Steel Plate Engineering Data-Volume 1

Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage

Revised Edition-1992

The material presented in this publication is for general information only and should
not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for
any given application. The publication of the material contained herein is not intended
as a representation or warranty on the part of American Iron and Steel Institute-or of
any other person named herein-that this information is suitable for any general or
particular use or of freedom from infringement of any patents. Anyone making use ot this
information assumes all liability arising from such use.

Published by

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

In cooperation with and editorial collaboration by

STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC.

Revised December 1992

 Acknowledgements

or the preparation of the original version of this technical

F publication on carbon steel plate materials and tanks for liquid

storage, the American Iron and Steel Institute retained Mr. I.E.
Boberg as author. For his skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute
gratefully acknowledges its appreciation. The American Iron and Steel
Institute established a Task Force to produce and supply a special section
on stainless steel tanks to this publication, and wishes to acknowledge its
appreciation to this group for a commendable effort.

The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and

valuable contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators
Association and representatives from the member steel producing
companies of American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later
revising and updating, the material for publication in this current edition.

Appreciation is expressed to the American Society for Testing and

Materials, the American Petroleum Institute and the American WaterWorks
Association for their constructive suggestions and review of this material.
Much of the illustrative material in this manual appears through their
courtesy.

American Iron and Steel Institute

It is suggested that inquiries for further information on designs of steel

tanks for liquid storage be directed to: Steel Plate Fabricators Association,
Inc., 3158 Des Plaines Avenue, Des Plaines, IL 60018.

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

1101 17th Street N.W., Suite 1300, Washington, D.C. 20036-4700

PRINTED IN USA 1992

ii
 Introduction

he purpose of this publication is to provide a design reference for

T the usual design of tanks for liquid storage. For unusual

applications, involving materials or liquids not covered within these
pages, nor referenced herein, designers should consult more complete
treatments of the subject material. For information related to design of bulk
storage vessels, refer to SPFA publication "USEFUL INFORMATION ON
THE DESIGN OF STEEL BINS AND SILOS" by John R. Buzek.

Part I contains general information pertaining to all types of carbon plate

steels. This section may seem elementary to the metallurgist or to one who
is thoroughly familiar with steel industry terminology, practice and
classification. For others, it should be helpful to an understanding of what
follows.

Part II deals with the particular carbon steels applicable to tanks for
liquid storage.

Part III covers the design of carbon steel tanks for liquid storage.

Part IV covers materials, design, and fabrication of stainless steel tanks

for liquid storage. It has been revised for this publication by the Committee
of Stainless Steel Producers of American Iron and Steel Institute.

Inquiries for further information on design of steel tanks should be

directed to Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.

iii
 Contents

Part I Materials-General ........................... 1

Part II Materials-Carbon Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage. 7
Part III Carbon Steel Tank Design .................... 9
Part IV Stainless Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage ........ 27

