team communica-
tion, cooperation, knowledge-sharing and performance, all of which result in
reduced staff turnover across the whole organisation [32–34]. Organisational learn-
ing is reinforced through embedding ‘communities of practice’ into regular opera-
tional reviews which impact on organisational policies and procedures [35, 36].
Coaching enables transformation by either controlling (e.g. directing, navigat-
ing, or caretaking) or shaping (by coaching, interpreting, or nurturing) behaviours
depending on whether the change is intended, partially intended, or unintended
[37]. Coaching practice, applied consistently throughout the organisation, achieves
system-wide behavioural and cultural change [38–40], and provides the basis for
collective learning to occur [41, 42]. Coaching can also significantly influence
organisational learning at the cultural level of shared models and assumptions. As a
reflective, goal-oriented approach to achieving professional outcomes, collaborative
learning is valued by both the coachee and the organisation [43].
Mechanisms that translate individual into organisational learning and connect
across organisational levels have been proposed as enacting new behaviours through
the coaching process and embedding collective learning into all levels of the organ-
isation [10]. The first mechanism—‘enacting new behaviours’—involves the learn-
ing of new ideas and actions, understanding the value of procedures yet being open
to other perspectives, and the collective copying of shared new learning. The second
mechanism—‘the coaching approach’—is concerned with understanding the effec-
tiveness of coaching as a learning process, expressly sharing new mental models
about a coaching style of leadership, utilising coaching techniques, and displaying
coaching behaviours. The third mechanism—‘embedding collective learning’—
occurs when leaders understand the coaching process, prioritise new ways of inter-
acting and behaving based on a coaching leadership style, and sustain implementation
of the revised cultural norms. It is at this stage that coaching enables transformation
by shaping intentions and nurturing behaviours to achieve the intended cul-
tural change.
Innovation
Organisational learning can also occur as the result of innovation in the workplace.
Innovation practices inspire employees to create and implement novel or improved
ideas for organisational products, services, and technologies. There are two types of
innovation—exploratory and exploitive. Exploratory innovation refers to the gen-
eration of novel ideas, strategies and solutions through the use of open behaviours
exhibited most often by transformational leaders [44]. The foundation of explor-
atory innovation is characterised by search, discovery, experimentation, and risk
taking [45, 46]. The focus is on generating new ideas, products, and strategies which
build on and extend existing ideas. Exploratory innovation utilises a transforma-
tional leadership style which encourages flexibility, opportunism, and adaptability.
Exploitative innovation occurs when innovative thinking adjusts, revises, or
reframes the product or service already being offered within the marketplace [47].
Different types of leadership styles and behaviours are required at different stages
of the innovation process.
Innovation goes beyond the creation of ‘good ideas’. It necessarily involves the
successful implementation of these ‘good ideas’. There are three stages in the inno-
vation process—idea generation, evaluation and implementation. In the idea gen-
eration process, the executive encourages and promotes a safe environment for team
members to voice novel ideas and original thinking, and provides them with the
resources to do so effectively. Research has found that executives who engage in
unconventional behaviours, often associated with a transformational leadership
style, are seen as stronger role models and as a result, they are able to increase cre-
ative performance in their direct reports [48, 49]. Open leadership behaviours send
the message that unorthodox and unconventional ideas and behaviours are not only
accepted but also encouraged.
The successful implementation of a new process, product, service, or method of
delivery often involves internal organisational change. In particular, executives need
to consider the skills required by those staff implementing the change. Where neces-
sary, transition planning should be conducted to identify, consider, and have solu-
tions for, the changes required in structures, skills and systems. The role of the
executive in the implementation stage is to ensure that transition plans are devel-
oped to progress the project, involve all key stakeholders (both positive and nega-
tive), and communicate with all audience groups so that they are informed to the
appropriate level. As the change plan is rolled-out, the role of the executive is to
monitor the achievement of key milestones and smooth the way to remove any bar-
riers to implementation.
Although it may seem counterintuitive, it is in large organisations which are
continuously searching for improvement—both exploratory and exploitative—that
some of the greatest breakthroughs in processes, systems, and technologies have
been made. These organisations have a stable product but continue to look for even
better ways to do what they do more effectively and efficiently. Much of the drive to
innovate can be attributed to the qualities and characteristics of the executive driv-
ing the innovation agenda as it is they who set the tone and model the behaviours
that they want from all staff. The characteristics of a successful innovation leader
include expertise in the designated area, creativity, the ability to carry out transfor-
mational leadership behaviours, planning, sense-making, and social skills.
Organisational learning is captured by the enculturation of individual learnings at

