Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

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Measurement
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/measurement

Oil debris and viscosity monitoring using optical measurement based on

Response Surface Methodology
Zhenzhen Liu a, Yan Liu a, *, Hongfu Zuo a, *, Han Wang a, b, Cheng Wang c
a
Civil Aviation Key Laboratory of Aircraft Health Monitoring and Intelligent Maintenance, College of Civil Aviation, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Nanjing 211100, China
b
Center for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, USA
c
School of Ocean Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 124221, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper aims at the development of a method for monitoring oil debris as well as oil viscosity, using the optical
Oil condition monitoring measurement. An on-line optical oil debris sensor is designed firstly, then a multi-target tracking algorithm based
Optical measurement on Gaussian Mixture Model is custom-developed to compute the properties (velocity, diameter) of wear debris in
Response surface methodology (RSM)
micro-flow channel through images captured by sensor. A mathematical relationship between debris velocity and
Wear debris velocity
Oil viscosity
debris diameter, debris density, oil flow, oil viscosity, oil temperature is statistically established using a three-
level-five-factor box behnken design approach based on response surface methodology analysis. Then the
analysis of variance is used to confirm the significance of the variables and their interactions. Finally, to validate
the mathematical model, an experiment is carried out to compare its performance to that of results obtained
using a pin disc test rig. The results demonstrate the measurement error of debris density and oil viscosity is
6.07% and 7.97%, respectively. The proposed approach has excellent suitability to monitor the oil condition.

ultrasonic sensor [11,14], optical/imaging sensor [16–19], etc. How­

1. Introduction
Nowadays, lubricating oil condition monitoring is widely considered
as an efficient, adaptable, and highly developed tool to test blood for
aeroengine and other large rotating machinery [1,2]. In-line and on-line
oil monitoring technology, due to their excellent performance such as
real-time property, continuity property, and synchronization, has
sparked plenty of interest [3–6]. These advantages make real-time
monitoring technology suitable for measuring numerous of oil fea­
tures, including: acidity [7], temperature [8], viscosity [9], electrical
properties [10], air bubbles [11], water, soot, color [1], wear debris [3].
To be noted that, oil monitoring method based on wear debris has been
widely used owing to analyzing the degree and mechanism of wear, for
example, the size and concentration of debris are positively correlated
with the severity of wear, and their density reflects the location of the
fault, the morphology can also determine the type of wear [3,12].
Thereby, WDA is recognized as an invaluable means for monitoring the
oil condition.
Numerous wear debris monitoring sensors have been successfully
employed with the rapid development of hardware technology, which
include the inductance sensor [13,14], resistive/capacitive sensor [15],
ever, these sensors also have their disadvantages [20]. For instance, the
sensitivity of the inductive method for detecting non-ferromagnetic
debris is low [21], the resistance method cannot distinguish the type
of debris, the capacitance method is weak in detecting metal debris, the
optical method is easily affected by oil transparency, and the result of
the acoustic method is greatly influenced by oil temperature. Hence, to
implement the great challenge of monitoring the oil condition roundly,
multi-sensor fusion technology has received rapid attention.
These current multi-sensors are essentially mechanical assemble, for
example, bubbles, ferromagnetism, and non-ferromagnetism debris are
monitored by inductance and capacitance principle [22,23], oil viscos­
ity, type, and size of the debris are analyzed through combining
capacitance, inductance, and ultrasound [14], and the ultrasonic sensors
and induction sensors are combined to distinguish all non-metallic wear
debris, ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic metallic wear debris [24].
It can be seen that the properties of debris and viscosity are critical in the
oil parameters, in that the viscosity index ensures the lubrication envi­
ronment of the oil, avoiding energy loss and severe wear of the me­
chanical parts. Nevertheless, there is no available technology that allows
a single sensor to measure them simultaneously.
As the optical method can present a proportionately better

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: jiayinly@nuaa.edu.cn (Y. Liu), rms@nuaa.edu.cn (H. Zuo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2022.111152
Received 10 January 2022; Received in revised form 23 March 2022; Accepted 1 April 2022
Available online 4 April 2022
0263-2241/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Nomenclature α learning rate (%)

Wi,t− 1 the weight of the Gaussian component
WDA wear debris analysis λi,t a new learning rate (%)
DoE design of Experiment ρ the probability density function
RSM response surface methodology T a threshold
ANOVA analysis of variance arg argument
BBD box behnken design d wear debris size (μm)
CCD central composite design S wear debris area (μm2)
GMM gaussian mixture model A(X1) wear debris density (kg/m3)
LOF lack of fit B(X2) wear debris diameter (μm)
GCr15 carbon chromium bearing steel C(X3) oil flow rate (mm/s)
K the number of Gaussian components D(X4) oil viscosity (mm2/s)
t time (s) E(X5) temperature (◦ C)
Xt the pixel point at time t Y wear debris velocity (mm/s)
Ui,t− 1 mean of the i-th Gaussian distribution at time t-1 k number of independent factors
D the matching threshold C0 number of center points
σi,t− 1 variance of the i-th Gaussian distribution at time t-1 R2 Goodness of fit
Mi,t a boolean value