iv
 Part I
Materials-General
Designation
OSt of the steel specifications referred to in
M this manual are contained in the Book of
ASTM Standards, Part 4, which can be
obtained from the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
Each ASTM specification has a number such as
A283, and within each specification there may be
one or more grades or qualities. Thus an example of
a proper reference would be "ASTM designation
A283 grade C." In the interest of simplicity, such a
reference will be abbreviated to "A283-C."
ASTM standards are issued periodically to report
new specifications and changes to existing ones
having a suffix indicating the year of issue such as
"A283-C-79." Thus a summary such as is provided
here may gradually become incomplete, and it is
important that the designer of steel plate structures
have the latest edition of ASTM standards available
for reference.
Definitions
At least a nodding acquaintance with the terminology
of the steel industry is essential to an understanding
of steel specifications. This is especially true
because, in common with many other industries, a
number of shop and trade terms have become so
thoroughly implanted in the language that they are
used instead of more precise and descriptive
technical terms. The following discussions may be of
assistance.
Steelmaking Processes
Practically all steel is made by the open hearth
furnace process, the electric furnace process or the
basic oxygen process. ASTM specifications for the
different steels specify which processes are
permissible in each case.
Steelmaking Practice
The steels with which we are concerned are either
strand cast, or cast into ingots which may be hot
rolled to convenient size for further processing or
alternatively ingots may be hot rolled directly into
plates. In most steelmaking processes, the principal
chemical reaction is the combination of carbon and
oxygen to form a gas. If the oxygen available for this
reaction is not removed, the gaseous products
continue to evolve during solidification in the ingot.
Cooling and solidification progress from the outer rim
of the ingot to the center, and during the
solidification of the rim, the concentration of certain
elements increases in the liquid portion of the ingot.
The resulting product, known as RIMMED STEEL;
has marked differences in characteristics across the
section and from top to bottom of the ingot.
Control of the amount of gas evolved during
solidification is accomplished by the addition of a
deoxidizing agent, silicon being the most commonly
used. If practically no gas evolved, the result is
KILLED STEEL, so called because it lies quietly in
the ingot. Killed steel is characterized by more
uniform chemical composition and properties than
other types. Although killed steel is a quality item,
the end result is often not so specified by name, but
rather by chemical analYSis. Other deoxidizing
elements are used, but in general, a specified
minimum silicon content of 0.10% on heat analysis
indicates that a steel is "fully killed."
The term SEMIKILLED designates an intermediate
type of steel in which a smaller amount of deoxidizer
is added. Gas evolution is sufficiently reduced to
prevent rimming action, but not sufficiently reduced
to obtain the same degree of uniformity as attained
in fully killed steels. This controlled evolution of gas
during solidification tends to offset shrinkage,
resulting in a higher yield of usable material from the
ingot. As a practical matter, therefore, plates
originating from ingots are usually furnished as
semikilled steel unless a minimum silicon content of
0.10 0/0 on heat analysis is specified.
Chemical Requirements
A discussion of the effects of the many elements
added to steels would involve a metallurgical treatise
far beyond the scope of this work. However, certain
elements are common to all steels, and it may be of
help to briefly outline the effects of carbon,
manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur on the
properties of steel.
CARBON is the principal hardening element in
steel, and as carbon increases, hardness increases.
 Tensile strength increases, and ductility, notch .
toughness and weldability generally decrease wIth
increasing carbon content.
MANGANESE contributes to strength and
hardness, but to a. lesser degree than carbon.
Increasing the mf;mganese content generally
decreases ductilirv and weldability, but to a lesser
degree than carbon. Because of the more moderate
effects of manoanese, carbon steels, which attain
part of their strength through the addition of
manganese, exhibit greater ductility and improved
toughness than steels of similar strength achieved
through the use of carbon alone.
PHOSPHORUS. Phosphorus can result in
noticeably hlgher yield strength and decreases in
ductility, toughness, and weldability. In the steels
under discussion here, it is generally kept below a
limit of 0.04 0/0 on heat analysis.
SULFUR decreases ductility, toughness, and
weldability, and is generally kept below a limit of
0.05 0/0 on heat analysis.
HEAT ANALYSIS is the term applied to the
chemical analysis representative of a heat of steel
and is the analysis reported to the purchaser. It is
usually determined by analyzing, for such elements
as have been specified, a test ingot sample obtained
from the front or middle part of the heat during the
pouring of the steel from the ladle.
PRODUCT ANALYSIS is a supplementary
chf2tmical analysis of the steel in the semifinished or
fi mshed product form. It is not, as the term might
imply, a duplicate determination to confirm a
previous result.
Carbon Steel
Steel is usually considered to be carbon steel when:
1. No minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other
element added to obtain desired alloying effect;
2. When the maximum content specified for any of
the following elements does not exceed the
percentages noted: manganese 1.65, copper 0.60,
silicon 0.60;
3. When the specified minimum for copper does
not exceed 0.40 0/0.
There are some exceptions to these rules in High
Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels.
Alloy Steel
Steel is usually considered to be alloy when either:
1. A definite range or definite minimum quantity is
required for any of the elements listed above in (1)
under carbon steels, or
2. The maximum of the range for alloying elements
exceeds .one or more of the limits listed in (2) under
carbon steels.
Again, the HSLA steels demonstrate some
exceptions to these general rules.
2
High Strength Low Alloy Steels
These steels, generally with specified yield point of
50 ksi or higher and containing small amounts of
alloying elements, are often employed where high
strength or light weight is desired.
Mechanical Requirements
Mechanical testing of steel plates includes tension,
hardness, and toughness tests. The test specimens
and the tests are described in ASTM specifications
A6, A20, A370, and A673.
From the tension tests are determined the
TENSILE STRENGTH and YIELD POINT or YIELD
STRENGTH, both of which are factors in selecting
an allowable design stress, and the elongation over
either a 2" or 8" gage length. Elongation is a
measure of ductility and workability.
Toughness is a measure of ability to resist brittle
fracture. Toughness tests are generally not required
unless specified, and then usually because of a low
service temperature and/or a relatively high design
stress. Conditions under which impact tests are
required or suggested will be discussed in
connection with specific structures.
A number of tests have been developed to
demonstrate toughness, and each has its ardent
proponents. The test most generally accepted
currently, however, is the test using the Charpy V
Notch specimen. Details of this specimen and
method of testing can be found in ASTM-A370,
"Mechanical Testing of Steel Products," and in A20
and A673. Briefly described, an impact test is a
dynamic test in which a machined, notched
specimen is struck and broken by a single blow in a
specially designed testing machine . .The energy
expressed in foot-pounds required to break the
specimen is a measure of toughness. Toughness
decreases at lower temperatures. Hence, when
impact tests are required, they are usually performed
near temperatures anticipated in service.
Grain Size
Grain size is affected by both rolling practice and
deoxidizing practice. For example, the use of
aluminum as a deoxidizer tends to produce finer
grains. Unless included in the ASTM specification, or
unless otherwise specified, steels may be furnished
to either coarse grain or fine grain practice at the
producer's option. Fine grain steel is considered to
have greater toughness than coarse grain steels.
Heat-treated fine grain steels will have greater
toughness than as-rolled fine grain steels. The
designer is concerned only with the question of
under what conditions is it justifiable to pay the extra
cost of specifying fine grain practice with or without
heat treatment in order to obtain improved
toughness. Guidelines will be discussed in later
sections.
Heat Treatment
POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT consists of heating
the steel to a temperature between 1100F and
 1250F, furnace cooling until the temperature has
reduced to about 600F and then cooling in air.
Residual stresses will be reduced by this procedure.
NORMALIZING consists of heating the steel to
between 1600F and 1700F, holding for a sufficient
time to allow transformation, and cooling in air,
primarily to effect grain refinement.
QUENCHING consists of rapid cooling in a
suitable medium from the normalizing temperature. -
This treatment hardens and strengthens the steel
and is normally followed by tempering.
TEMPERING consists of reheating the steel to a
relatively low temperature (which varies with the
particular steel and the properties desired). This
temperature normally lies between 1000F and 1250F.
Through the quenching and tempering treatment,
many steels can attain excellent toughness, and at
the same time high strength and good ductility.
To illustrate the effect of heat treatment on
toughness and strength, refer to Figure 1-1. The
numerical values shown apply only to the specific
steel described. For other steels, other values would
apply, but the trends would be similar.
Referring to Figure 1-1, if the designer has
selected a Charpy V Notch value of "x" ft.-Ibs, as
desirable under special service conditions, it will be
noted that the steel illustrated would not be
acceptable at temperatures lower than about + 35F
in the as-rolled condition. In the normalized
condition, the same steel would be acceptable down
to about - 55F, and if quenched and tempered, to
about - 80F together with an increase in carbon,
manganese, or other hardening elements. Note,
however, that heat treatment adds to the cost and is
indicated only when service conditions indicate the
necessity for increased toughness and/or increased
strength.
Classification of Steel Plates
Plate steels are defined or classified in two ways.
The first claSSification, which has already been
discussed, is based on differences in chemical
. composition between CARBON STEELS, ALLOY
STEELS and HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY
STEELS. The second classification is based primarily
on the differences in extent of testing between
STRUCTURAL QUALITY STEELS and PRESSURE
VESSEL QUALITY STEELS. * It should not be
construed that these terms limit the use of a
particular steel. Pressure vessel steels are often
used in structures other than pressure vessels. The
distinction between structural and pressure vessel
qualities is best understood by a comparison of the
governing ASTM speCifications.
ASTM designation A6, General Requirements for
Rolled Steel Plates for Structural Use, covers a
group of common requirements and tolerances for
the steels listed therein, the chemical composition
* Pressure vessel quality steels were previously known as FLANGE
and FIRE-BOX qualities, historically inherited terms used to define
differences in the extent of testing, but which have no present-
day significance insofar as the end use of the steel is concerned.
3
and special requirements for which are outlined
under separate specification numbers such as A36,
A283, A514, etc.
Similarly, ASTM designation A20, General
Requirements for Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels,
covers a group of common requirements and
tolerances which apply to a list of about 35 steels,
the chemical composition and special requirements
for which are outlined under separate ASTM
specification numbers.
Both A6 and A20 define tolerances for thickness,
width, length, and flatness, but for the designer the
important difference is in the quality of the finished
product as influenced by the difference in the extent
of testing. A general comparison of the two qualities
follows:
1. Chemical Analysis - The requirements for
phosphorus and sulfur are more stringent for
pressure vessel quality than for structural quality.
Both A6 and A20 require one analysis per heat plus
the option of product analysis. Product analysis
tolerances for structural steels are given in A6.
2. Testing for mechanical properties.
a) In general, all specifications for structural
quality require two tension tests per heat, size
bracket and strength gradation. A6 specifies the
general location of the specimens.
b) In general all specifications for pressure
vessel quality require either one or two
transverse tension tests, depending on heat
treatment, from each plate as rolled, * (and as
heat-treated, if any). This affords a check on
uniformity within a heat. Specification A20 also
specifies the location from which the specimens
are to be taken.
3. Repair of surface imperfections and the
limitations on repair of surface imperfections are
more restrictive in A20 than A6.
Welding
Inasmuch as practically all plate structures are
fabricated by welding, a brief discussion of welding
processes follows.
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal by
establishing a metallurgical bond between them.
There are many different types of welding, but we
are concerned only with arc welding. Arc welding is
a fusion process in which the bond between the
metals is produced by reducing the surfaces to be
joined to a liquid state and then allowing the liquid to
solidify. The heat required to reduce the metal to
liquid state is produced by an electric arc. The arc is
formed between the work to be welded and a metal
wire which is called the electrode. The electrode may
be consumable and add metal to the molten pool, or
it may be nonconsumable and of a relatively inert
metal, in which case no metal is added to the
workpiece.
*The term "Plate as rolled" refers to the unit plate rolled from a
slab or directly from an ingot in relation to the number and
location of specimens, not to its condition.
 In the welding of steel plate structures, we are
concerned principally with five variations of arc
welding:
1. Shielded metal arc process (SMAW)
2. Gas metal arc process (GMAW)
3. Flux-cored arc process (FCAW)
4. Electrogas or Electroslag welding
5. Submerged arc process (SAW)
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
In the early days of arc welding, the consumable
electrode consisted of a bare wire. The pool of
molten metal was exposed to and adversely affected
by the gases in the atmosphere. It beca~~ obvious
that to produce welds with adequate ductility, the
molten metal must be protected or shielded from the
atmosphere.
This led to the development of the shielded metal
arc process, in which the electrode is coated ~ith
materials that produce a gas as the electrode IS
consumed which shields the arc from the
atmosphere. The coating also performs other
functions, including the possible adding of all~ying
elements as well as slag-forming materials which
float to the top and protect the metal during
solidification and cooling.
In practice, the process is limited primarily to
manual manipulation of the electrode. Not too many
years ago, this process was almost universally used
for practically all welding. It is still widely ,used for
position welding, i.e., welding other than In the down
flat pOSition. For the down flat position some of the
later processes described below are much faster and
hence less costly.
Gas Metal Arc Welding
In the gas-shielded arc welding process, the mOI.ten
pool of metal is protected by an externally supplied
gas, or gas mixture, fed through the electrode holder
rather than by decompOSition of the electrode
coating. The electrode is a continuous filler-~etal
(consumable) bare wire and the gases used Include
helium, argon, and carbon dioxide. In some cases, a
tubular electrode is used to facilitate the addition of
fluxes or addition of alloys and slag-forming
materials. Some methods of this process are called
MIG and C02 welding.
The gas-shielded process lends itself to high rates
of deposition and high weldin.g speeds. It can ~e
used manually, semi-automatically, or automatically.
Flux-Cored-Arc Welding
This is an arc-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with an arc between a
continuous filler-material (consumable) electrode and
the work. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained
within the electrode. Additional shielding mayor may
not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or
gas mixture.
4
Electrogas or Electroslag Welding
This process is a method of gas metal-arc welding or
flux-cored-arc welding wherein molding shoes confine
the molten weld metal for vertical position welding.
Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged arc welding is essentially an automatic
process, although .semi-automatic applications have
been used.
The arc between a bare electrode and the work is
covered and shielded by a blanket of granular,
fusible material deposited on the work ahead of the
electrode as it moves relative to the work. Filler
metal is obtained either from the electrode or a
supplementary welding rod. The fusible shielding
material· is known as melt or flux.
In submerged arc welding, there is no visible
evidence of the arc. The tip of the electrode and the
molten weld pool are completely covered by the flux
throughout the actual welding operation. High
welding speeds are achieved.
It will be obvious that the necessity of depositing a
granular flux ahead of the electrode lends itself best
to welding on work in the down flat pOSition.
Nevertheless, ingenious devices have been
developed for keeping flux in place, so that the
process has been applied to almost all positions
except overhead welding.
Weldability
It will be observed from the above that all arc
welding processes result in rapid heating of the
parent metal near the joint to a very high
temperature followed by chilling as the relatively
large mass of parent plate conducts heat away from
the heat-affected zone. This rapid cooling of the weld
metal and heat-affected zone causes local shrinkage
relative to the parent plate and resultant residual
stresses.
Depending on the chemical composition of the
steel, plate thickness and external conditions, special
welding precautions may be indicated. In very cold
weather, or in the case of a highly hardenable
material, pre-heating a band on either side of the
joint will slow down the cooling rate. In some cases
post-heat or stress relief as described earlier in this
section is employed to reduce residual stresses to a
level approaching the yield strength of the material at
the post heat temperature.
With respect to chemical composition, carbon is
the single most important element because of its
contribution to hardness, with other elements
contributing to hardness but to lesser degrees.
It is beyond our scope to provide a definitive
discussion on when special welding precautions are
indicated. In general, the necessity is dictated on the
basis of practical experience or test programs.
 Figure 1-1