the systemic, organisational level. Coaching to facilitate organisational learning fol-
lows the ©AIPC Organisational COACHing model outlined in Chap. 15. The
coach’s role is to encourage ‘innovative thinking’ in the executive to initially
stimulate individual learning and then later, assist them discover the most appropri-
ate ways to translate that into systemic learning. There are a number of strategies
that the executive may use to transfer and embed individual learning into collective
learning such as role modelling, evoking innovative practice, and initiating opportu-
nities for change.
Role Modelling
The most influential way that executives can promote organisational learning is by
role modelling implementing their own individual learnings from engaging in pro-
fessional development activities into their everyday work practices. Attendance at
professional development events sends a clear signal to their direct reports of the
importance of keeping up-to-date with their expert powerbase (although for many
executives, there will come a time when their powerbase changes from ‘expert’ to
‘manager’). In addition, the executive may become an active member of a profes-
sional association which supports their key expert or interest area and provides net-
working opportunities. Connections made through these professional avenues are
invaluable in not only reinforcing current industry relationships but also in forging
potential mutually supportive, strategic, knowledge-based or partnership relation-
ships that may later be of considerable benefit to the executive and their organisation.
Innovation
Second, having role modelled their commitment to their own professional develop-
ment, the executive may generate organisational learning by demonstrating support
for innovation and new ways of thinking. During coaching, they may surface a
number of potential opportunities for organisational learning such as implementing
a revised production procedure or designing a completely new product based on the
latest technology. The coach’s role is to assist the executive evaluate each possibility
for its potential gain and risk, using the most appropriate decision-making process.
Coaching conversations assist the executive evaluate the usefulness of each idea and
eliminate those that do not appear viable or aligned with organisational goals. The
outcome identifies the ideas to support and those to discard. The coach can then
work with the executive to prioritise the most promising idea, fine-tune it, and pre-
pare a risk-benefit analysis to present to the senior executive team. Once a decision
has been made to proceed, the executive shifts their focus to communicating the
outcome to their team and other organisational members. During the implementa-
tion process, the coach works with the executive to identify ways that they can best
provide leadership, direction, guidance and support to their team.
References 285
Change Initiatives
The third way that executives can generate organisational learning is by identifying
potential change opportunities in their area of responsibility and also possibly in
other areas which may go beyond their authority but support organisational objec-
tives. For example, executives may identify ways for organisational processes or
systems to become more efficient, thereby saving the organisation time, money and
resources. These new ways of ‘doing’ may be more effective in achieving the organ-
isation’s objectives and better contribute to meeting stakeholder needs. The coach
first encourages the executive to assess the degree of alignment of the potential
change with the organisation’s values, philosophy and strategic objectives. Then,
the coach asks the executive to think about ways that employees may actively par-
ticipate in the change process. Together, they identify and analyse potential barriers
to the change and determine strategies to address identified challenges during the
implementation phase. Ongoing discussion and review of implementation progress
identifies ongoing areas of concern which coaching conversations can be instrumen-
tal in resolving to facilitate progress.
In summary, executives who demonstrate commitment to their own learning and
professional development serve as role models for others to also embrace new
opportunities for learning. During coaching, executives identify ways in which their
individual learnings may be translated into organisational learnings, for example, by
undertaking change projects in their area of responsibility that have significant ben-
efits to the organisation and supporting innovation in all its forms.
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Chapter 20
Coaching for Transformational, Cultural
Change
This chapter introduces coaching as a vehicle for transformational, cultural culture.

It reviews research into organisational culture and details ways that coaching, when
applied consistently throughout the organisation, can be used to communicate,
operationalise and monitor transformations which change the culture of the entire
organisation. Culture refers to the deep structure, normative beliefs, and shared
behavioural expectations within an organisation which reflect, in large part, the val-
ues and behaviours of the senior executive team. Organisational culture informally
coordinates and controls behaviours, actions, and decision-making across the organ-
isation. To implement transformational change, executives set the direction from the
top within a strategic framework and engage the people below. They focus simulta-
neously on the hard (structure and systems) and soft (culture and people) issues.
They plan for innovation and encourage experimentation and the use of ‘risk-free’
zones. Incentives reinforce the changes rather than drive them. Organisations which
invest resources into making coaching a strategic priority during a transformation
and cultural change program reap the benefits by transitioning more smoothly and
quickly to their desired future. The expertise of executive coaches acting as consul-
tants is used as a resource to assist senior executives map-out and plan the
transformation.
The chapter outlines the way that coaching for transformational cultural change
is conceptualised, the motivations for transformational cultural change, the indi-
viduals who are the recipients of coaching for transformational cultural change, and
how it is delivered in an organisational setting.
290 20 Coaching for Transformational, Cultural Change
Traditional behavioural psychology research informs the need for behaviours asso-
ciated with organisational and cultural values to be consistently enacted during a
transformation process. Cognitive behavioural psychology addresses the impor-
tance of executives and leaders conceptualising coaching as a highly effective way
of maximising individual potential, building collective learning, and retaining tal-
ented staff. Social psychology research indicates the importance of socialising the
new cultural norms throughout the organisation. Positive psychology research rein-
forces that individuals will adopt change that is aligned with their personal values
and beliefs. The motivation for coaching for transformational, cultural change is for
executives and all employees to model the behaviours consistent with the core val-
ues and beliefs of the organisation. The recipients of coaching for transformational
cultural change are CEOs and senior executives responsible for transforming the
organisation through coaching to achieve cultural change. Coaching for transforma-
tional, cultural change is typically delivered by eternal executive coaches, often in
conjunction with an internal Coaching Champion who may be a senior executive or
transformational HR professional.
Interest in the delivery of coaching within organisations was initially practitioner

led. The importance of organisational culture first appeared in the seminal book, In
Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best-Run Companies [1]. The mes-
sage was simple: for organisations to succeed, they need to develop a strong organ-
isational culture. The message provoked companies out of their complacency to
uncover and promote shared mental models, values-in-action and concomitant
behaviours to achieve competitive advantage [2]. A strong organisational culture
was seen as a way to re-assert company dominance over Japanese counterparts who
had embraced Total Quality Management (TQM) [3, 4]. The revised view of man-
agement techniques post-TQM was that, in a VUCA world, loose not tight organisa-
tional controls achieved organisational objectives, and shared values encouraged
autonomy and entrepreneurship [1]. Consequently, coaching has emerged over the
past two decades as a way of developing an organisational culture focused on suc-
cess through empowering people.
Academic interest in the role of coaching to develop organisational culture has
arisen intermittently since the late 1990s, mainly within the field of executive coach-
ing, focused on evaluating its effectiveness [5–13] and establishing the return on
investment from coaching [14–19]. Support for the delivery of coaching in organ-
isations was provided by the establishment of coaching practice standards by pro-
fessional associations such as the ICF and APA which developed their own rules,
rituals, and competencies based on ethical and legal standards of professionalism
[20–22]. Coaching as a professional practice and field of expertise expanded from