performance than others, such as, the color, diameter, texture of the
wear debris and the color of the oil can be seen directly, as a result,
substantial research have been dedicated to the wear debris detector
[25–27], restoration of wear debris image [28,29], wear debris classi­
fication [30]. Currently, ferrography has been accepted as the most
common technique for obtaining the morphology information from
debris images of WDA. However, wear debris attracted by the magnetic
force always form into agglomerated chains. Although efforts have been
made to separate debris into chains [31], it is still difficult to extract
features of individual particles. Meanwhile, it is very time-consuming
and relies on the experience of the observers or accuracy of the classi­
fication algorithm, and it cannot monitor the viscosity of the oil, as the
other optical sensors based on image analysis of wear debris.
Accordingly, this paper proposes a new methodical measurement
approach for monitoring wear debris properties and oil viscosity
simultaneously based on WDA using only one optical sensor, by inte­
grating dynamic image acquisition and velocities for moving wear
debris. In this paper, an on-line optical oil debris sensor is designed and a
multi-target tracking algorithm for wear debris velocity measurement is
developed. Then, considering the velocity of wear debris in the micro­
fluidic chip is affected by the size and density of the debris, as well as the
viscosity and velocity of oil [26]. Meanwhile, the viscosity is seriously
affected by temperature. Hence, a series of tests are designed to develop
a mathematical model and evaluate the statistically significant effect of
the debris diameter, debris density, oil flow rate, oil viscosity, and
applied temperature on the debris velocity using the RSM method.
Subsequently, the significance of the model equation is assessed by the
F-test of the ANOVA. Finally, an on-line experiment on the pin disc test
rig is conducted to validate the monitoring effect of the mathematical
model.
This paper is further organized as follows: Section 2 is the description
of the on-line optical oil debris sensor and the debris features extraction
algorithm; the RSM modeling and the variables effects are given in
Section 3; the verification of the proposed method is presented in Sec­
tion 4, followed by discussions in Section 5; and conclusions are
depicted in Section 6.
2. Optical sensor and algorithm
2.1. On-line optical oil debris sensor
A novel method for monitoring the wear debris properties and oil
viscosity simultaneously based on WDA from the perspective of dynamic
image acquisition and velocities for moving wear debris using optical
measurement is proposed in this work. Firstly, an on-line optical oil
debris sensor is designed to capture the moving wear debris images.
Fig. 1(a) illustrates the main components of the sensor through the
stereogram, and Fig. 1(b) provides a detailed view of the schematic di­
agram. Then we can see that it consists of an image acquisition sub­
system to capture the images of wear debris, and a data transmission
subsystem to transfer the images. The image acquisition subsystem has
several essential components: a pump, a micro-flow channel, a lens, an
image sensor, a light source. The reflecting light source is coaxial with
the optical lens, which helps to see the surface of debris because of the

Fig. 1. (a) Stereogram of on-line optical oil debris sensor. (b) Schematic diagram of on-line optical oil debris sensor.