Typical Effect of Heat Treatment on Notch Toughness

of a Fine-Grained C-Mn-Si Steel (1 Inch Thickness)

z Ouenched and Tempered

2
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a
en
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<t
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t.:)
a:
w
zw
=£
u x
I-
a
z
::>
>-
0..
cr:
~
:r C Mn SI AI
u 0.171.260.270.04
I
Tensile Strength I Yield Strength
As Rolled 77 .400 psi 62.300 psi
Normalized 76,600 psi 54.800 psi
Ouenched & Temp·d. 83.100 psi 63,000 psi

-100 -76 -60 -26 o 26 50 75

TEMPERATUR~OEGREESFAHRENHBT

5
 Part II
Materials-Carbon Steel Tanks
forLiquidStornge~~~~~~~~~_
Introduction
he intent of this publication is to provide
T information that may be useful in the design of
flat-bottom, vertical cylindrical tanks for the
storage of liquids/ at essentially atmospheric
pressure. Considerable attention has been directed
to tanks storing oil or water, which constitute most of
the tanks built. However, suggestions have been
included for storage of liquids meriting special
attention, such as acid storage tanks.
There are two principal standards in general use:
American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 650
covering "Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage," and
the American Water Works Association (AWWA)
Standard 0100 covering "Steel Tanks for Water
Storage." The abbreviations API and AWWA will be
used for the sake of convenience.
Both API and A WW A permit the use of a relatively
large number of different steel plate materials. In
addition, the basic API Standard 650 and AWWA
Standard 0100 Appendix C provide refined design
rules for tanks designed at higher stresses in which
the selection of steel is intimately related to stress
level, thickness and service temperature, as well as
the type and degree of inspection. As a result,
knowledge of available materials and their limitations
is equally as important as familiarity with design
principles. . with the specific welding and inspection rules have
Useful information concerning plate steel In
general has been covered in Part I. It is the purpose
of this section to assist in the selection of the proper
steel or steels in the construction of tanks for liquid
storage.
Factors Affecting Selection of Steel Plate
As you will learn in more detail in Part III of the
publication, both the AWWA ~nd the API offer . carbon steels is improved if part of the hardness and
optional methods of shell deSign. The AWWA baSIC
and the API Appendix A procedures are based on
simplified rules which use the same conservative
allowable stress regardless of the plate grade used.
The other design methods are based on refined
procedures that take into account plate grade,
service temperature, thickness and higher standards
7
of inspection. These procedures are represented by
the AWWA Appendix C and API basic standards.
It will be obvious that inasmuch as the simplified
design provisions of both standards allow identical
design stresses for any of the permisSible steels,
economic considerations will lead to the selection of
the least expensive steel that will be satisfactory for
the intended service.
Steel selection is not so simple and straightforward
in the case of tanks built in accordance with either
the API or the AWWA refined design provisions.
Unstressed portions of such tanks, including bottoms
and roofs, will probably be furnished as A36 unless
the purchaser specifies otherwise. The selection of
material for shell demands further attention.
The refined design provisions of both API and
AWWA resulted from a desire to utilize newer and
improved steels and modern .welding and inspection
techniques to build tanks of higher quality. The use
of higher stresses demanded attention to other
properties of steel, primarily toughness. An
exhaustive discussion of toughness is beyond the
scope of this work, but it can be pointed out that as
the stress level increases and temperature
decreases, toughness becomes more important.
At the stress level existing in API and AWWA
simplified design criteria tanks, experience has
demonstrated that the steels used in combination
been adequate for the service temperatures involved.
Upon venturing into the field of higher stress levels,
steels having greater toughness have been
considered a necessary corollary. Thanks to research
in metals, such steels are available. A number of
factors enter into making a proper selection. For
example, for any given steel, toughness generally
decreases as thickness increases. The toughness of
strength is obtained by a higher manganese content
and lower carbon at the same strength level. Fine-
grained steels exhibit greater toughness than coarse-
grained steels; this can be accomplished in the
deoxidizing process, and in heat treatment.
Thus as thickness increases and service
temperature decreases, more stringent attention
 must be paid to toughness from the standpoint of
materials selection and fabrication.
The steels permitted by API and AWWA Appendix
C for use at these higher stress levels have
statistically demonstrated that they do have adequate
toughness for the thickness and temperature ranges
shown. The API standard includes an Impact
Exemption chart which establishes requirements for
impact testing, based on thickness, temperature and
type of material.
In the final analysis the goal is to design the least
expensive but acceptable tank for a given set of
conditions. API and AWWA rules permitting higher
design stresses afford a fairly wide selection of
steels and stress levels to choose from, but they do
present a problem of selection.
A definitive treatment of economics is beyond the
scope of this work. Basically, the factors involved
are:
1. Cost of material
2. Weight of material as it affects freight and handling
3. Fabrication, erection and welding costs
4. Inspection costs
None of these factors is necessarily conclusive in
itself. In any given case, the lightest weight or lowest
material cost mayor may not be the least expensive
overall depending on the relative importance of the
factors listed above. The tank fabricator is usually in
the best position to judge which steel or combination
of steels will permit construction of the most
economical, safe tank.
It is generally unwise to specify a more expensive
steel than can be justified by the application.
There are material costs not associated with
quality. The cost of plates will vary according to both
width and thickness, and from this consideration tank
shell plate approximately 8' wide will generally be
used. Particular situations may dictate the use of
wider or narrower plates ·for all or part of a tank
shell.
Although both the API and AWWA Standard permit
the ordering of plates for certain parts of the tank on
a weight rather than thickness basis, there is no
longer any economic advantage in doing so.
behind technical progress. The extensive research
facilities of individual steel producers and American
Iron and Steel Institute are constantly searching for
ways to better serve the needs of our modern
economy. But before any construction standard such
as those of API and AWWA can accept and permit a
new material, it must have been established that it is
suitable for the structure in which it will be used.
Usually, but not always, acceptance by API and
AWWA implies prior acceptance by ASTM. Primarily
this is because ASTM specifications clearly delineate
the materials to be furnished, whereas any departure
from ASTM requires that the standards involved spell
out the requirements in corresponding detail. New
ASTM steels mayor may not eventually find their
way into the construction standards, depending on
economics and the proven properties of the
materials.
It should be left to those who have acquired the
necessary experience in tank design and
construction to pioneer in the use of materials not
approved by API or AWWA. The designer, the user,
and the fabricator assume added responsibilities in
working outside of recognized industry standards. On
the other hand, such pioneering by qualified
organizations in the past led to the progress
represented by the refined procedures of Appendix C
of AWWA D100 and API-650.
As in the case of steels already approved by API
and AWWA, time and experience will eventually lead
to recognition of the steel or combination of steels
that will yield the highest quality tank at least cost.

The Future
To this point, only those steels specifically permitted
by API or AWWA have been discussed. Other steels
have been used to a minor extent by those
thoroughly familiar with the problems involved.
Among these are the materials referred to in Part I
as high strength low alloy steels, manufactured either
as proprietary, trade named steels, or to ASTM
specifications. Some of these steels offer the
additional attraction of improved atmospheric
corrosion resistance, thus eliminating the necessity
for painting outside surfaces.
As is the case with all high strength materials, the
designer and user must assure themselves that
factors other than strength (toughness for example)
are properly allowed for in design and construction.
For obvious reasons, all construction codes Jag