an intervention to develop individual leaders into opportunities for ‘in-the-moment
team coaching, group coaching, coach mentoring … and other coaching-based
approaches … [to effect] comprehensive change initiatives’ [23]. As coaching-
based initiatives influence, leverage, and change company cultures, organisational
leaders are increasingly encouraged to enable enhanced work engagement of all
employees, facilitate organisational learning, and manage cultural change agendas
through coaching [24, 25].
Organisational culture has been defined as ‘a pattern of basic assumptions—
invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with the
problems of external adaptation and internal integration—that has worked well
enough to be considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the
correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to these problems’ [26, 27].
Culture refers to the deep structure, normative beliefs, and shared behavioural
expectations within an organisation which reflect, in large part, the values and
behaviours of the senior executive team. Hence, to change the culture, organisations
may need to change their CEO. Even then, entrenched values (values-in-action, i.e.
behaviours) [28] are often more visible than espoused values (the ones on the web-
site). Because culture becomes so deeply engrained in an organisation, it is hard to
move and harder even to define. It takes courage on the part of the CEO and senior
leadership team to ‘turn the ship around’, and when it does, there are often causali-
ties at middle-to-upper management levels.
Culture works to informally coordinate and control behaviours, actions, and
decision-making within organisations. It reflects not just the written or explicit rules
of the organisation but the implicit, unwritten, subconscious, intangible assump-
tions and beliefs which shape organisational behaviour as observed in all facets of
day-to-day operations. Organisations need to be impacted at the level of artefacts,
values and beliefs, and assumptions, for transformational, cultural change to occur
[26, 29].
Artefacts are the signs and symbols by which the organisation visibly conveys
its intentions to the world. These can take the form of framed statements of the mis-
sion and vision, portraits of the founders, or models of the organisation’s products/
services, objects or logos which typify the business. Advertising campaigns include
images and statements of intent in flyers, brochures, billboards, television adver-
tisements, and organisation videos which reinforce key messages, promote a posi-
tive impression of the organisation, and encourage sales. Such brand awareness
tends to raise the public opinion and reputation of the organisation, provided no
untoward press coverage has occurred. Stories handed down from employee to
employee, possibly across generations, constitute the cultural glue that holds the
organisation together. It is partially for this reason that changing the culture of an
organisation is so very difficult to effect.
Values and beliefs are the primary or dominant accepted ways of relating to, and
interacting with, others internal and external to the organisation. Core values are not
easily recognised in manifest ways outside of the organisation, but internally they
are recognised by aligned behaviours. Although they may be overtly discussed and
espoused (e.g. in organisational advertising), there is often a disconnect between the

stated values and what actually happens in reality—the ‘values in-action’ [28]. It is
often a matter of ‘do as I say’ rather than ‘do as I do’.
Assumptions are the external view of culture that gives an organisation its distinct
personality and outward appearance. They represent the ‘taken-for-granted’ [29],
deep-seated views of the organisation. Holding a contrary position to these views is
almost unthinkable. Assumptions are often only revealed through the stories that are
told, the rituals that are conducted, and the rewards that are given to those who
represent the best exemplars of these values.
Because culture influences what the organisation views as being useful or impor-
tant information, certain aspects of organisational culture can actually impede stra-
tegic thinking and planning. Culture dictates what knowledge belongs to all
organisational members and what belongs to certain individuals or groups. Cultural
norms dictate how and what types of knowledge are transferred in given situations,
upwards and sideways. Culture dictates the extent to which information from the
external environment is selected, interpreted, and distributed throughout the organ-
isation. If trust is low or if the culture places individual knowledge ahead of organ-
isational knowledge, distribution of knowledge will take longer to effect, if at all.
The contemporary view of coaching is that it is a vehicle for delivering system-wide

behavioural and cultural change [30, 31]. Various definitions of a coaching culture
have been proposed since interest in this phenomenon began around 2005, based on
what it does and how it exists. However, there is no definitive agreement on what a
coaching culture is. What is known is that a coaching culture is driven by the ‘prin-
ciples, beliefs, and mindsets’ [32] of individuals in the organisation. Employees
who adopt a coaching mindset share a common philosophy and objectives charac-
terised by high levels of involvement, consistency, adaptability, and organisational
dedication [33, 34]. In a coaching culture, ‘coaching behavior motivates people,
increases job satisfaction and morale, and strengthens bonds between individu-
als’ [35].
Contemporary definitions of a coaching culture have highlighted its ambiguity
and complexity [32, 36–39]. Clutterbuck and Megginson’s view is that coaching
cultures are characterised by ‘a commitment to grow the organisation alongside a
parallel commitment to grow the people in the organisation’ [38]. Passmore and
Jastrzebska believe that ‘a coaching culture is one where coaching, [and] the use of
reflective and provocative questions, is used consistently by all employees and by
key partners, to help develop understanding, insight and personal responsibility for
those responsible in delivering the organisational outcomes... [They continue.]
While it is not the only way which the organisation leads and manages its employ-
ees or works with its partners, it is the primary leadership, development and learning
style used in the organisation’ [40].
Hawkins is of the opinion that a coaching culture exists when ‘a coaching