2
Z. Liu et al.
uniform illuminating ray. The pump control oil feed rate in flow channel
from 1 ml/h to 1000 ml/h. So, the wear debris are suspended in the oil
and flow with it, and the oil is passed through a specifically engineered
flow channel with a low thickness value that enables the picture of the
debris to be captured using a camera. The resolution of the camera is
2048 × 1536 pixel, and its physical size represented by each pixel is
3.45 μm. The flow channel is arranged vertically just beneath the
portable micro-optical lens in order to prevent debris from being
deposited in it. Then the captured real-time images of the oil with wear
debris can be observed in the operating environment via the data
transmission system. The computer is used for image processing in near
real-time through the intelligent algorithm, which calculates the fea­
tures of the wear debris in oil. The algorithm is described in the
following subsection of this paper.
Furthermore, we can also see that there are two other main com­
ponents in Fig. 1(a), the fan and the lens holder. The fan is designed to
speed up the air circulation inside the sensor, as the heat generated by a
computer working in an enclosed space is enormous, and the fan pre­
vents the internal temperature of the sensor from becoming too high and
affecting the normal operation of other components. The lens holder is
used to maintain the stability of the lens (positioned horizontally) in
operation. It is equipped with precision knobs for up and down, left and
right, forward and backward movement control of the lens. Because the
lens is a precision device, a slight movement in position can produce a
huge deviation in the imaging effect of the wear debris.
2.2. Debris features extraction algorithm
To obtain the movement of wear debris in the oil, it is necessary to
first extract the target debris and their coordinate positions at different
moments from the videos acquired from the optical sensor, then the
speeds of debris can be calculated combining the frame rate of
recording. In this research, the GMM and blob are used to construct
algorithms for wear debris detection, tracking, and velocity calculation.
2.2.1. Wear debris detection algorithm based on GMM
Because the camera is fixed in the optical sensor and the background
varies slowly, the GMM algorithm is utilized to extract the binary image
by separating all the moving debris from the oil background. After
initializing the mean and weight parameters of the first Gaussian dis­
tribution corresponding to each pixel of the first frame of an image, it is
divided into five steps: template matching, parameter update, back­
ground model estimation, foreground detection, morphological noise
removal.
1 Template Matching
When a fresh image is reading at time t, each pixel in the background
model is matched with K Gaussian components, as shown in Equation
(1). The pixel point Xt matches the background model when it fits the i-
th component of the Gaussian models.
⃒ ⃒
⃒Xt − Ui,t− 1 ⃒⩽Dσ 2
i,t− 1 (1)
whereUi,t− 1 , σ i,t− 1 represent the mean, variance of the i-th Gaussian
distribution at time t-1, respectively. D is a constant, generally set to 2.5,
and K is usually set to 3–5.
2 Parameter Update
The pixel does not belong to the background model if it does not
satisfy the Equation (1), there are two possibilities for parameter
updates:
(a) Pixels match the GMM
3
Measurement 195 (2022) 111152
When the pixel matches the i-th Gaussian component in the corre­
sponding background model, set the corresponding Boolean val­
ueMi,t = 1 , otherwiseMi,t = 0. And the weight of the Gaussian
component Wi,t is updated by.
Mi,t = (1 − α)Wi,t− 1 + αMi,t (2)
where α is the learning rate, and α satisfies0 < α < 1, whose size controls
the update speed of the background model. According to Equation (2),
the greater the matching number of Gaussian distribution, the higher the
weight. On the other hand, the Gaussian distribution will reduce the
weight value if it is not matched. After updating the weight, it is also
necessary to update theUi,t ,σ2i,t , and the update formulas are presented in
Equations (3), (4), (5). Where λi,t is determined by the learning rate and
the probability density functionρ:
( )
Ui,t = 1 − λi,t Ui,t− 1 + λi,t Xt (3)
( ) ( )T ( )
σ 2i,t = 1 − λi,t σ 2i,t− 1 + λi,t Xt − Ui,t Xt − Ui,t (4)
λi,t = αρ(Xt |Uk , σ k ) (5)
(b) Pixels do not match GMM
Suppose the pixel point does not match all the Gaussian components
in the corresponding background model. In that case, the Gaussian
component with the smallest weight is discarded, and a new component
is added, with the current point’s pixel value serving as the new com­
ponent’s mean value. The initial variance and weight are set to the
default values.
3 Background model estimation
The weight of the Gaussian distribution is normalized once the
parameter is updated, and all Gaussian distributions in the background
model corresponding to each pixel are organized in descending order of
priorityWi,t |σ i,t . Background threshold T is then set to indicate a previous
global probability, which is the percentage of background component in
an image. Then according to the sorting of Wi,t |σ i,t and threshold T, the
first B Gaussian components are selected by.
( )
∑ s
B = argmint wk > T ; 0.5 < T < 1 (6)
k=1
where arg is the abbreviation of argument.
4 Foreground detection
The current image’s real background model has been obtained in the
preceding three phases, and the foreground target will be retrieved next.
The current image should be compared to the model in the background,
if it matches, the point is the background area. Otherwise, it belongs to
the foreground target.
5 Morphological noise removal
The foreground target retrieved by the GMM method maintains the
shape and edge information of the debris. Still, there are mistaken holes
and small debris within, and the constant opening and closing proced­
ures greatly improve the situation.
2.2.2. Wear debris tracking algorithm based on blob
The tracking method based on Blob is employed to monitor and
quantify the speed of numerous moving wear debris. It includes four
steps: Blob extraction, Kalman tracking, data association, and Kalman
correction.
Z. Liu et al.
Fig. 2. Tracking effect of multi-target tracking algorithm: (a) nylon debris, (b)
iron debris.
(1) The extracted linked domain is a Blob, and pixels fulfilling eight
neighborhoods have the same value. The linked domain area
threshold in the method is set to 10 μm, and wear debris less than
10 μm are discarded as noise [1]. Through the extraction of the
linked domain, the number and area characteristics of wear
debris can be retrieved. Then the size of debris d can be obtained
through:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
d = 4S/π (7)
where S is the debris area.
(2) Kalman filter is employed to predict the movement of the debris
since the target is moving at a constant small pace in the video
sequence.
(3) The Munkres algorithm is devoted to establishing an incidence
matrix to achieve data matching between several tracking debris
and observation debris.
Fig. 3. Flowchart of RSM methodology modeling.
4
Measurement 195 (2022) 111152
2.2.3. Tracking effect of wear debris in lubricating oil
It can be seen from Fig. 2 that the color of wear debris with different
materials in the image sensor are different (nylon debris are transparent,
and iron debris are black), and they can be tracked in real time
regardless of size. At the same time, each debris is given a unique ID
number, indicating that the algorithm has good tracking effect. Then by
tracking the one-to-one relationship between debris and blobs, the lo­
cations of wear debris can be updated, so the velocities of debris are
computed through dividing the movement distance by moving time.
3. Methodology
In this section, a wear debris velocity model is established through
conducting a set of tests, which can measure the properties of wear
debris and oil viscosity. DoE method is a set of efficient mathematical
tools that can be applied to statistical modeling and systematic problem
analysis. Among which, RSM is an excellent method for building an
empirical model, its primary benefit over other methods is the decreased
number of experimental runs required and a more systematic exami­
nation of the input variables, including their simultaneous interaction
[32].
3.1. RSM methodology modeling
Based on mathematical models (linear, quadratic polynomial, etc.),
RSM is a collection of techniques that define the connection between
numerous independent variables and one or more response variables
[33], and then the model is verified using mathematical statistics. The
link model may then be utilized for optimization, prediction, or inter­
pretation. Fig. 3 depicts a full flowchart of the suggested modeling
technique. The modeling technique can be separated into five modules
based on the flowchart: a) define, b) design, c) run experiment, d) fit and
Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Table 2
Kinematic Viscosity (mm2/s) of three types of lubricants at different
temperatures.
Temperature Great wall oil Mobil Jet Oil Aeroshell Turbine Oil
(◦ C) 4010 II w80