8
 Part III
Carbon Steel Tank Design
Introduction
art III will consider the design of flat bottom,
P vertical, cylindrical, carbon steel tanks for the
storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric
pressure and near ambient temperatures. Practically
aI/ tanks in the United States within the scope of this
part are constructed in accordance with API 650
covering welded steel tanks for oil storage or AWWA
D100 covering welded steel tanks for water storage.
Tanks of other shapes and subject to gas pressure
in addition to liquid head; and tanks subject to
extreme low or high temperatures present radically
different problems. Consult ASME Section VIII, API
650 APPENDICES F & M, and API 620 for further
information.
API 650 and AWWA D100 contain detailed
minimum requirements covering inspection. Any
attempt to summarize the inspection requirements of
either standard would be voluminous and
dangerously misleading. It will be the purpose of Part
III to discuss only those portions necessary to
understand the various design bases. Anyone
concerned with fabrication, erection, or inspection
must obtain copies of the complete standards.
There are basic differences between the standards
of API and AWWA. API 650 is an industry standard
especially designed to fit the needs of the petroleum
industry. The oil tank is usually located in isolated
areas, or in areas zoned for industry where the
probable consequences of mishap are limited to the
owner's property. The owner is conscious of safety,
environmental concerns and potential losses in his
operations, and will adjust the minimum
requirements to suit more severe service conditions.
AWWA D100 is a public standard to be used for
the storage of water. The water storage tank is
usually located in the midst of a heavily populated
area, often on the highest elevation available. The
consequence of mishap could not be tolerated in the
public interest.
The API 650 and AWWA D100 standards have
been in existence for many decades and the
experience under them has been excellent. Before
applying them to tanks storing liquids other than
9
water or oil the designer should consider which
philosophy best fits his circumstances. In either case
the design standards provide minimum requirements
for safe construction and should not be construed as
a design manual covering all possible service
conditions.
General Design Formula for Tank Shells
Membrane theory, as it applies to cylindrical tanks
of large diameter, is elementary and needs no
explanation here.
Starting with the basic premise that circumferential
load in a cylinder equals the pressure times the
radius, then expressing Hand D in feet for
convenience, the circumferential load at any level in '
a vertical cylinder containing water weighing
62.4#/cu. ft., can be expressed as:
T=2.6HD (3-1)
where T = the circumferential load per inch of shell
height
H = depth in feet below maximum liquid level
D = tank diameter in feet
Then the minimum design thickness can be
expressed as:
t (inches) = 2.6 HDG + C (3-2)
SE
where G = contained liquid specific gravity
S = allowable design stress in psi
E = joint factor
C = corrosion allowance in inches
Obviously the ideal situation would be to vary the
thickness uniformly from bottom to top, but. since
steel plates are rolled to a uniform thickness, any
given course of plates is uniform throughout its
width . Thus a course designed for the stress at its
lower edge will have excess thickness at the top,
which will help carry part of the load in the lower
portion of the course above. API takes advantage of
this and designs each course of plates for the stress
existing one foot above the bottom of the course in
question. AWWA designs on the basis of stress
existing at the lower edge of each course.
Application of other methods of shell design is
permitted and explained in API 650 and AWWA 0100.
 Loads To Be Considered
As outlined in the preceding section, the thickness of
the shell is determined by the weight of the product
stored. However, there are other loads or forces
which a tank may have to resist and which are
common to both oil and water tanks.
Wind - Wind pressure is assumed to be 30 psf on
vertical plane surfaces which, when applying shape
factors of 0.6 and 0.5 respectively, becomes 18 psf
on the projected area of a cylindrical surface, and 15
psf on the projected area of a cone or surface of
double curvature as in the case of tank roofs. These
loads are considered to be the pressure caused by a
wind velocity of 100 MPH. For higher or lower wind
velocity, these loads are increased or decreased in
proportion to the square of the velocity ratio,
(V/100)2, where V is expected wind velocity
expressed in miles per hour. Other standards for
wind design may be specified such as ASCE 7-88
(formerly ANSI A58.1-1982), UBC, BOCA or SSBC.
Snow - Snow load is assumed to be 25 psf on the
horizontal projected area of the roof. Lighter loads
are not recommended even in areas where snow
does not occur because of the live loads that must
be resisted during construction and in service. Fixed
roofs on tanks are not · usually designed for non-
symmetrical loads but if such load conditions are
anticipated, these should be considered by the
designer.
Seismic - Because of their flexibility, flat-bottomed
cylindrical steel tanks have had an excellent safety
record in earthquakes. Steel has the ability to absorb
large ~mounts of energy without fracture.
Prior to the Alaskan earthquake of 1964, oil tanks
had an almost perfect record of surviving all known
western hemisphere earthquakes with essentially no
effects other than broken pipe connections. In the
Alaskan quake, the horizontal oscillations of the tank
contents caused vertical shell stresses of sufficient
magnitude to permanently deform the shell in a
peripheral accordion-like buckle near the bottom. But
again the properties of steel were sufficient to
accommodate this deformation without fracture of the
shell plates. 4
As a result of this satisfactory experience record, it
is generally considered that earthquake is not an
important consideration in oil tanks where the height- .
to-diameter ratio is generally small.
The record of water tanks has been
correspondingly good, but in the case of a standpipe
where the height-to-diameter ratio is high, the
problem is obviously aggravated.
AWWA 0100 and API 650 contain
recommendations for the seismic design of tanks.
Seismic probability maps of the United States can be
found in each. If applicable, local conditions should
be investigated. UBC and ANSI standards may be
specified but are not as design specific as AWWA
0100 and API 650 for flat bottom , vertical, cylindrical
tanks.
10
Negative Pressure (such as partial vacuum) -
Most tanks of this nature at some time will be
subject to a negative pressure (partial vacuum) by
design or otherwise. Approximately one-half oz. per
square inch negative pressure is built into the shell
stability formulae in AWWA 0100 and API 650 .
AWWA 0100 tanks are not usually designed for
negative pressure but negative pressure due to the
evacuation of water is considered in the venting
requirements. Occasionally API 650 tanks a.re
specified to resist a certain negative pressure,
usually expressed in inches of water column. To
meet these requirements the shell and roof must be
designed to resist the specified negative pressure. It
is left to the discretion of the designer to design for
the negative pressure as part of the specified shell
and roof loads or in addition to said loads. Part III of
volume 2 provides design information for negative
pressure on cylinders. Also if the negative pressure
occurs while the tank is empty, the weight of the
bottom plate should be compared against the
specified negative pressure.
Top and Intermediate Wind Girders
Open top tanks require stiffening rings at or near the
top of the shell to resist distortion or buckling due to
wind. These stiffening rings are referred to as wind
girders. In addition some tank shells of open top and
fixed roof tanks require intermediate wind girders to
prevent buckling due to wind. API 650 and AWWA
0100 provide differing design requirements for
intermediate wind girders ano are explained in the
examples of Appendix A. The formula for maximum
height of unstiffened shell is based on the
MODIFIED MODEL BASIN FORMULA for the critical
uniform external pressure on thin-wall tubes free
from end loadings.
Anchor Bolts
The normal proportions of oil tanks are such
(diameter greater than height) that anchor bolts are
rarely needed. It is quite common, however, for the
height of water tanks to be considerably greater than
the diameter. There is a limit beyond which there is
danger that any empty tank will overturn when
subjected to the maximum wind velocity. As a good
rule of thumb, if C in the following formula exceeds
0.66, anchor bolts are required:
C = 2M where (3-3)
dw
M = overturning moment due to wind, ft. lb.
d = diameter of shell in feet
w = weight of shell and portion of roof supported by
shell, lb.
Design tens!on load per bolt = 4M - W (3-4)
ND N
where M and Ware as above and
N = number of anchor bolts
D = diameter of anchor bolt circle, feet
The diameter of the anchor bolts shall be
determined by an allowable stress of 15000 psi on
 the net section at the root of the thread with
appropriate stress increase for wind or earthquake
loading.
Because of proportionately large loss of section by
corrosion on small areas, it is recommended that no
anchor bolt be less than 1.25" in diameter.
Maximum desirable spacing of anchors as
suggested by API 650 and AWWA D100 is 10'-0.
This spacing is a matter of judgment and should
remain flexible to facilitate plate seams, nozzles and
other interferences. For example, for a shell plate 10
pi feet long, it would be advantageous to use three
anchors per plate and space the anchors at
approximately 10.5 feet.
Obviously the anchor bolt circle must be larger
than the tank diameter, but care should be taken so
interference will not occur between the anchor bolts
and foundation reinforcing.
Volume 2 part VII provides design rules for anchor
bolt chairs.
Corrosion Allowance
As a minimum for all tanks, bottom plates should be
1/4" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If
corrosion allowance is required for bottom plates, the
as-furnished thickness (including corrosion
allowance) should be specified. The thickness of
annular ring or sketch plates beneath the tank shell
may be required to be thicker than the remainder of
the bottom plates and any corrosion allowance
should be specified as applicable to the calculated
thickness or the minimum thickness.
API 650 and AWWA D100 specify minimum shell
plate thicknesses based on tank diameter for
construction purposes. If corrosion allowance is
necessary, it should be added in accordance with the
respective standard. A required minimum above
those stated in the standards may also be specified,
but it should be made clear if this minimum includes
the necessary corrosion allowance.
As a minimum for all tanks, roof plates should be
3/16" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If
corrosion allowance is necessary it should be added
in accordance with the respective standard. A
required minimum greater than 3/16" in thickness
may be specified; but it should be made clear if this
minimum includes the necessary corrosion
allowance.
If corrosion allowance is necessary for roof
supporting structural members, it should be added in
accordance with the respective standard. If a
corrosion allowance requirement different from the
standards is necessary, it should be made clear what
parts of the structure require the additional thickness
(flange or web, one side or both sides) and/or the
minimum thickness necessary.
API Standard 650
General
The following information is based on API 650,
eighth edition. Anyone dealing with tanks should
11
obtain a copy of the complete standard.
Shell Design
API requires that all joints between shell plates shall
be butt welded. Lap joints are permitted only in the
roof and bottom and in attaching the top angle to the
shell.
API 650 offers optional shell design procedures.
The refined design procedures permit higher design
stresses in return for a more refined engineering
design, more rigorous inspection, and the use of
shell plate steels which demonstrate improved
toughness.
The probability of detrimental notches is higher at
discontinuities such as shell penetrations. The basic
requirements pertaining to welding, stress relief, and
inspection relative to the design procedures are
important.
Tank shells designed in accordance with refined
procedures will be thinner than the simplified
procedure, and thus will have reduced resistance to
buckling under wind load when empty. The shell may
or may not need to be stiffened, but must be
checked. This is discussed in the section on wind
girders.
Bottoms
Tank bottoms are usually lap welded plates having a
minimum nominal thickness of 1/4". After trimming,
bottom plates shall extend a minimum of 1 inch
beyond the outside edge of the weld attaching the ,
bottom to the shell plates. The attachment weld shall
be a continuous fillet inside and out as shown in the
following table of sizes:
Maximum t of Minimum Size of
Shell Plate Fillet Weld*
Inches Inches
3/16 3116
over 3/16 to 3/4 1/4
over 3/4 to 1-1/4 5/16
over 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 3/8
* Maximum size Fillet 1/2"
Butt-welded bottoms are permissible, but because of
cost, are seldom used except in special services.
Butt-welded bottoms are usually welded from the top
side only using backing strips attached to the
underside. Welding from both sides presents
Significant construction difficulties in order to perform
the work in a safe manner.
Top Angle
Except for open-top tanks and the special
requirements applying to self-supporting roofs, tank
shells shall be provided with top angles of not less
than the following sizes:
Minimum
Tank Diameter Size of Top Angle
35 feet and less 2 x 2 x 3/16
over 35 to 60 ft. incl. 2 x 2 x 1/4
over 60 feet 3 x 3 x 3/8
Roofs
The selection of roof type depends on many factors.
In the oil industry, many roofs are selected to
minimize evaporation losses. Inasmuch as the
ordinary oil tank is designed to withstand pressures
only slightly above atmospheric, it must be vented
against pressure and vacuum. The space above the
liquid is filled with an .air-va~or r:nix~ure .. W~en a
nearly empty tank is filled with liqUid this air-vapor
mixture expands in the heat of the day an~ the .
resulting increase in pressure causes venting. DUring
the cool of the night, the remaining air-vapor mixture
contracts, more fresh air is drawn in, more vapor
evaporates to saturate the air-vapor mixture, and the
next day the cycle is repeated . Either the loss of
valuable "light ends" to the atmosphere from filling,
or the breathing loss due to the expansion-
contraction cycle, is a very substantial loss and has
led to the development of many roof types designed
to minimize such losses.
The floating roof is probably the most popular of
all conservation devices and is included as
Appendices to API Standard 650. The prin?ipl.e of
the floating roof is simple. It floats on the liqUid
surface; therefore there is no vapor either to be
expelled on filling or to expand or contract from day
to night.
Inasmuch as all such conservation devices are
represented by proprietary and often pat~nted
designs, they are beyond the scope of t~IS
discussion, which will be limited to the fixed roofs
covered by API Standards.
API 650 provides rules for the design of several
types of fixed roofs.
The most common fixed roof is the-column
supported cone roof, except for relatively small
diameters where the added cost of a self-supporting
roof is more than offset by saving the cost of a
structural framing. The dividing line cannot be
accurately defined because different pr~~tice~ and
available equipment may affect the decl~lon I~ any
given case. If economy is the only consl~eratlon .the
purchaser would be well advised to specify the size
of tank and let the manufacturer decide whether or
not to use a self-supporting roof.
A self-supporting roof is sometimes ~esirable for.
special service conditions such as an Intern~1 floating
roof, or where cleanliness and ease of cleantng are
especially important.
AU roofs and supporting structures shall be
designed to support dead ··Ioad plus a live load of not
less than 25 psf.
. Roof plates shall have a minimum nominal
thickness of 3/16 inch. Structural members shall
have a minimum thickness of 0.17 inch.
Roof plates shall be attached to t~e top angle with
a continuous fillet weld on the top Side only:
1. If the continuous fillet weld between the roof
plates and the top angle does not exceed 3/16
inch and the slope of the roof at the top-angle
attachment does not exceed 2 inches in
12
12 inches, and when the cross-sectional area of
the roof-to-shell junction does not exceed
A = 0.153W (3-5)
30,800 tan 8
where W = total weight of the shell and roof
framing supported by the shell in
pounds
8 = angle between the roof and a
horizontal plane at the roof-to-shell
juncture in degrees .
the joint may be considered to be frangi~le a~d,
in case of excessive internal pressure, Will fall
before failure occurs in the tank shell joints or
the shell-to-bottom joint. Failure of the roof-to-
shell joint is usually initiated by buckling of the
top angle and followed by teari~g of the 3/16
inch continuous weld at the penphery of the
roof plates.
2. Where the weld size exceeds 3/16 inch, or
where the slope of the roof at the top-angle
attachment is greater than 2 inches in 12
inches, or when the cross-sectional area of the
roof-to-shell junction exceeds the value
. calculated per equation 3-5, or where fillet
welding from both sides is specified, emergency
venting devices in accordance with API
Standard 2000 shall be provided by the
purchaser. The manufacturer shall provide a
suitable tank connection for the device and the
drawings should reflect the need for such a
device to be supplied by the customer. The top
angle may be smaller than previously noted
when a frangible joint is specified.
Supported Cone Roofs - Supported cone roofs are
usually lap welded from the top side only with
continuous full fillet welds. Plates shall not be
attached to supporting members, and shall be
attached to the top angle by a continuous 3/16" fillet
weld or smaller on the top side if specified by
purchaser.