approach is a key aspect of how the leaders, managers, and staff engage and develop
all their people and engage their stakeholders, in ways that create increased indi-
vidual, team and organisational performance and shared value for all stakeholders’
[39]. This definition describes the activities that are undertaken in a coaching cul-
ture but not how it develops. A composite definition of a coaching culture from a
review of the literature is that ‘a coaching culture exists within an organisation when
it has embedded a coaching approach as part of its strategic plans in a transparent
way. Coaching cultures should motivate individuals and facilitate cooperation, col-
laboration and connection within the organisation and with its external stakehold-
ers’ [36]. This definition encompasses a higher-order agenda for the development of
a coaching culture within and without the organisation. Their most recent definition
of a coaching culture extends Clutterbuck and Megginson’s earlier work which now
firmly positions coaching within a workplace environment: ‘A coaching culture is
one where the principles, beliefs, and mindsets driving people’s behaviour in the
workplace are deeply rooted in the discipline of coaching’ [32]. It also alludes to the
emergence of coaching as a discipline in its own right. Based on her research find-
ings, the author proposes the following definition of a coaching culture:
A coaching culture is one in which coaching occurs naturally and organically as the way to
transform relationships, conduct business transactions, and achieve cultural change.
Transformational Cultural Change Through Coaching
A number of studies have focused on how coaching drives cultural change [41, 42]
and retains talent in a complex, diverse, and global business environment [23]. From
their review of the research into organisational culture over the past 30 years,
researchers have identified five dominant models of culture used by organisation
scholars: culture as values, stories, frames, categories and toolkits [43]. The term
culture has been used to indicate how values guide and constrain people in organisa-
tions [26], weave stories to obtain resources [44], or discriminately use tools to meet
needs and interests [45, 46].
The coaching as values model represents the shared understanding of what
coaching is about and the philosophy that underpins the coaching process. The
coaching as stories model represents the narrative and conversation that transacts
between the coach and coachee as the coaching unfolds. The coaching as frames
model represents the coaching intervention that assists coachee’s reframe their view
of the world by identifying limiting beliefs and unblocking barriers to efforts to
move forward. The coaching as categories frame allows the coachee to make sense
of their situation and focus on how to take action. The coaching as toolkits model
provides the coach with the skills to coach non-judgmentally and professionally,
remaining centred on the coachee and the coachee’s needs, and guiding the coachee
to take action. Of these five dominant models, culture as toolkits most aptly repre-
sents the model typically used as a starting point to develop a coaching culture as it
is the one most usually associated with coordinating and taking action, helping
people reach agreements, and promoting change [36].
Repertoires of actions are the resources (or toolkit) that actors use to make mean-
ing of their work [47]. The coaching as toolkits model of organisational culture
explains how actors use cultural repertoires in practice (i.e. the various skills,
knowledge and resources that employees can draw upon to solve everyday prob-
lems) [48]. Repertoires of action bring together habits, styles, skills and symbols
[43] and operationalise the mental models, strategies and actions that individual’s
work from (e.g. how to manage their workload, how to be a good leader, how to
coach). These repertoires are backed up by skills, habits and styles that are translat-
able into practice [49]. Repertoires of action have been related to constructs such as
cultural repertoires [48, 50], cultural capital [51], and theories of practice [52].
Developing coaching competencies in order to coach others to peak performance is
an essential component of a leader’s behavioural repertoire [21, 36]. However it
cannot be assumed that leaders know how to coach. Rather, they may need to be
trained in coaching skills to guide and facilitate self-reflection and learning.
The use of cultural toolkits has been empirically verified in studies including
justification for different life events [53], conferring worth to social standing [54],
and drawing social boundaries and establishing identities [50]. Employees use per-
sonal cultural resources [55] and socio-cultural values [56] within their toolkit to
make sense of specific work situations and events. Shared toolkits have been empiri-
cally associated with the coordination of team efforts in product innovation [57],
evaluating products at the field level [58], and work practices in organisations [59–
64]. Thus, the culture as toolkits model of organisational culture suggests that intro-
ducing a coaching culture into an organisation consists of sharing the values
associated with coaching together with the cultural norms associated with coaching
(e.g. coaching ethics) as well as the skills and knowledge required to enable manag-
ers and leaders to coach confidently and consistently (i.e. training them in how to
coach and the development of a coaching toolkit).
Formal, structured, long-term coaching programs based on this dominant model
of organisational cultural change are effective in aligning behaviour with organisa-
tional priorities, cascading the programs down the organisation through training,
following-up with coaching, and appointing an internal coaching team [65]. These
strategies incorporate coaching behaviour as a job performance competency and
link it to systems for advancement, rewards and incentives. Establishing the infra-
structure for coaching has been empirically validated as a positive and supportive
approach to coaching culture development [39, 66].
Coaching practice, applied consistently throughout the organisation, achieves
system-wide behavioural and cultural change [67–69], provides the basis for collec-
tive learning to occur [70, 71], and a coaching culture to be developed [38, 39, 72].
A coaching culture grows when coaching is integrated into the very fabric of the
organisation (Fig. 20.1).
Fig. 20.1 Coaching
culture
Coaching an executive for transformational cultural change is a specialist skill

which involves a mix of coaching and consulting. Strategic leaders typically have
their own executive coach to guide and support them when they make the difficult
decisions in relation to organisational strategy, structure, systems, and staff and/or
to successfully navigate conflict or relationship issues among their team or with
their direct reports. They demonstrate personal commitment to coaching by role
modelling the development of their own capabilities as a recipient of coaching.
Executives who are coached share a common understanding of what coaching
means and how it can benefit them and others. They typically informally coach their
direct reports and others as the need arises. If they value coaching and the benefits
they have derived from having their own personal coach, they will appreciate the
value that coaching can bring to all employees in the organisation.
Before committing resources, organisations need to determine the purpose for
introducing a coaching culture [36]. Is it to develop the capacity of leaders? Is it to
improve employee performance? Is it to encourage innovation? Research has linked
the development of a coaching culture with all these outcomes [73]. Some organisa-
tions view the development of a coaching culture as an opportunity to create a more
positive and supportive work environment for personal and organisational flourish-
ing [74], while others see it as an opportunity to engage in ‘more candor, less denial,
richer communication, conscious development of talent’ [75], resulting in disci-
plined leaders who show compassion for people.
The organisational transformation process starts with the senior executive team
making a commitment to displaying the organisation’s values-in-action in their
everyday behaviour and incorporating a coaching approach as ‘a key aspect of how
the leaders, managers and staff engage and develop all their people and engage their
stakeholders …[to] create increased individual, team and organisational perfor-
mance and shared value for all stakeholders’ [39]. An example is Deloitte which
replaced their annual performance appraisals with 4–6 weekly coaching conversa-
tions [76].
For coaching to become a truly valuable tool for organisational leaders, espe-
cially during a transformation process, a commitment has to be made at the most
senior level and resources allocated to support the coaching initiative. Coaching has
to be identified as a strategic priority within the organisational and cultural change
initiative. Role modelling by executives who have been coached sends a powerful
message about the acceptance and indeed, desirability, of coaching being conducted
throughout the organisation. The steps in a transformational cultural change pro-
gram are depicted in Fig. 20.2 [77].
In summary, before investing resources into a coaching initiative to transform
and change the culture of an organisation, executives need to define the purpose for
coaching, the anticipated benefits, and how to measure them. As the coaching
Fig. 20.2 Eight steps to transformational cultural change through coaching