− 40 2150 11,000 /
40 13.47 27.6 118
100 3.31 5.1 14.5

failure is easy to occur inside the aeroengine and other rotating ma­
chinery, not only due to its complex structure, but also owing to the fact
that their main internal support components, bearings and accessory
Fig. 4. Frame diagram of a conventional gas turbine engine. drive system, are exposed to high speeds and high temperature for long
periods. Moreover, the performance of the main bearing directly affects
the life and reliability of engine. Therefore, the oil serves as the engine’s
Table 1
blood, carrying a wealth of wear data about the bearing. Components of
The commonly used bearing materials.
bearings include: outer ring, inner ring, roller, retainer, sealing ring, etc.
Materials Density (kg/m3) Location Table 1 lists the commonly used materials for each part [34]. Accord­
Steel 7800 outer ring, inner ring, roller, bearing retainer ingly, the density of several types debris in the table can be selected as
Aluminium 2700 bearing bridge the input variables A, and in our experiment, the corresponding material
Copper 8900 oil retainer, bearing retainer
particle can be obtained by purchasing from Yingtai Company.
Silver 1050 surface plating layer
Lead 1134 Main bearing, connecting rod bearings The link between debris formation and wear process is depicted in
Silicon 2320 sealing ring Fig. 5[35–37]. Under the early operating circumstances of a new engine,
Zinc 7140 rubber seals we can see that most debris are typically less than 10 μm in size, and the
Titanate 4500 bearing chock debris production rate is approximately consistent even though there are
chromium 7190 sealing ring, bearing retainer
Nickel 8900 roller
also having a few debris larger than 10 μm. When the wear between
Ceramics 2400 roller engine components becomes severe, the rate of formation and concen­
Nylon 1200 bearing retainer tration of bigger wear debris between 10 μm and 100 μm steadily in­
creases until the engine fails. Then the debris size exceeds 100 μm, the
number of debris produced increases dramatically, especially if the en­
gine is experiencing a malfunction or is in critical condition. Hence,
debris larger than 10 μm should be monitored to offer an early warning
of failure for an intelligent engine. So, the range of 10–100 μm can be
utilized to determine the value of the input variable B, and it can be
measured directly by the camera in the optical oil debris sensor.

2. Properties of lubricating oil

The safety and reliability of an engine during operation depend much

Fig. 5. Relationship between debris generation and wear process.
diagnose, and e) confirm model.
3.1.1. Choosing of independent variables and response
In module 1, define refers to the process of selecting the most
important independent variables and response variables from a large
number of available parameters. For this purpose, five independent
variables are chosen as A: wear debris density (X1), B: wear debris
diameter (X2), C: oil flow rate (X3), D: oil viscosity (X4), and E: tem­
perature (X5) to analysis the wear debris velocity (Y) in this study ac­
cording to the previous research foundation [21]. The detailed
information regarding the main properties of wear debris and oil will be
discussed in the following.
1. Properties of wear debris
Fig. 4 displays the basic configuration of a conventional gas turbine
engine, consisting of a low-pressure compressor, a high-pressure
compressor, a combustion chamber, a high-pressure turbine, a low-
pressure turbine and a tailpipe nozzle. It is generally known that wear
on the properties of the lubricating oil. Viscosity is a critical physico­
chemical parameter of oil quality, whose function is to supply the active
lubricating layer thickness between the rubbing surfaces to prevent se­
vere wear. The generally used aero-engine lubricating oil may be cate­
gorized into three groups based on the kinematic viscosity value [38]:
low viscosity oil (suitable for early turbojet engines), medium viscosity
oil (suitable for various types of turbofan, turbojet, turboprop, and
turboshaft engines of military aircraft, civil aircraft, and general avia­
tion aircraft), and high viscosity oil (suitable for piston and turboprop
engines). For example, the aviation lubricating oil 4010 of Great Wall
Company and Turbine engine oil 308 of Aeroshell belongs to low vis­
cosity oil, 4050 of Great Wall Company, Mobil Jet Oil II of ExxonMobil,
TurboNycoil 640 of NYCO are the representatives of medium viscosity
oil, W80, W100 and W120 of Aeroshell are typical high viscosity oils.
Meanwhile, as the engine’s operating time increases, the temperature of
the lubricating oil rises. The kinematic viscosity values of several types
of lubricating oils at various temperatures are shown in Table 2. And we
can observe that the difference in viscosity between different types of oil
is noticeable at the same temperature and that the viscosity of the same
oil decreases as the temperature rises. As a consequence, this range may
be used to pick the values of input variables oil viscosity (D) and oil
temperature (E).
The oil flow velocity (C) is the final input variable. This data should
be automatically adjusted according to the actual operating circum­
stance, because the bearing is starved of lubrication at lower flow rates
and suffers churning losses at higher flow rates [39]. This indicates that

5
Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Table 3 number of factors as the CCD [40]. Therefore, BBD is used to determine
Independent variables in actual and coded levels. the sample points for the response surface model, and the five variables
Independent variables Symbol level are analyzed at three distinct levels coded as − 1, 0, and +1. Table 3
summarizes the five variables’ actual and coded values.
− 1 0 1

X1: wear debris density (Kg/m3) A 1200 4500 7800 3.1.3. Experimenting and getting the results
X2: wear debris diameter (μm) B 20 50 80
X3: oil flow rate (mm/s) C 2 7 12
The next crucial step is to arrange a series of experiments in a certain
X4: oil viscosity (40 ◦ C, mm2/s) D 35 70 105 sequence through a computer software. The popular statistical software
X5: temperature (◦ C) E 20 40 60 for modeling are Statistica (Stat Soft), Minitab (Minitab Inc.), MATLAB
Response (Mathworks), and Design Expert (State-Ease Inc.) [41]. Experiments are
R: (mm/s) Y
designed and analyzed using Design-Expert ver. 12 in this paper. Ac­
cording to the BBD matrix (Fig. 3), the number of 43 (=2k(k− 1) + C0,
the value should be appropriate for the experimental equipment’s where k is the number of independent factors and C0 is the number of
hardware and software conditions. center points) experiments incorporating 5 factors, and 3 center points
are proposed by the software.
3.1.2. Selection of experimental design strategy In our experiment, a spoonful of particles with specified properties is
Then the adoption of an effective approach to carrying out the tests is put in 10 ml of the corresponding viscosity oil respectively, shaken
necessary after carefully choosing the most appropriate parameters thoroughly to mix them well and placed the oil in an ultrasonic cleaner
affecting the velocity of the wear debris. So, strategies for experimental to remove bubbles. Then the oil is heated to the specified temperature
design should be estimated and determined in module 2. Several design using a heating base, the oil flow rate is controlled by the pump in the
methods can be applied for modeling of wear debris velocity, the optical debris sensor. These 43 trials based on BBD and corresponded
effective, typical, and widely utilized RSM designs are the CCD and the response (wear debris velocity (mm/s)) for each trial are shown in
BBD. The BBD is optimal for two to five variables, and because there is Table 4. Moreover, the run order of experiments is randomized to avoid
no axial point in the BBD, it requires fewer test numbers with the same systematic errors.