The usual slope of supported cone roofs is 3/4" in
12". Increased slopes should be used with caution .
The columns transmit their loads directly to the
supporting soil through bases resting on but not
attached to the bottom plates. Some differential
settlement can be expected. A relatively flat roof will
follow such variations without difficulty. As pitch
increases, a cone acquires stiffness, and instead of
smoothly following a revised contour, unSightly local
buckles may develop. In general, slopes exceeding
1-1/2" in 12" may be undesirable.
Rafters in direct contact with the roof plates may
be considered to receive adequate lateral support
from friction, but this does not apply to truss chord
members, rafters deeper than 15", or roof slopes
greater than 2" in 12".
Rafters are spaced so that, in the outer ring, their
centers are not more than 6.28 feet apart at the
shell. Spacing on inner rings does not exceed
5.5 feet. All parts of the supporting structure shall be
so proportioned that the sum of the maximum
calculated stresses shall not exceed the allowable
r'
I
stresses as stated in the appropriate section of API
650.
Self-Supporting Roofs - Self-supporting cone,
dome or umbrella roofs shall conform to the
appropriate requirements of API 650 unless
otherwise specified by the purchaser.
Accessories
API 650 contains specific designs for approved
accessories which include all dimensions,
thicknesses, and welding details. For all cases,
OSHA requirements must be satisfied.
No details are shown, but specifications are
included for stairways, walkways and platforms. All
such structures are designed to support a moving
concentrated load of 1000 Ibs. and the handrail shall
be capable of withstanding a load of 200 Ibs. applied
in any direction at any point on the top rail.
Normally all pipe connections enter the tank
through the lower part of the shell. Historically tank
diameters and design stress levels have been such
that the elastic movement of the tank shell under
load has not been difficult to accommodate.
With the trend to larger tanks and higher stresses,
the elastic movement of the shell can become an
important factor.
Steel being an elastic material, the tank shell
increases in diameter when subjected to internal
pressure. The flat bottom acts as a diaphragm and
restrains outward movement of the shell. As a result,
the shell is greater in diameter several feet above
the bottom than at the bottom.
Openings near the bottom of the tank shell will
tend to rotate with vertical bending of the shell under
hydrostatic loading. Shell openings in this area,
having attached piping or other external loads,
should be reinforced not only for the static conditions
but also for any loads imposed on the shell
connections by the restraint of the attached piping to
the shell rotations. Preferably the external loads
should be minimized or the shell connections
relocated outside the rotation area.
Tanks Other Than for Oil or Water
There are manyapplicatior1s for steel tanks other
than the storage of oil or water. Since most such
applications are industrial in nature for which no
industry standard has been developed, it is quite
common to use API Standard 650 as a basis for
design and construction. This is a logical approach
provided that problems peculiar to the contents
stored are taken into account.
Tanks designed to store liquified gases at or near
atmospheriC pressure are beyond the scope of this
document. However, those interested in such storage
are referred to API 620 appendices Rand Q.
Molasses Tanks - Molasses presents no unusual
problems other than the fact that its specific gravity
is about 1.48, and the shell design must, of course,
take this into account. It is quite common to require
13
such tanks to be built in accordance with API 650.
It must be remembered that the API Appendix A
design .stress of 21 ,000 psi at 85 0/0 joint factor is
predicated on the tank being full of water during test,
and that the actual stress in petroleum service is
usually considerably less. Because molasses is
heavier than water, the full design stress is present
in service. Thus if the designer is depending on the
long and successful record _of tanks designed in
accordance with API 650 Appendix A design, it
would be more consistent with the true situation to
use a somewhat lower design stress.
On the other hand, on tanks built to the basic
design ·of API 650 this difference between usual
petroleum service stress and design stress does not
exist. However, the addition of a corrosion allowance
is required when warranted by service conditions.
Acid and Caustic ·Tanks - To attempt a
comprehensive discussion of the subject of storing
acids and caustic solutions is beyond the scope of
this work. While stainless steel or other high alloy
materials are often required, some acids and caustic
solutions can be stored successfully in carbon steel
tanks, and the following discussion will be limited to
such application.
In the absence of personal experience, information
concerning the corrosive properties of many common
solutions can be found in chemistry and chemical
engineers' handbooks or in the publications of the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
However, it should be noted that very small
differences in content (such as slight impurities) or
conditions can influence the corrosive effect of many
chemicals.
As an example, concentrated sulfuric acid does
not attack carbon steel whereas dilute sulfuric acid is
extremely corrosive. Thus concentrated sulfur~c acid
can often be safely stored in carbon steel tanks
provided proper precautions are taken to cope with
dilute acid that may form in the upper portions of the
tank when acid fumes and water condensation meet
in the vapor space.
Thus one fundamental requirement for an acid
tank is that the interior of the tank be smooth without
crevices or pockets where dilute acid condensation
can collect. Self-supporting roofs are good practice.
If the design of the roof or size of tank requires
structural stiffeners, it is desirable that they be
placed on the outside. If the roof is lap welded, it
should be welded underneath as well as the top. The
connection of the roof to the shell should eliminate
any pocket which might exist at the top of a standard
API tank.
When using Appendix A design basis of API 650,
a lower design stress should be considered for the
same reasons as given under "Molasses Tanks."
The tank user should specify the amount of corrosion
allowance, if any required, for his particular purpose.
In the case of carbon steel tanks storing caustic
solutions, both the concentration and temperature
are important. Carbon steel tanks should not be used
if the combination of concentration and temperature
 exceeds the following values and may in some cases
be unsatisfactory below these limits:
50 0/0 and 120F
25 0/0 and 150F
5 0/0 and 200F
It is most important to make sure that the specified
design conditions are not exceeded in service.
Automatic temperature controls are recommended.
In addition to ordinary corrosion, the principal
problem in caustic tanks is one referred to as
"caustic embrittlement" or "stress corrosion
cracking." In the presence of high local stresses this
type of corrosion can rapidly result in cracks and
leaks. Local stress concentrations approaching the
yield point can exist at shell penetrations, in the
vicinity of welds and at other details. In caustic
service these are the points where stress corrosion
cracking can occur.
Thus, in the case of caustic storage tanks, all
fittings penetrating the shell or bottom, or any
permanent attachments welded to the,interior surface
thereof, should be installed in a plate in the shop
and the entire assembly thermally stress relieved.
Essentially, this leaves only main seam welding to be
performed in the field.
Self-supporting roofs without structural members
immersed in the tank contents are advisable. It is not
necessary, however, to eliminate crevices and
pockets as is recommended for acid tanks. For
caustic tanks, a standard API roof is acceptable.
Certain additional precautions in welding should be
taken in both acid and caustic tanks. Lap welds in
the bottom and the inside bottom-to-shell fillet should
be made in at least two passes. Since the bottom-to-
shell weld usually consists of a fillet ,inside and out, it
is advisable to provide a water stop (complete
penetration) at each vertical shell joint so that if a
leak does occur in the inside fillet, channeling will be
limited to one plate length.
All other shell joints should be designed for
complete penetration and fusion. The inside passes
should be made first. The later welding of outside
passes will partially heat treat and reduce residual
stresses in the inside weld. If anticipated corrosion
indicates a bottom plate thickness greater than 3/8",
the bottom should be butt welded and the same
sequence followed; i.e. weld the inside passes first.
Inasmuch as all welds create locally high residual
stresses, all brackets, welding lugs, etc. should be
kept to a minimum, be located on the outside, and
attached with small-diameter electrodes to limit the
heat input and consequently the effect on the inside
surface.
When the corrosive attack is considered sufficiently
severe to admit the possibility of local penetration,
but not severe enough to warrant the expense of
high alloy or clad steel plates, the tank is sometimes
supported on a structural grillage to permit
inspection from the under side.
14
AWWA Standard 0100
General
The following information is based on the AWWA
Standard D100 issued in 1984. Anyone dealing with
tanks should obtain a copy of the complete standard.
With the exception of shells, roofs and
accessories, the comments made in connection with
API tanks also apply to AWWA tanks and will not be
repeated here in d~tail.
Bottoms may be either lap or butt welded with a
minimum thickness of 1/4 inch.
AWWA does not specify top angle sizes, but the
rules of API represent good practice.
Shell Design
AWWA D100 offers two different design bases, the
standard or basic design and the alternate deSign
basis as outlined in Appendix C. The alternate
design basis permits higher design stresses, in
return for a more refined engineering design, more
rigorous inspection, and the use of shell plate steels
with improved toughness.
AWWA D 100 Appendix C includes steels of
significantly higher strength levels and
correspondingly higher design stress levels. This
introduces new design problems. For example, for
A517 steels, the permissible design stress of 38333
psi will result in reaching the minimum required
nominal thickness several courses below the tank
top. It would be uneconomical to continue the
relatively expensive steel into courses of plates not
determined by stress. The obvious answer is to use
less expensive steels in the upper rings. To govern
this transition, Appendix C adds the followif}g
requirements:
"In the interest of economy, upper courses may be
of weaker material than used in the lower courses of
shell plates, but in no instance shall the calculated
stress at the bottom of any course be greater than
permitted for the material in that course. A plate
course may be thicker than the course below it
provided the extra thickness is not used in any stress
or wind stability calculation. I I
Compliance with this requirement will probably
result in the course or courses immediately below
the transition point being somewhat heavier than
required by stress. Using a steel of intermediate
strength level as a transition between A517 steel and
carbon steel may help the situation. In any event the
use of two or more steels will result in plates of the
same thickness made of different steels. Careful
attention to plain marking for positive identification
becomes very important. Consideration might be
given to varying plate widths for different materials of
the same thickness to aid in identification in the
event markings are lost.
Roofs
Whereas oil tanks are strictly utilitarian, a pleasing
appearance is generally an important consideration
in the case of water tanks. Since the roof line has an
 important effect on appearance, this striving for
beauty has led to a wide variety of roof designs.
Often a self-supporting roof, such as an ellipsoid,
will extend a considerable distance above the
cylindrical portion of the shell, and the high water
level will extend up into the roof itself. The resultant
upward pressure on the roof is resisted by the
combination of the roof dead load and the weld jOint
between the roof and shell.
AWWA requires that for all roof plate surfaces in
contact with water, the minimum metal thickness
shall be 1/4". Roof plate surfaces not in contact with
water may be 3/16".
As applied to rolled shapes for roof framing, the
foregoing minimum thicknesses shall apply to the
I mean thickness of the flanges regardless of web
thickness.
Roof plates not subject to hydrostatic pressure
from tank contents may be welded from the top side
only with either a continuous full fillet or butt joint
f weld with 90 0/0 jOint penetration. Where roof plates
are subjected to hydrostatic pressure, the roof may
be continuous double lap welded or butt welded.
Roof supports or stiffeners, if used, shall be in
accordance with current specifications of the
American Institute of Steel Construction covering
structural steel for buildings, with the following
exceptions:
1. Roof plates are considered to provide the
necessary lateral support by friction between
roof plates and rafters to eliminate reduction in
f the basic allowable compressive stress, except
where trusses and open web joists are used for
rafters, or rafters having nominal depth greater
than 15 in. or rafters having a slope greater
than 2 in 12.
2. The roof, rafter and purlin depth may be less than
fb
I 600,000
times the span length in incheSl where fb is the
maximum bending stress in psi, providing slope
I of the roof is 3/4 to 12 or greater.
3. The maximum slenderness ratio (Ur) for roof
support columns shall be 175.
4. Roof support columns shall be designed as
I secondary members.
5. Roof trusses, if any, shall be placed above the
maximum water level in climates where ice may
I form.
6. Roof rafters shall preferably be placed above
maximum water level, although their lower
ends, where connected to the tank shell, may
I project below the water level.
Accessories
AWWA does not provide detailed designs of tank
I fittings, but specifies the following:
1. Two manholes shall be provided in the first ring
of the tank shell. Manholes shall be either a
24" diameter or at least 18" x 22" when
I elliptical manholes are used.
2. The purchaser shall specify pipe connections,
I 15
sizes, and locations. Due to freezing hazard
these connections are normally made through
the tank bottom and as near to the shell as
practical. A concrete valve box may be provided
to permit access to piping. This valve box must
be designed as a part of the ringwall.
3. If a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at
least 4" high. If not required, then the
connecting pipe shall extend at least 4" above
the tank bottom.
4. The purchaser shall specify the overflow size
and type. A stub overflow is recommended in
cold climates. If an overflow to ground is .
required, it should be brought down the outside
of the tank and discharged onto a splash block
or other appropriate drainage structure. Inside
overflows are not recommended. They are
easily damaged by ice, and a failure in the
overflow will empty the tank to the level of the
break.
5. An outside vertical ladder shall begin 8 feet (or
as specified) above the tank bottom and afford
access to the roof. Need for access to AWWA
tanks is infrequent and a conscious effort is
made to render access difficult for unauthorized
personnel.
6. The contractor shall provide access to the roof
hatches and vents. The access must be
reached from the outside tank ladder and fulfill
the AWWA D100 requirements consistent with
the roof slope or as specified by the purchaser.
7. A roof door or hatch whose least dimensions
are 24" x 15", with a curb 4" high, provided
with a hinged door and clasp for locking shall
be placed near the outside tank ladder. A
second opening of at least 20" in diameter C;nd
with a 4" neck must be provided near the
8.
center of the tank. Additional openings may be
required for ventilation during painting.
Safety devices shall be provided on ladders as
required by federal or local regulations, or as
9.
purchaser so specifies.
Adequate venting shal/be provided to
accommodate the maximum filling and
emptying rates. These rates should be specified
by the purchaser.
Venting for outflow (partial vacuum condition)
is based upon the unrestricted vent area and
the pressure differential that can safely be
allowed between the outside and inside of the
tank. This differential is established by
quantifying the strength of the roof and shell
above and beyond other structural
requirements; for example, the margin of extra
strength of the shell against buckling with
respect to the design wind load.
Venting for inflow (pressure condition) is
again based upon the restricted vent area and
the pressure differential that can safely be
allowed before lifting the roof plates. For
example, if 3/16" roof plates are used, the
pressure differential would be 7.65 PSF, 0.053
 psi, or 1.47 inches water column. If the Calculate she" thickness using the basic equation:
differential is limited to the weight of the roof, t =2.6 hp 0 G (3-8)
the shell/roof juncture does not become sE
involved. The overstress in the shell would be
All nomenclature in the above and following
minimal.
equations is defined in the AWWA 0100 standard.
The equation for outflow vent capacity is:
Notice that hp in the above equation is the full liquid
Q = O.SAx110x Y'f'x [(~~)"2B6 -1t (3-6)
height above the design point rather than h - 1 as
used in API 650.
The calculation for ring five (top ring) is:
where Q = vent capacity in cubic feet per second
A = minimum clear vent open area in t5 = 2.6 x 7.66 x 150 x 1.0 = 0.1547"
square feet 19,330 x 1.0
T = air temperature in degrees
The thicknesses for the remaining rings calculate:
Rankine
Pa = atmospheric pressure · in psia hp = 15.63' S = 19,330 psi t4 = 0.3152"
Pi = pressure in tank during withdrawal hp = 23.58' S = 23,330 psi t3 = 0.3942"
in psia hp = 31.54' S = 23,330 psi t2 = 0.5273"
The equation for inflow vent capacity is: hp = 39.50' S = 23,330 psi t1 = 0.6603"