Note: This blueprint for cultural change through coaching is explained in “Coaching Culture” to be
published by Springer in 2022.
References 297
initiative is rolled-out across the entire organisation, leaders are trained across all
levels so they can coach their direct reports in formal, scheduled coaching sessions.
In addition, all employees are trained in coaching skills to communicate the value
of coaching and show them how to conduct coaching, feedback and corridor conver-
sations with peers. The return on investment from training leaders as coaches and
employees in coaching skills needs to be progressively measured to determine the
effectiveness of these strategies in the transformational, cultural change program.
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68. Hacker, S. (2015). Leading cultural transformation. The Journal for Quality and Participation,
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70. Garvin, D., Edmondson, A., & Gino, F. (2008). Is yours a learning organization? Harvard
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71. Thomas, K., & Allen, S. (2006). The learning organisation: A meta-analysis of themes in lit-
erature. The Learning Organization, 13(2/3), 123–139.
72. Bawany, S. (2015). Creating a coaching culture. Leadership Excellence, 32(2), 43–44.
73. Abington, A. (2013). Croydon Health Services NHS Trust creates an internal-coaching culture:
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Review, 82(11), 82–90.
76. Passmore, J. (2008). Workplace coaching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
East London.
77. Knowles, S. (2020). Transforming organisational culture through coaching. Xlibris.
Index
A C
Action-planning, 147, 148 Career decision-making, 193, 194
Active listening, 85 Career development, 5, 7
Adult learning principles, 130 Career development, coaching for, 182
Adult learning theories, 128, 129 assessment and feedback, 196
Age-old method, 140 career ambiguity, 192
AIPC COACH model, 6, 108, 110–112 career goal-setting, 192–194
AIPC Organisational COACHing model, 8, career identity, 189, 190
201, 207, 209–216, 234, 251, career stages, 183, 184
252, 271 career theories, 184–187
assessment and feedback, 211 career transition, 194, 195
baseline data collection, 212 de-identification, 190, 196
beginning the coaching, 214 life stages, 182, 183
hard and soft data, 212 multiple selves, 190, 191
identify the coachee’s coaching, 213 possible and provisional selves, 191, 192
profiling, 211 Career Development Plan (CDP), 196, 197
conducting coaching program, 214 Career goal-setting, 192, 193
contracting and preparation, 210 Career identity, 189, 190
evaluation of coaching outcomes, 215 Career stages, 183, 184
formative evaluation, 215 Career transition, 194, 195
multi-rater assessment tool, 216 Chaos theory, 186
summative evaluation, 215 Classical conditioning, 13
Andragogy theory, 129 Closed questions, 86
Authentic happiness, 33 Coaches practice mindfulness, 41
Coaching
for behavioural change
B theoretical foundations, 139
Behavioural change, 3–7, 45, 46, 53, 54 difference between mentoring and, 47–49
Behavioural psychology, 12, 14 disorienting dilemmas, 133, 134
Behavioural theories, 20, 140–142 educational underpinnings of, 54
Benefits of coaching executive coaching, 55
for individuals, 68, 69 goal-setting and action-planning, 147, 148
for organisations, 71 importance, 2
for teams, 70 leadership coaching, 57
Boundaryless career, 184 management underpinnings of, 55, 56
Build rapport, 83 managerial coaching, 56
S. Knowles, Positive Psychology Coaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88995-1
302 Index
Coaching (cont.) Coaching needs, 67

meaning-making, 134 Coaching partnership, 93
peer coaching, 57 Coaching practice
positive psychology contributions, 120, application, 108
131, 160 new client, engaging, 108–112
critical self-reflection, 131, 132 positive psychology contributions, 103
personal transformation, 132 coaching relationship, 103, 104
reflective practice, 121 directing style, 105
relational depth, 121 email coaching, 107–108
resilience, 162, 163 facilitation style, 104
self-esteem, 161, 162 guiding style, 104, 105
strengths, 160, 161 in-person coaching, 105, 106
positive psychology research, 144, 145 motivating style, 105
solution-focused, 145, 146 coaching styles, 104
values and beliefs, 145, 146 telephone coaching, 106–108
potential, 163 virtual coaching, 106
psychological underpinnings of, 53, 54 second and subsequent coaching
self-directed learning, 133 sessions, 113
self-efficacy, 148, 149 theoretical foundations, 102
self-regulation, 163, 164 traditional psychology contributions, 102
team coaching, 57 Coaching problem, 91, 96
theoretical foundations, 117, 118, 153 Coaching process
traditional psychology contributions, application to coaching, 94, 95
118, 154 client intimacy, 95
adult learning principles, 130 maintaining a coaching presence, 96
adult learning theories, 128, 129 positive psychological contributions, 92, 93
communication, 158, 159 setting ground rules and boundaries, 96, 97
individual and personality psychology, theoretical foundations, 92
154, 155 traditional psychological contributions, 92
insight, 119, 120 trust establishment, 95
interpersonal skills, 158 Coaching skills, 91
needs, wants and drives, 157 active listening, 85
personality theories, 155, 156 closed questions, 86
relationships, 159 definition, 79
self-actualisation, 158 open questions, 86
self-awareness, 118, 119 positive psychology contributions
self-reflection, 119 powerful questions, 84
Coaching as a meta-process, 91 powerful questions, 87
Coaching culture, 1, 292–295 reflective listening, 85, 86
Coaching for career development, 182 summaries, 88, 89
assessment and feedback, 196 theoretical foundations, 80
career ambiguity, 192 traditional psychology contributions
career goal-setting, 192–194 language models, 80
career identity, 189, 190 listening skills, 82
career stages, 183, 184 motivational interviewing, 81
career theories, 184–187 non-directive counselling skills, 81
career transition, 194, 195 process vs. content coaching skills, 83
de-identification, 190, 196 questioning skills, 82
life stages, 182, 183 summarising skills, 83
multiple selves, 190, 191 Coaching Skills Self-Efficacy Scale
possible and provisional selves, 191, 192 (CSSES), 161
Coaching fundamentals, 3, 6, 7 Coaching for professional development, 168
Coaching leadership style, 2, 8, 239, 240, traditional professional development
248–250, 252, 253, 282 activities, design of, 170, 171
Index 303
traditional research, 168 cultural diversity, 250