Table 4
Experimental design and results of the BBD.
Run order A B C D E Y
wear debris density (Kg/m3) wear debris diameter (μm) oil flow rate (mm/s) oil viscosity (mm2/s) temperature (◦ C) wear debris velocity (mm/s)

1 1200 50 7 35 40 5.92
2 4500 50 2 70 20 2.114
3 4500 80 7 105 40 6.84
4 4500 20 7 105 40 7.26
5 4500 50 7 35 60 5.577
6 4500 50 7 70 40 6.17
7 4500 20 7 35 40 6.73
8 1200 50 7 70 20 9.25
9 4500 50 7 70 40 6.72
10 4500 50 12 35 40 10.57
11 7800 50 7 70 20 7.142
12 1200 50 7 105 40 8.22
13 7800 50 7 35 40 4.1
14 4500 80 7 35 40 5.68
15 4500 80 7 70 20 6.73
16 4500 50 12 105 40 14.18
17 4500 80 12 70 40 11.73
18 4500 80 7 70 60 5.71
19 4500 50 7 105 20 7.4
20 1200 20 7 70 40 7.685
21 4500 50 2 105 40 1.994
22 4500 20 2 70 40 1.54
23 4500 50 2 70 60 1.174
24 7800 50 7 70 60 4.93
25 4500 20 7 70 20 8.22
26 7800 50 12 70 40 10.57
27 4500 50 2 35 40 0.96
28 1200 50 2 70 40 2.167
29 1200 50 12 70 40 14.8
30 7800 50 7 105 40 7.592
31 4500 20 12 70 40 12.57
32 1200 50 7 70 60 6.67
33 7800 20 7 70 40 6.777
34 4500 50 7 105 60 6.6125
35 4500 80 2 70 40 1.22
36 4500 50 7 70 40 6.73
37 4500 20 7 70 60 6.277
38 7800 50 2 70 40 0.658
39 1200 80 7 70 40 7.636
40 7800 80 7 70 40 5.649
41 4500 50 12 70 20 12.33
42 4500 50 7 35 20 5.29
43 4500 50 12 70 60 11.504

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Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Table 5 the statistical significance of the above regression model. We can see
Expressions used for model verification. that the F-test result (F = 68.24) with a low probability value (p-value)
Terms Expressions Remarks (<0.0001) and the values of the R2, Adj. R2, Pred. R2 are 0.9841, 0.9697,
0.9372, respectively, indicating that the regression model has a high
R 2 SSRes Close to 1.0 is ideal
R2 =
SST statistical significance and that there is a strong relationship between the
R2adjusted R2adjusted= Close to 1.0 is ideal. experimental data of the wear debris velocity and the five input vari­
SSRes /(n − p) ables. In addition, the value of PRESS (32.54) and LOF (0.2234 > 0.05)
1−
SST /(n − 1) also reflects the excellent predictive ability of the model.
PRESS PRESS = The value should be small.
∑n In the factorial procedure, it is typical to run significance tests (t-
̂i )2
i=1 (yi − y
tests) on each model coefficient and remove insignificant variables [32].
R2predicted PRESS No more than 0.2 discrepancy between R2adjusted
R2predicted = 1 −
SST The data listed in Table 6 show that the coefficients of five independent
and R2adjusted should be expected.
variables, two interactive cross-product coefficients of AC and CD with
Lack of SSLOF /(f − p) FLOF should be larger than 0.05
Fit
FLOF =
SSPE /(n − p)
p-value <0.05, significantly affect the wear debris velocity, whereas the
other coefficients have negligible effect and, thus, are eliminated from
SSRes = square sum of error; SST = total sum of squares; f = number of distinctly the description model. As a consequence of the analysis, the following
different factor combinations; p = number of parameters; n = experimental
regression equation can represent the base coded and real relationship
number; yi = observed value; ŷi = predicted value.
between the response Y and the five independent variables:

Y =1.986 − 0.0003A − 0.0338B + 0.884C + 0.015D − 0.035E

(9)
3.1.4. Fitting the obtained experimental data to the mathematical model − 0.000041AC + 0.00368CD
The second-order regression model of BBD used in this article is
expressed as follows: where Y represents the wear debris velocity(mm/s) and A, B, C, D, and E
are wear debris density (kg/m3), wear debris diameter (μm), oil flow
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ rate (mm/s), oil viscosity (mm2/s), and temperature (◦ C), respectively.
5 5 4 5
Y = β0 + β j Xj + βjj Xj2 + βij Xi Xj (8)
j=1 j=1 i=1 j=i+1 In addition, the fit of the proposed model is also assessed through
several diagnostic plots, including the normal probability of residuals,
where Y is the response variable, and i, j are integers;β0 and βj are residuals versus predicted values, predicted versus actual values and
regression coefficients; βij represents the interaction effects of the standardized residuals versus run plot. The normal probability plot in
different input variables Xi andXj ,βjj represents the interaction of the Fig. 6(a) reveals that the residuals follow a straight line, indicating that
input variable Xi itself. they follow a normal probability distribution. Fig. 6(b) illustrates that, in
the absence of constant error, all color points displaying the velocities of
3.1.5. ANOVA and confirmation of model debris are at a random scatter and lie within ±2.5 of the near-zero axis.
ANOVA method is employed to determine the statistical parameters This pattern emphasizes the suitability of debris velocity data. Fig. 6(c)
and fitting effect of the model, this is equal to identifying the key factors manifests that the points of the wear debris velocities clustered on the
and stating which is the most important factor. The different important diagonal are distributed uniformly, which means that the experimen­
expressions are summarized in Table 5. tally obtained debris velocity values are in excellent agreement with the
The results of the ANOVA and F-test are presented in Table 6 to assess predicted values using the established model. Hence, the simplified