Q = O.SA {6.2S x 106 [(;!) 0.286 -1]} '/2 (3-7)

using A36 steel for rings 4 and 5 and A573 GR70 for
rings 1, 2, and 3. Ring 5 will be increased to 0.3125"
because of minimum thickness requirements in
AWWA 0100.
Shell stability is calculated using the basic
equation:
h = 10.625 X 106 x t (3-9)
Pw (0/t)1.5
The calculation for ring five (top ring) is:
APPENDIX A
hs = 10.625 X 106 x 0.3125 = 17.54'> 7.96'
Design Example 18 x (150/0.3125)1.5
For typical examples of tank design consider two For each ring the h calculated is compared to the
tanks 150 feet in diameter by 40 feet nominal height actual height of shell above the design point. When
with flat cone supported roofs. Consider one tank per h calculates less than the height of sheH above, the
AWWA 0100 and the other tank per API 650. See shell is unstable. This may be corrected by
figure 3A·1 for tank dimensions. thickening the shell or adding a stiffening ring. For
These examples are for illustration only and are this example we will consider only thickening the
not to be used for an actual design or construction. shell.
Design of similar tanks should be accomplished by h4 = 17.73'> 15.92'
competent people experienced in the design of like h3 = 21.76' < 23.87'
structures and the use of applicable standards.
For the AWWA tank consider Appendix C, shell Recalculate the thickness of ring 3 by using a lower
design by equation 3-10 (AWWA 0100), and zone strength steel (A36).
one fixed percentage seismic loads. 13 = 0.4758"
For the API 650 tank consider the standard (non Recalculate:
Appendix A), shell design by the variable point
h3 = 26.37' > 23.87'
method, 1/16 inch corrosion allowance on the shell
only, and zone one API 650 seismic loads. The shell is now stable above ring 3; continuing;
Consider design metal temperature (OMT) of 20°F, h2 = 34.10' > 31.83'
standard 100 mph wind loads, standard 25 PSF roof h1 = 45.67'> 39.79'
loads, a maximum liquid content height of 39'-6, and The entire shell is now stable for a design wind
a design specific gravity of 1.0 for both tanks. velocity of 100 mph. See table 3A-1 for shell
The economics of plate selection with respect to thicknesses before and after minimum thickness and
width and grade and structural selection will differ wind stability adjustments.
with location and construction capabilities. Factors to For 100 mph wind load, design loads are 18 PSF
consider are plate width and grade availability in a on projected areas of cylindrical surfaces (shell) and
particular locality and structural rolling schedules. 15 PSF on projected areas of double curved
Also the availability of plate and structural stock in a surfaces (roof). Based upon the tank geometry and
particular locality will sometimes influence the the design loading, the wind shear is calculated:
selection of material. Further discussion of material
selection wi" be beyond the scope of this paper. Shell = 150 x 40.04 x 18 = 108,113Ibs.
The following design example covers the AWWA Roof = ·150 x 4.69 x 0.5 x 15 = 5,273
0100 tank. Total = 113,386 Ibs.

