Assignment NO 1

Name :Adeel Afzal

Section: C
Sap I’d : 70126263
Assignment : Physiology
Submitted to: Dr Urfah Zaigham

• Topic:
Non respiratory functions of lungs :
These non respiratory functions of the lung include its own
• defense against inspired particulate matter.
• the storage and filtration of blood for the systemic circulation.
• Immune function.
• Endocrine and metabolic function.
∆ Defense against inspired particulate matter:

Cilia ,tiny muscular hair like projections on the cells that line the airway, are one of the
respiratory system’s defence mechanisms.Cilia propel is a liquid layer of mucus that covers
the airways.
• Mucus layer :
The mucus layer traps pathogens (potentially infections microorganisms)and other
particles preventing them from reaching the lungs.
Beat more than 1000 times a minute moving the mucous that lines the trachea up words
about 0.5 to 1 cm per minute.
Pathogens and particles that are trapped on the mucus layer are cuffed out or moved to the
mouth and swallowed.
• Alveolar macrophages
Alveolar macrophages, type of white blood cell on the surface of , are another defence
mechanism for the lungs because of requirements of gas exchange alveoli are not protected
by mucus and cilia. mucus is too thick and would slow movement of Oxygen and carbon
dioxide instead Alveolar macrophages seek out deposited particle bind to them , ingest
them kill and that a living and digest them when the lungs are exposed to serious threat
additional white blood cells in the circulation specially neutrophils can be recruited to help
injest and kill pathogens for example when a person inhales a great deal of dust all is
fighting a respiratory infection more macrophages are produced and neutrophils are
recruited.
o Storage and filtration of blood for the systematic circulation:
The circulation of the lung is unique both in volume and function. For example, it is the only
organ with two circulations:
• Pulmonary circulation.
• Systematic circulation.
Pulmonary circulation:
The pulmonary circulation, the main function of which is gas exchange, and the bronchial
circulation, a systemic vascular supply that provides oxygenated blood to the walls of the
conducting airways, pulmonary arteries and veins. The pulmonary circulation accommodates the
entire cardiac output, maintaining high blood flow at low intravascular arterial pressure.
• Systematic circulation:
As compared with the systemic circulation, pulmonary arteries have thinner walls with much
less vascular smooth muscle and a relative lack of basal tone. Factors controlling pulmonary
blood flow include vascular structure, gravity, mechanical effects of breathing, and the influence
of neural and humoral factors. Pulmonary vascular tone is also altered by hypoxia, which causes
pulmonary vasoconstriction.
• Hypoxic stimulus:
If the hypoxic stimulus persists for a prolonged period, contraction is accompanied by
remodeling of the vasculature, resulting in pulmonary hypertension. In addition, genetic and
environmental factors can also confer susceptibility to development of pulmonary hypertension.
Under normal conditions, the endothelium forms a tight barrier, actively regulating interstitial
fluid homeostasis. Infection and inflammation compromise normal barrier homeostasis, resulting
in increased permeability and edema formation. This article focuses on reviewing the basics of
the lung circulation (pulmonary and bronchial), normal development and transition at birth and
vasoregulation. Mechanisms contributing to pathological conditions in the pulmonary
circulation, in particular when barrier function is disrupted and during development of
pulmonary hypertension.

• Immune function of lungs :

Optimal lung defences require coordinated action of multiple cell types. Immune function within
the lung is mediated by pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAMs) and a variety of immune
mediators.

• Pulmonary alveolar macrophages

Amoeboid PAMs engulf the particles that reach the alveoli and deposit them on the muco-ciliary
escalator or remove them via blood or lymph. The macrophages are particularly effective against
bacteria and ensure that the alveolar region of the lung is effectively sterile.
• PAMs also have a role in antigen presentation, T-cell activation, and
immunomodulation. When PAMs ingest large amounts of inhaled particles, especially
cigarette smoke, silica, and asbestos, they release lysosomal products into the
extracellular space causing inflammation and eventually fibrosis.
• Neutrophil activation within the lung also leads to release of proteases such as trypsin
and elastase. These chemicals, while very effective at destroying pathogens, can also
damage normal lung tissue. This is prevented by the proteases being swept away by the
mucus coating the respiratory tree, and by conjugation with alpha1-antitrypsin, which
renders them inactive.
• Hence, in alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency, surplus trypsin and elastase leads to tissue
destruction that in turn leads to pulmonary emphysema.

∆ Endocrine and metabolic function of lungs :

 Endocrine and metabolic functions
Isolated pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) and innervated cell clusters called
neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs) are widely distributed in the airway mucosa and are together
referred to as the ‘pulmonary neuroendocrine system’.
• They secrete a wide variety of amines (e.g. serotonin) and peptides (e.g. bombesin). PNEC play
a significant role in cell growth, differentiation, and branching morphogenesis in the developing
lung. NEBs are located at airway bifurcations and degranulate in the presence of hypoxia. It is
postulated that they act as hypoxia-sensitive chemoreceptors linked to the central nervous
system by their vagal afferent sensory fibres