Table 6
ANOVA of the regression model for wear debris velocity.
Source Sum of Squares Degree of Freedom (DF) Mean Square F value p-value

Model 510.28 20 25.51 68.24 <0.0001 Significant

A 13.93 1 13.93 37.26 <0.0001
B 2.15 1 2.15 5.75 0.0254
C 466.85 1 466.85 1248.69 <0.0001
D 14.58 1 14.58 38.99 <0.0001
E 6.28 1 6.28 16.79 0.0005
AB 0.2911 1 0.2911 0.7785 0.3871
AC 1.85 1 1.85 4.95 0.0366
AD 0.3552 1 0.3552 0.9501 0.3403
AE 0.0339 1 0.0339 0.0906 0.7663
BC 0.0676 1 0.0676 0.1808 0.6748
BD 0.0992 1 0.0992 0.2654 0.6116
BE 0.213 1 0.213 0.5697 0.4584
CD 1.66 1 1.66 4.44 0.0468
CE 0.0032 1 0.0032 0.0087 0.9266
DE 0.2886 1 0.2886 0.772 0.3891
A2 0.4084 1 0.4084 1.09 0.3073
B2 0.1026 1 0.1026 0.2744 0.6056
C2 0.4977 1 0.4977 1.33 0.261
D2 0.1455 1 0.1455 0.3891 0.5392
E2 0.0017 1 0.0017 0.0046 0.9468
Residual 8.23 22 0.3739
Lack of fit 8.02 20 0.401 3.9 0.2234 Not significant
Pure Error 0.2054 2 0.1027
Corr. Total 518.5 42
Std. Dev. 0.6115 R2 0.9841
C.V.% 9.08 Adj. R2 0.9697
PRESS 32.54 Pred. R2 0.9372

p < 0.05 is considered as significant.

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Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Fig. 6. Diagnostic plots for wear debris velocity (mm/s): (a) normal plot of residuals, (b) residuals versus predicted values plot, (c) predicted versus actual values
plot, (d) residuals versus run number plot.

quadratic model is appropriate and acceptable for the experimental whereas oil flow rate and oil viscosity have a positive coefficient. It is
data. Fig. 6(d) depicts the residual versus order of experimental run for observed that the influence of the five parameters on the wear debris
debris velocity, indicating a random uniform distribution of points. The velocity follows the order: oil flow rate > oil viscosity > wear debris
model is consequently adequate and there is no reason to suspect that density > temperature > wear debris diameter.
the assumption of independent or constant variance is violated in all
runs. 3.2.2. Binary effects of the variables on wear debris velocity
As shown in Fig. 8, various response surface plots are produced to
show the mutual interaction between two targeted factors on wear
3.2. Effects of the variables on wear debris velocity
debris velocity by converting them into a three-dimensional (3D) figure,
and the shape of the contours reflects the magnitude of the interaction
3.2.1. Main effects of the variables on wear debris velocity
effect between the two factors, with an ellipse indicating a stronger
Fig. 7 summarizes the effects of all independent variables on wear
interaction and the opposite for a circle. Hence, the values of fixed
debris velocity at the midpoint of coded levels. Sharp curvature curves in
variables in all contour and response surface plots are set to wear debris
the perturbation plot indicate a high sensitivity of response to the
density = 4500 kg/m3, wear debris diameter = 50 μm, oil flow rate = 7
related variables, while semi-flat curves reveal a lower sensitivity of
mm/s. oil viscosity = 70 mm2/s, and temperature = 40 ◦ C.
debris velocity to relevant factors. With increasing parameter C, namely
Fig. 8(a) depicts the interactive effects of wear debris diameter and
oil flow rate, sharply accelerate of wear debris velocity occurs, which
wear debris density on debris velocity, denoting that there is almost no
indicates the variable C has the strongest effect on the wear debris ve­
relation between the density and diameter of debris. The interaction
locity. On the contrary, Fig. 7 also indicates that increasing the
effect of oil flow rate and wear debris density on the response, as
parameter A, E, and B negatively affect the wear debris velocity. Such
schematically shown in Fig. 8(b), demonstrates the vital role of oil flow
findings are consistent with Equation (9) where wear debris density,
rate in contrast to debris density. The pairwise interaction of oil viscosity
wear debris diameter and temperature have a negative coefficient

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Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Meanwhile, the disk specimen is a block solid, whose density can be