design and delivery principles, 175 ethical management, 250
educational research, 169 organisational justice, 249
high-quality design, 173, 174 positive leaders, 249
job-embedded training, 171, 172 Psychological contract, 249
observation and feedback, 173 self-determination theory, 249
personal attributes and skills, 175, 176 Employment contract, 188
post-training, 176 Ethical Principles and Code of Ethics, 94
psychological research, 168, 169 Executive coaching, 8, 55, 256, 260, 261,
skills and competencies, 169, 170 265–267, 270, 271
to support delivery, 172 Executive development, 3–5, 8, 259
Cognitive behaviour theory (CBT), 142 coaching
Cognitive psychology, 14, 15, 22, 182 AIPC Organisational COACHing
Cognitive therapeutic approaches, 53 model, 201, 207, 209–216, 271
Command-and-control practices, 8 executive leadership, 272
Communication, 158, 159 intra- and inter-personal
Compassion, 156 effectiveness, 271
Competencies, 94, 169, 170 power and influence, 273, 274
Competency-based professional strategic decisions, 273
development, 171 cognitive behavioural psychology, 260
Conditioned response, 13 decision-making, 263
Conditioned stimulus, 13 normative decision model, 264
Contemporary coaches, 4, 7, 8, 40 root–branch typology, 264
Content-oriented coaching skills, 83 positive psychology, 265
Content-oriented professional development, 7 executive coaching, 266
Contingency-based model executive competencies, 268–270
maturity, 242 strategic leadership, 267
path–goal theory, 242 talent management, 270
situational leadership, 242 positive psychology research, 260
Critical self-reflection, 7, 16, 24, 38, 46, 52, power in organisations, 261
80, 83–85, 102, 104, 117–123, 127, expert power, 261
129, 131, 132, 134, 170, 173–176, organisational politics, 262
248, 294 personal interaction, 263
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 32, 37, 40 senior executive team, 260
Experiential learning, 128, 173
Exploitative innovation, 282
D Exploratory innovation, 282
Deep-structure learning, 131
De-identification, 190, 196
Developmental intervention, 47 F
Developmental psychology, 15, 16 Financial planning, 93
Discipline, 52 Flourish, 32, 35, 37
Distortion, 18 Freewill, 14
Double-loop learning, 128, 129, 132
Dreyfus model, 168
Dual processing, 120 G
Dyadic coaching, 70, 102 Gestalt techniques, 123
Globalization, 189
Goal neglect, 193
E Goal-oriented coaching, 147, 148
Educational research, 169 Goal-setting, Reality checking, Options and
Email coaching, 107–108 Wrap Up (GROW) model, 92
Employee engagement, 249 GROW model of coaching, 2, 292
304 Index
H managers and leaders, 250

Happiness, 3, 31–33, 35–37, 41 theoretical basis, 239
Hierarchy of Needs, 17 traditional psychology
Homelessness, 93 contributions, 240–245
Human happiness, 35 behavioural theories, 241
Human Resource Development (HRD), 1 contingency-based model (see
Human Resource Management (HRM), 45, 52 contingency-based model)
Humanistic psychology, 16–20, 22, 26, 102 emergence of leadership, 244
management and leadership
responsibilities, 245
I traits theories, 241
Incongruent individual, 18 transforming leadership, 245
Individual benefits from coaching, 69 Learn and grow, 149, 185
Individual potential, 7, 8 Learned helplessness, 33
Individual psychology, 154, 155 Learning and growth, 3, 4, 6, 40, 57, 127–134,
In-person coaching, 105, 106 176, 253, 267
Insight, 3–6 Learning, transfer of, 170
Instrumental conditioning, see Operant Life stages, 182, 183
conditioning Life Styles Inventory (LSI), 156
Intangible benefits of coaching, 67–69, 71, 73 Limiting beliefs, 45, 54
Intelligent careers, 185 Line managers, 70
International Coaching Federation (ICF), 1 Listening skills, 82
Interpersonal and team relationships, 45, 55 Locus of control, 156
Interpersonal skills, 79, 158
M
J Management theory, 55
Job-embedded training, 171, 172 Manager as Coach programs, 8, 103, 207,
Job satisfaction, 45, 55 239, 250
Managerial coaching, 56
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 17, 157
K McClelland’s motivations, 225
Kaleidoscope career theory, 185 Meaning-making, 31, 33, 35, 134
Kinaesthetic technique, 123 Measuring the benefits of coaching, 72
Kirkpatrick model, 215 Mental model, 36, 37
Mentoring, 92
difference between coaching and, 47, 48
L MetrixGlobal, 73, 74
Laissez-faire managers, 241 Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, 39
Language models, 80 Mindfulness, 38, 39, 123, 124
Leader as Coach programs, 203, 207, 250 Mindset theory, 54
Leadership coaching, 57 Monetary and ‘people’ benefits, 75
Leadership development, 8, 55 Monetary benefits, 73
coaching for, 240 Motivation, 32, 45, 46, 53, 54, 56, 57
informal coaching Motivational Interviewing (MI), 81
coaching conversations, 252 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 17, 155
corridor conversations, 253
feedback conversations, 252
positive psychology contributions, 246 N
coaching leadership style, 248 Needs and wants, 19
emotional intelligence, 247 Non-directive counselling skills, 81
employee engagement, 249 Normative Decision Model, 264–265
Index 305
O pure coaching, 233