measured by a solid densitometer. Consequently, this paper uses
viscometer, solid densitometer to verify the viscosity of oil and debris
density under different working conditions.
The validation experiments are conducted in four groups, and the
relevant parameters for the specific friction and wear experiments are
shown in Table 7, respectively. In which the pin specimen in the
experiment is GCr15 steel ball (Φ6mm, produced by Shanghai Steel Ball
Factory, China.), the different material of two disc specimens are brass
and steel (processed by Nanjing Total Control Aviation Technology Co.,
Ltd, China), and their densities are measured by a solid densitometer
JHY-3000F before the start of the experiment. The two different oil
samples are hydraulic oil NO.32 and NO.46 (purchased from Great Wall
Industrial Supplies, China), the oil in the tank is heated using a heating
base, and also measured in real time by a thermometer WSS (produced
by Shanghai Puguang Instrument Factory, China.). The pump used for
the external pipeline is a KAMOER UIP2 peristaltic pump, which allows
free adjustment of the main oil flow rate. The oil filter prevent debris
larger than 200 μm in diameter from entering the pipeline and blocking
the micro-channel of the optical sensor. For each experiment, a load of
200 N is applied to the pin disk respectively. After the system operates
for 15 min, open the optical sensor acquisition program and start to
acquire the motion video of the wear debris. After 30 s of acquisition,
change the oil flow rate of the optical debris sensor and continue to
Fig. 7. Perturbation plot for the wear debris velocity as a function of wear
acquire the motion video of the debris for 30 s.
debris density (A), wear debris diameter (B), oil flow rate (C), oil viscosity (D),
The surface images of the specimens after the completion of the first
and temperature (E) [in coded value of zero: A = 4500 kg/m3, B = 50 μm, C =
7 mm/s. D = 70 mm2/s, E = 40 ◦ C].
experiment in Table 7 are shown in Fig. 10. We can see from the Fig. 10
(b) that the microscopic surface image has clear features of pear grooves
after the disc specimen is cleaned and dried, indicating that micro-
and oil flow rate, as seen in Fig. 8(c), reveals that the oil flow rate
cutting occurred on the surface of the copper specimen under the
represents a significant impact on influencing the wear debris velocity
load, and slightly larger diameter debris have appeared in the oil. In
compared to the oil viscosity. Therefore, parameters A and D will have a
addition to assessing the validity of the proposed model by visually
slight influencing effect on parameter C, as also demonstrated by
inspecting the wear of the disk specimen and pin specimen versus the oil
Equation (9). The reason is that the presence of large debris with high
changes, a quantitative analysis is conducted to further quantify the
density and high viscosity oils can interfere with the flow of the oil and
accuracy of the newly developed model. Combining with the GMM-blob
thus affect the oil flow rate. At last, Fig. 8(d) shows the cooperative
algorithm in Section 2, which is used to detect the wear debris and
effect of oil viscosity and temperature, indicating that there is also a
calculate the average motion velocity of the same diameter wear debris
slight interaction between oil viscosity and temperature, which is
at two fixed oil flow rates, and the Equation (9), we can obtain the wear
related to the type of oil, that is, the viscosity-temperature effect of oil.
particle density and oil viscosity. The reason is the Equation (9) are
Overall, this is consistent with results of the aforementioned ANOVA.
solvable in the presence of two identical unknown parameters in two
Hence, it is extremely important to adjust the oil flow rate reasonably in
equations (oil flow rate is different).
the actual experiment. In addition, it should be noted that due to the
So, the wear debris density and oil viscosity obtained by the exper­
vital of oil flow rate in wear debris velocity, a much high oil flow rate is
imental measurement and the proposed model are characterized using
avoided due to the insufficient acquisition ability of the camera.
the indicator relative error (σ), and it is one of the most common
physical quantities used to characterize errors. The results are reported
4. Verification of the method
in Table 7. It can be observed that wear debris density and oil viscosity
are all measured with a good accuracy, and although the average error
In order to verify the performance of the established monitoring
of oil viscosity is higher (7.97%) than debris density (6.07%), which may
model, a set of comparative experiments is conducted. Since the wear
be attributed to the difference in the shape of wear debris can lead to
trend of large rotating machinery is similar [35], the MMW-1A pin disc
situation where they are subjected to different forces in oil, so that the
test rig is employed to generate wear debris in a heavy load working
velocities eventually fluctuate. Therefore, the measurement accuracy is
environment, and the on-line wear monitoring system is built in the Key
acceptable, indicating that the measured values achieved by the pro­
Laboratory of Civil Aviation Health Monitoring and Intelligent Mainte­
posed method are very similar to the real values and can be used to
nance at Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, as shown
measure the wear debris density and oil viscosity simultaneously.
in Fig. 9. The rotating disc specimen is installed at the bottom of the
rotating platform to achieve rotational movement, the pin specimen is
5. Discussion
held in the oil bath by a support rod and is loaded vertically upwards by
a spring-loaded device at the bottom. This constitutes a sliding friction
An integrating strategy for measuring oil debris and viscosity based
pair, which is enclosed by oil and connected to a lubrication system
on the RSM is proposed, involving three steps: designing and
externally. The circulating oil carries the wear debris generated by the
manufacturing wear debris detection sensors based on optical principle,
friction of the pin disc test rig into the optical debris sensor.
developing algorithms for tracking and property measurement of multi-
A suitable process to evaluate the accuracy of model monitoring is to
target wear debris in microchannels, establishing and evaluating a
compare the model monitoring results for wear debris density and oil
multiparameter monitoring model for oil based on RSM. This newly
viscosity with their respective actual values, when they can be obtained
proposed measurement approach offers significant advantages which
by existing instruments. Viscometer, as a liquid viscosity testing in­
are detailed below.
strument, has been successfully applied in oil viscosity measurement.
With regard to the optical measurement method in previous work

9
Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Fig. 8. Response surface plots for the mutual effects of: (a) wear debris density and diameter; (b) wear debris and oil flow rate; (c) oil flow rate and oil viscosity; (d)
oil viscosity and temperature.

Fig. 9. On-line optical debris sensor installed on a pin disc test rig.