Open questions, 86 cognitive behavioural psychology
Optimism/pessimism, 33, 34, 36 techniques, 221
Organisational benefits from coaching, 71 positive psychology, 230
Organisational coaching, 201, 204 positive organisational behaviour, 232
AIPC Organisational COACHing Model positive scholarship, 232
(see AIPC Organisational positive work environment, 230
COACHing Model) psychological capital, 231
clients, 206 self-efficacy, 222
coachee, 205 traditional psychology
HR professionals, 207 carrot-and-stick approach, 222
©AIPC COACH model, 207 categories and indicators of stress, 229
coach–coachee match, 207–208 extrinsic motivation, 223
external coaches, 208 individual motivators, 223
traditional HR professional, 207 intrinsic motivation, 223
transformational HR professional, 207 Job Characteristics Model, 226
OD environments, 203, 204 job dissatisfaction, 228
partnership principles, 206 McClelland’s theory, 224
sponsors, 206 Motivator-Hygiene theory, 227
theoretical foundations, 202 n-ach person, 224
Organisational culture, 9, 290, 291 n-affil person, 224
Organisational learning, 3–5, 8, 9, 71, 214, n-pow person, 224
279, 291 people factors, 226
coaching performance theory, 225
AIPC Organisational COACHing PERMA, 33, 35
model, 201, 207, 209–216, 234, Personal attributes, 175, 176
251, 252, 271, 283 Personal development, 1, 7
change initiatives, 285 Personal identity, 189
innovation, 284 Personal transformation, 132
role modelling, 284 Personality psychology, 22, 154, 155
positive psychology, 281 Personality theories, 19, 20, 22, 25, 155, 156
goal-oriented approach, 282 Pessimism vs. optimism, 33
innovation, 282, 283 Portfolio career theory, 186
traditional psychology, 280 Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships,
double-loop learning, 128, 129, Meaning, Achievement
132, 281 (PERMA), 33
collective learning, 281 Positive organisational scholarship, 37
single-loop learning, 128, 129, Positive psychology, 103, 131, 140, 144, 145
131, 281 authentic happiness, 34, 35
triple-loop learning, 281 coaching relationship, 103, 104
critical self-reflection, 131, 132
definition, 31
P directing style, 105
Peer coaching, 57 email coaching, 107–108
People benefits, 74 emergence, 3
Performance improvement, 3–5, 8 facilitation style, 104
coaching flow experience, 32
AIPC Organisational COACHing guiding style, 104, 105
model, 201, 207, 209–216, 234, in-person coaching, 105, 106
251, 252, 271 learned helplessness, 33, 34
contracting, 233–234 mental model, 36, 41
data collection, 234 mindfulness, 38, 39, 41, 42
formative and summative mindset, 37, 38, 41
evaluation, 235 motivating style, 105
306 Index
Positive psychology (cont.) Q

optimism/pessimism, 34 Questioning skills, 82
personal transformation, 132
philosophy of positive psychology
coaching, 39, 40 R
principles, 40 Rational emotive behaviour therapy, 15
reflective practice, 121 Reflective listening, 85
relational depth, 121 Reflective practice, 121–123
resilience, 162, 163 Relationships
self-esteem, 161, 162 traditional psychology, 159
solution-focused, 145 Resilience, 162, 163
strengths, 160, 161 Return on investment (ROI), 4
coaching styles, 104 monetary and people benefits, 74, 75
telephone coaching, 106–108 monetary benefits, 73
values and beliefs, 145, 146 people benefits, 74
virtual coaching, 106 Root–Branch typology, 264
Positive psychology coaching, 2–5, 7, 39, 40
Positive psychology contributions, 120, 160
Positive psychology research, 102, 117 S
Positive scholarship, 37 Self-actualisation, 158
Positive work environment, 8 Self-awareness, 3–6
Possible selves, 191, 192 traditional psychology, 118, 119
Power-distance relationship, 48 Self-concept, 18
Powerful questions, 84, 87 Self-concordance, 193
Principle of reinforcement, 14 Self-determination theory, 35, 188, 193
Process-oriented coaching skill, 79, 83, 85 Self-directed learning, 133
Profession, 52 Self-efficacy, 45, 53, 54, 143, 148, 149
Professional development, 1, 2, 7 Self-esteem, 161, 162
Professional development, coaching for, 168 Self-knowledge, 163
design and delivery principles, 175 Self-reflection
educational research, 169 traditional psychology, 119
high-quality design, 173, 174 Self-regulation, 163, 164
job-embedded training, 171, 172 Self-system, 143
observation and feedback, 173 Seligman, Martin, 31, 32
personal attributes and skills, 175, 176 Side-by-side coaching, 172
post-training, 176 Single-loop learning, 128, 129, 131
psychological research, 168, 169 Skill development, 169, 170
skills and competencies, 169, 170 Skinner Box, 14
to support delivery, 172 Social integration, 158
traditional professional development Social psychology, 23, 140
activities, design of, 170, 171 Social psychology research, 102
traditional research, 168 Social psychology theories, 20
transfer of learning, 170, 171, 174, 175 Soft skills, 79
Professional identity, 190 Solution-focused approach, 145, 146
Professional responsibility, 94 Stimulus-response, 12, 13, 21, 23
Provisional selves, 191, 192 Strategic executives, 269
Psychodynamic theories, 20 creative innovative thinking, 270
Psychological capital, 37 critical analytical ability, 268
Psychological distress, 93 ethical and moral judgment, 270
Psychological research, 168, 169 strategic decision-making, 269
Psychological wellness, 35 strategic thinking, 268
Psychology Strategic leadership, 267
applications, 12 advanced systems, 267
definition, 11 financial viability, 267
Index 307
Strength-based assessments, 160 educational research, 169

Strengths, 32, 35–37, 160, 161 psychological research, 168–169
Strengths Self-Efficacy scale (SSES), 161 skills and competencies, 169, 170
Summaries, 88 Trait theories, 19
Summarising skills, 83 Transformational cultural change, 3–6
Supervisory coaching, 172 coaching
formal, structured, long-term coaching
programs, 294
T frames model, 293
Tangible benefits, 6, 67, 69, 70 organisational transformation
Team coaching, 57 process, 295
Telephone coaching, 106–108 steps, 296
Therapeutic psychological interventions, 3 stories model, 293
Total Quality Management (TQM), 290 strategic leaders, 295
Traditional “tell me” feedback approaches, 80 toolkits model, 293, 294
Traditional personality psychology, 7 values model, 293
Traditional psychology, 102 coaching culture, 292
behavioural theories, 12, 14, 140–142 traditional psychology, 290
cognitive behaviour theory, 142 artefacts, 291
cognitive theories, 14, 15 assumptions, 292
developmental theories, 15, 16, 22, 24, culture, 291
139, 144 values and beliefs, 291
fields of research which inform Transformative learning theory, 129
coaching, 13 Trusting relationship, 79
humanistic psychology, 16–18, 142 Type theories, 20
insight, 119, 120
personality theories, 19, 20, 144
psychodynamic and educational U
underpinnings, 23–27 Unconditional positive regard, 18, 19, 22, 80,
self-awareness, 118, 119 81, 84, 156
self-reflection, 119 Unconditioned response, 12
social cognitive theory, 143, 144 US Manchester Consulting Group, 73
social psychology theories, 20, 21
Traditional psychology contributions, 154
communication, 158, 159 V
individual and personality psychology, Values driven protean career, 185
154, 155 Values-Sort Card exercise, 146
interpersonal skills, 158 Virtual coaching, 106
needs, wants and drives, 157 Volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous
personality theories, 155, 156 (VUCA) environments, 2
relationships, 159
self-actualisation, 158
Traditional research W
coaching for professional development, Work performance, 45, 55
170, 174, 175 Workforce Study, 74

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Susanne

ISBN 978-3-030-88994-4 ISBN 978-3-030-88995-1 (eBook)

Susanne Knowles is an educational, counselling and organisational psychologist

Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching �������������������������������������� 40

8 Coaching Practice���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101

13 Coaching for Professional Development���������������������������������������������� 167

18 Coaching for Executive Development�������������������������������������������������� 259

Coaching of organisational leaders, managers, and employees has grown in popu-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

professional associations seek to advance coaching as a profession through the cer-

Why Positive Psychology Coaching?

Positive psychological practice was found to be significant in addressing the issues

Structure of This Book

As explained in Chap. 15.

is summarised. Coaching in contemporary practice is goal-oriented and solution-­

learn were based on individual learning principles. Later conceptualisations high-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 11

Psychology is both an academic field of study and an applied discipline. As a

Psychologists research and apply findings from behavioural, cognitive, develop-

Fig. 2.1 Traditional psychology fields of research which inform coaching

development rest on the assumption that development is a discontinuous process

Humanistic psychology theories developed as a reaction to psychoanalysis and

extraverted aspects of personality are integrated by the process of individuation

Fig. 2.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Personality is comprised of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and

• Type theories provided the earliest perspectives on personality. These theories

Social Psychology Theories

Social psychology is focused on understanding and explaining behaviour in social

Social psychology is often confused with personality psychology and sociology.

Table 2.1 Summary of traditional psychology constructs underpinning coaching

number of commercially available personality profiles and assessment instruments

 ppendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational

Theory and exponents Description

Theory and exponents Description

Theory and exponents Description

Theory and exponents Description

Theory and exponents Description

2 2. Myers, I. (1980). Gifts differing. Consulting Psychologists Press.

54. Adams, J. (1963). Towards an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 31

Seligman developed his theories as an extension of psychological conditioning the-

Related to learned helplessness are the concepts of optimism and pessimism.

The characteristics of a fully functioning individual had already been described by

Fig. 3.1 Master of your

Table 3.1 Summary of positive psychology approaches to coaching

A practice derived from positive psychology, yet originated as meditative contem-

attentional reorienting, executive monitoring of working memory, response inhibi-

Positive psychology coaching as we know it today occurs at the intersection of tra-

Philosophy of Positive Psychology Coaching

attributes are the prerequisites to learning and growth. In an environment of abso-

Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching

Contemporary coaching practice is based on a combination of the coach’s experi-

Mental Model, Mindset, and Mindfulness Techniques

1. Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 45

Within the academic literature, there is no clear definition of coaching. Thirty-seven

Difference Between Coaching and Mentoring

Table 4.1 Difference between mentoring and coaching

Fig. 4.1 Power-distance relationship

Difference Between Coaching and Other Interventions

efficiently or effectively. The outcomes of training programs are significantly

Coaching Focus Clients Context Process Practice Relationship Delivery

Whilst recognising coaching as an emerging profession, the academic literature also

psychology and education. Psychological conceptualisations inform a coach’s

Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching �� 40

8 Coaching Practice�� 101

13 Coaching for Professional Development�� 167

18 Coaching for Executive Development�� 259

Why Positive Psychology Coaching?

Structure of This Book

is summarised. Coaching in contemporary practice is goal-oriented and solution-

Social Psychology Theories

ppendix 1: Summary of Psychodynamic and Educational

Philosophy of Positive Psychology Coaching

Principles of Positive Psychology Coaching

Mental Model, Mindset, and Mindfulness Techniques

Difference Between Coaching and Mentoring

Difference Between Coaching and Other Interventions

Theoretical Underpinnings of Coaching

Psychological Underpinnings of Coaching

Educational Underpinnings of Coaching

Management Underpinnings of Coaching

Return on Investment (ROI)

Monetary and People Benefits

Traditional Psychology Contributions

Process Versus Content Coaching Skills

Positive Psychology Contributions

Traditional Psychological Contributions

Positive Psychological Contributions

Traditional Psychology Contributions

Positive Psychology Contributions

Engaging a New Client

Second and Subsequent Coaching Sessions

Traditional Psychology Contributions

Positive Psychology Contributions

Traditional Psychology Contributions

Adult Learning Theories

Adult Learning Principles

Positive Psychology Contributions

Contemporary coaching practice incorporates critical self-reflection into the self-

Traditional Psychology Contributions