10
Z. Liu et al. Measurement 195 (2022) 111152

Table 7
Validation of the developed model for monitoring of wear debris density and oil viscosity.
Run Experimental factor Model RSM estimated value Experimental value Relative errorσ
order (%)*

B C E Y A D A D A D
wear debris oil flow Temperature wear debris wear debris oil viscosity wear debris oil viscosity wear oil
diameter rate (◦ C) velocity density (kg/ (mm2/s) density (kg/ (mm2/s) debris viscosity
(μm) (mm/s) (mm/s) m3) m3) density

1 20 2 20 1.78 8122 112 8600 120 5.56 6.67

20 7 20 6.59
2 80 7 40 0.27 8910 35 8600 32 3.6 9.38
80 12 40 3.5
3 20 2 20 3.72 7050 182 7800 196 9.61 7.14
20 7 20 10.08
4 80 7 40 0.95 8230 42 7800 46 5.51 8.69
80 12 40 4.46
Average 6.07 7.97
⃒y − y ⃒⃒
* ⃒ i j⃒
σ =⃒ × 100%,yi is the experimental value, yj is the predicted value of the Equation (9).
yi ⃒

Fig. 10. Surface images of specimens of the first validation experiment (disc is Brass, and pin is GCr15 Steel). (a) Surface image of the disc specimen; (b) Microscopic
surface image of the disc specimen with wear. (c) Surface image of the pin specimen.

[25,27], the improvements of current work can be summarized as: a) A
coaxial reflection light source is employed in the image acquisition
system to strengthen the details of the debris surface; b) The proposed
multi-objective tracking algorithm can precisely locate the coordinates
of each wear debris separately and quickly calculate the movement
speed of each debris; c) The most important innovation is the con­
struction of measurement models. Previous works for the measurement
of WDA and oil viscosity have focused on creative research on various
online, inline, and offline monitoring sensor principles, such as elec­
trostatic, inductive [13], capacitive, ultrasonic [11], optical [42], fer­
rography [43], etc. as well as on the improvement of monitoring
accuracy in terms of wear debris classification [44], quantity and surface
texture [29], without considering the research of uniform measurement
of multiple indicators in oil. The current work is to establish a multidi­
mensional parameter monitoring model of oil based on the velocities of
wear debris movement in optical sensors by using response surface
method, which allows real-time monitoring of the debris size in oil, the
debris compositions, the debris basic morphology, and the viscosity of
oil. Compared with traditional measurement methods such as ferrog­
raphy, viscometer and mechanical assembly of multiple sensors, the
advantage of the proposed measurement method is that it can use a
single sensor based on the optical principle to visually monitor the
health status of the oil in real time with multiple indicators, lower time
and lower financial costs. For example, the degree of oil contamination
can be initially determined based on the imaging effect of the oil in the
optical sensor, and the metal and non-metal can be preliminarily sepa­
rated based on the imaging result of the debris color as Fig. 2, then
combine with the established model to quickly calculate the oil viscosity
and accurately distinguish the debris composition based on the debris
density results. Therefore, the newly proposed method can provide
reliable and comprehensive health information for oil condition moni­
toring, which brings much convenience to the work of rotating equip­
ment condition maintenance engineers.
Obviously, the measurement of oil condition based on wear debris
velocities using optical sensors can increase the dimensionality of
monitoring indicators. However, there are still some problems to be
solved in the monitoring process. Due to the limitation of the fixed
illumination angle of a single light source, the magnification of the lens
and the depth of field, the texture of the debris surface cannot be
observed clearly, which leads to need further research on the wear
mechanism of mechanical components and the failure mechanism of the
components cannot be located precisely in the dynamic oil. But the
surface morphology of the wear debris can be seen by replacing the lens
with a high magnification, when the oil carrying the debris in the
microchannel is in a static state. Although the proposed method is able
to calculate the composition of debris and the oil viscosity with satis­
factory accuracy, the debris concentration cannot be too high, because
excessive number of debris will affect the calculation speed of the
tracking algorithm, causing time delay and reducing the accuracy of the
calculation results. This problem can be improved by improving the
robustness of the algorithm.
Real-time health condition monitoring of oil is an important method
to reflect the wear status of mechanical rotating parts during operation.
In this paper, a mathematical model of condition monitoring is estab­
lished from the perspective of liquid-solid two-phase flow. Future work
is prepared to optimize the model, improve the accuracy of monitoring
parameters, and explore the correlation between other oil monitoring
parameters. In addition, the structure of the flow channel of wear debris
will be optimized to identify the type of wear debris from the velocity
perspective. For example, various flow channel and debris are modeled

11
Z. Liu et al.
using the 3D software, and different moving behavior of debris are ob­
tained in the fluid simulation software, then the type of debris can be
identified.
6. Conclusions
The characteristics of wear debris and oil can be used for under­
standing the wear mechanisms of mechanical equipment. A new optical
measurement method for monitoring wear debris and oil viscosity
simultaneously is proposed. The main features are that: 1) the designed
online monitoring optical sensor can collect images of wear debris in
dynamic oil in real time and accurately, whose equivalent diameter is
greater than 10 μm and the shape can be random; 2) the developed
multi-objective tracking algorithm can accurately capture the coordi­
nate position of each debris and perform real-time tracking updates to
calculate its motion speed; 3) 43 sets of tests are designed and completed
by the RSM, and the final mathematical model is established to monitor
several parameters of debris density, debris diameter, and oil viscosity.
Then the significance of the model is examined by ANOVA and the
performance is verified from a specific experimental point of view using
a pin-disk tester, a solids densitometer and a viscometer. The results
indicate that the proposed method obtains a high agreement between
the real values of debris density and oil viscosity. Compared with
existing oil condition monitoring methods, this proposed approach of­
fers multiple monitoring parameters of the oil simultaneously by using a
single sensor, thus achieving reliable, efficient and more comprehensive
oil condition monitoring.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zhenzhen Liu: Methodology, Software, Data curation, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. Yan Liu:
Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Hongfu Zuo: Conceptualiza­
tion, Funding acquisition. Han Wang: Methodology. Cheng Wang:
Resources.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (U1933202), the Postgraduate Research and Practice Innova­
tion Program of Jiangsu Province (KYCX21_0235) and the Postgraduate
Innovation Experiment Competition Program of NUAA (CXJS21_068).
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