16
 The minimum required coefficient of friction
against sliding is:
Wind Shear = 113,386 = 0.154 (3-10)
Tank Weight 734,250
. This coefficient is well below established values
which range as high as 0.4 to 0.5.
The wind moment at the base of the shell is
calculated:
Shell = 108,113 x 20.02 = 2,164,421 ft-Ibs.
Roof = 5,273 x 41.60 = 219,357
Total = 2,383,778 ft-Ibs.
The ratio, C =2M/dw, calculates to be 0.076 < 0.666;
therefore, no anchors are required to resist
overturning due to wind.
Roof framing concepts, layout and detail vary
among tank designers and suppliers. Rafter spacing
is dependent upon roof loading and plate thickness.
For reasons .of plate strength and construction a
maximum rafter spacing of approximately 7.00 feet is
desirable. For this example consider nine girders and
outer columns, 36 inner rafters and 72 outer rafters
(see figure 3A-2). The outer columns will be located
on a 42'-6" radius. The rafter spacing is 6.54 feet at
the shell and 6.92 feet at the girder. Consider 25
PSF snow load and 7.65 PSF (3/16" roof plate) dead
load.
USing an inner support radius of 2.38 ft, which is
dependent upon the method of supporting the inner
rafters, the maximum design length of the inner
rafters is 39.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The
maximum design moment calculates to be 27,580 ft-
Ibs. Using an AISC allowable stress of 0.66 x Fy, a
section modulus of 13.93 in 3 is required. A W12 x
14 section with a section modulus of 14.9 in 3 is
chosen. See figure 3A-3 for a typical rafter loading.
The maximum design length for the outer rafters is
35.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The maximum
design moment calculates to be 27,890 ft-Ibs. A
section modulus of 14.09 in3 is required and again
we will choose a W12 x 14 section.
The rafter reactions are placed on the girder at the
locations as determined by the roof framing layout.
The outer rafter reactions are 3480 Ibs.; the inner
rafter reactions are 2840 Ibs.; and the girder design
length is 29.07 ft. The maximum design moment
calculates to be 150,440 ft-Ibs. Again using AISC
allowable stresses, a section modulus of 75.98 in3 .is
required. AW18 x 46 section with a section modulus
of 78.80 in3 is chosen. See figure 3A-4 for a typical
girder loading.
For the center column a design load of 74,900 Ibs.
is calculated from the accumulated reactions of the
inner rafters. Using ·AISC design procedures an
allowable compressive stress is determined based
upon the unsupported column length of 486.5 inches
and a calculated slenderness ratio of 131. A 10"
diameter schedule 20 pipe will meet the design
criteria. See figure 3A-5 for typical center column
detail.
For the outer columns we have chosen an 8"
17
diameter schedule 20 pipe based upon a design load
of 41,400 Ibs., an unsupported column length of
470.6 inches, and a slenderness ratio of 159; using
the same design criteria as the center column. See
figure 3A-6 for a typical outer column detail.
For zone 1 AWWA seismic loading the entire water
and dead load mass will be subject to an
acceleration of 0.025. For the seismic shear a simple
calculation of 0.025 times the accumulated weight of
the water and dead load equals 1,102,800 Ibs. For
seismic moment the center of gravity of the dead
load is a matter of geometry. The water mass is
divided into the impulsive and convective modes with
appropriate masses and centers of gravity for each.
USing the procedure and nomenclature from AWWA
0100:
WT = 43,556,600 Ibs.
W1 = 0.3 X WT = 13,067,000 Jbs.
W2 = 0.65 X WT = 28,311,800 Ibs.
X1 = 14.615 ft
X2 = 20.935 ft
From the above criteria the seismic moment
calculates to be 19,946,500 ft-Ibs. The ratio
M
0 2 (W + Wd calculates less than 0.785; therefore,
t
no anchors are required for seismic overturning.
WL in the above ratio is determined by the equatior
WL = 7.9 tb (fy HG)1!2 (3-11)
WL is the portion of the contents that may be used to
resist overturning for an unanchored tank. The value
of WL is based upon a bottom plate width L that will
carry the resisting contents and is calculated by the
equation:
L = 0.216 tb (fy HG)1!2 (3-12)
L is limited ,to 0.0350 which limits the value of WL' tO
1.28 HOG.
The following design example covers the API 650
tank.
Calculate the shell thicknesses by the VARIABLE
POINT OESIGN method as explained in API 650. A
detailed example is in the API 650 Appendix. The
thickness calculations for rings 1 and 2 are shown in
figure 3A-7. The thickness for ring 5 is governed by
minimum thickness requirements. Table 3A-2
summarizes final required thicknesses based upon
static head, specified corrosion allowance, minimum
thickness, and material economics.
Shell stability is calculated using the equation:
H = 600,000 t (3-13)
(0/t)1.5
For API 650 design t is the thickness of the top
ring and not the average shell thickness as in
AWWA design.
H = 600,000 x 0.3125 = 17.83 ft < 39.79 ft
(15010.3125)1.5
It should be noted here that unless otherwise
specified the as-built thicknesses are used in the
shell stability calculations rather than the corroded
thicknesses.
 Since H calculates less than the shell height,
calculate a transposed shell height using the
equation:
W tr = W .(tuniform)5/2 (3-14)
tactual
The transposed shell height is the sum of Wtr for
each ring. If H is less than the sum of Wtp the shell
is unstable. As in the AWWA design the unstable
condition may be corrected by thickening the shell or
adding a stiffener ring(s). See figure 3A-8 for Wtr for
each ring and the sum of Wtr . H is less than the sum
of Wtr ; therefore, the shell is unstable for 100 mph
wind loading. I dead load mass is slightly different due to the
For this example consider stabilizing the shell by
adding a stiffener ring(s). If one-half the sum of Wtr is
greater than H, then two (or more) stiffener rings are
required.
1/2 x 25.33 = 12.67 ft < 17.83 ft
Therefore, only one stiffener ring is required. Place
the stiffener ring at the mid-point of the transposed
shell height. This location on the actual shell may be
found by back calculating through the transposed
shell heights. By inspection one can determine that
the stiffener ring will be located on ring 4, 12.67 ft
from the top of the shell or 27.0 ft. from the bottom.
The stiffener ring required section modulus is
calculated by the equation:
Z = 0.0001 0 2 H (3-15)
Z = 0.0001 X (150)2 x 12.67 = 28.5 in3
The configuration of the stiffener ring may take on
many different shapes at the preference of the
purchaser or supplier.
The shell is now stable for a design wind velocity
of 100 mph.
The wind loads on the API 650 tank are identical
to the AWWA tank; therefore, the resulting wind
shear and moment at the bottom of the API 650 tank
are the same as the AWWA tank.
Shear = 113,386 Ibs.
Moment = 2,383,778 ft-Ibs.
The ratio, C =2M/dw, calculates to be 0.094 <
0.666; therefore, no anchors are required to resist
overturning due to wind.
The roof framing scheme will change significantly
from the AWWA design since the maximum rafter
spacing at the shell cannot exceed 2 x pi (6.28 ft)
and the maximum rafter spacing between inner
rafters cannot exceed 5.50 ft. For this example
consider twelve girders and outer columns, 48 inner
rafters and 84 outer rafters. Consider 25 PSF snow
load and 7.65 PSF dead load. Using identical design
procedures as the AWWA 0100 design and API 650
allowable stresses, we will choose the following roof
framing members:
Inner rafters = W12 x 14
Outer rafters = W12 x 14
Girders = W16 x 31
Center column = 12" dia. sch 20
Outer columns = 8" dia. sch 20
18
For zone one seismic loading the effective mass
method of API 650 will be used. The design method
considers two response modes of the tank and
contents: the impulsive and convective modes. The
impulsive response mode is the relatively high
frequency amplified response to lateral ground
motion of the tank shell and roof together with the
portion of the contents that moves in unison with the
shell. The convective response mode is the relatively
low frequency amplified response of the portion of
the contents that moves in the fundamental sloshing
mode. The content total, impulsive and convective
masses, are identical to the AWWA design. The
different shell and framing design criteria of AWWA
and API 650. The equation for overturning due to
seismic loading applied to the bottom of the shell is:
M = 21 (C 1WsXs + C1WrHt + C1W1X1 + C2W2X2) (3-16)
For zone one: Z = 0.1875
I = 1.0
C1 = 0.24
C2 = 0.0301 (based upon a natural
period of the first
sloshing mode of 8.2
sec. and S = 1.5)
The moment calculates to be 12,804,400 ft-Ibs.
The ratio ___M_ __ calculates less than 0.785;
0 2 (Wt + WJ
therefore, no anchors are required for seismic overturning.
APPENDIX B - TANK FOUNDATIONS
Soils Investigation
The subgrade of a potential tank site must be
capable of supporting the weight of the tank and
contained fluid. A qualified ,geotechnical engineer
should be retained to conduct the subsurface
exploration and to make specific recommendations
concerning: the type of foundation required,
anticipated settlements, allowable soil bearing and
specific construction requirements.
The ultimate soil bearing capacity should be
determined using sound principles of geotechnical
engineering. The following minimum factors of safety
should be applied to the ultimate bearing capacity
when determining the allowable soil bearing:
1. A factor of safety of 3.0 for normal operating
conditions.
2. A factor of safety of 2.25 during hydrotest.
3. A factor of safety of 2.25 for operating
conditions plus the maximum effect of wind or
seismic forces.
An allowable soil bearing based solely on the
above factors of safety may result in excessive total
settlements. If required, these factors of safety
should be increased in order to limit the anticipated
total settlements to acceptable values. Factors of
safety larger than the above minimums are also
required by certain codes and standards, such as
AWWA 0100.
Factors of safety lower than the above minimums
 3/16" ROOF PL
LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLY

..
(Y)

~
RING 5 C'\J
"-
.-.
RING 4 .-. ('\J
I "'-
.....
RING 3 "
W
0
I

(/)
0
RING 2 l.:J "It
Z
.....
a::
RING 1 If)

I. 150'-0 .1
1/4'BOTTOM PL LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLY

Figure 3A·1 - Flat Bottom Tank

a.) CALCULATED SHELL THICKNESSES FROM b.) ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES FOR STATIC
STATIC HEAD ONLY (AWWA DESIGN) HEAD AND WIND STABILITY (AWWA DESIGN)

RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL

5 0.1547" A36 5 0.3125" A36

4 0.3152" A36 4 0.3152" A36
3 0.3942" A573GR70 3 0.4758" A36
2 0.5273" A573GR70 2 0.5273" A573GR70
1 0.6603" A573GR70 1 0.6603" A573GR70

Table 3A·1 - Shell Plate Thicknesses

19
R = 42'-61
36 RAFTERS ~ 72 RAFTERS
R = 2'-4 1/2

Figure 3A·2 - Framing Layout - AWWA

NON-UN I FORM LOAD .

UNIFORM LOAD (INCLUDES RAFTER ~T.)

R2 Rl

DESIGN LENGTH

Figure 3A-3 - Typical Rafter Loading

______ REACTIONS FROM

INNER RAFTERS
_..--....L..--.-_-..---L---..-_--.---L---..,..._--.--..I.---._______
- REACT IONS FROM
OUTER RAFTERS
GIRDER DEAD LOAD

Figure 3A·4 - Typical Girder Loading

20
 ~ INNER RAFTERS OUTER RAFTER

{:
= ~t::'~NNER RAFTER
"t
COLUMN CONE
GIRDER
' 'k CAP PLATE
II ~UMN I II COLUMN

II II
J\)
.....&. II I II
0 0
iJ \J
iJ II \J
0 0
II
VI VI
~
.....
-l ~
rr1 1> II rl 1>
Z
nCl n
Z
Cl
II
Dr Dr
;Qrl AJrl
Z VI Z VI
rr1
I I BASE PLATE rl
I II BASE PLATE
;QO AJ 0
VIZ VI Z
I I ~ BOT~M PLATE I I, / BOTTOM PLATE

II \ II

Figure 3A-5 - Typical Center Column Figure 3A-6 - Typical Outer Column
 VARIABLE POINT DESIGN: API 650 8TH ED. PARA.3.6.4.
RING NO.1

DESIGN: D = 150.000 H = 39.500 G = 1.000 S = 28000. CA = 0.0625

Td = 2.6* D*{H -1 )*G/S + CA = 0.5362 + CA = 0.5987
Tld = [1.06-(0.463*D/H)*SQRT(H*G/S)]*2.6*D*H*G/S+CA =
Tld = 0.5469 + CA = 0.6094

HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 H = 39.500 G = 1.000 S = 30000.

TT = 2.6*D*(H -l)*G/S = 0.5005
T1T = [1.06-(0.463*D/H)*SQRT{H*G/S)]*2.6*D*H*G/S = 0.5115

USE: 0.599 IN. A573 70

LlH = SQRT{6.0*D*T)/H3 = 0.5929 <= 2.0 OK

RING NO.2

DESIGN: D =
150.000 H =
31.542 G = 1.000 S = 28000. CA = 0.0625 '
Td = 2.6*D*{H -l)*G/S + CA = 0.4254 + CA = 0.4879
TX = 2.6*D*{H-X/12)*G/S

TU TL K C X2 Xl X3 X TX
0.4254 0.5362 1.2606 0.1211 45.847 26.607 23.872 23.872 0.4116
0.4116 0.5362 1.3028 0.1390 52.595 28.571 23.482 23.482 0.4121
0.4121 0.5362 1.3013 0.1384 52.369 28.506 23.495 23.495 0.4121
TX = 0.4121 + CA = 0.4746

DESIGN: PARA. 3.6.4.5

RATIO = 95.500/[SQRT (6*0*0.5362) I = 4.3471
T2 = Tx + (T1 - Tx)* (2.1 - 4.3471/1.25) = 0.2410
T2D = 0.4121 + CA

HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 H = 31.542 G = 1.000 S = 30000.

n = 2.6*D*(H -l)*G/S = 0.3970
TX = 2.6*D*{H -Xl12)*G/S

TU TL K C X2 Xl X3 X TX
0.3970 0.5005 1.2606 0.1211 45.846 26.202 23.062 23.062 0.3851
0.3851 0.5005 1.2998 0.1377 52.127 28.036 22.711 22.711 0.3854
0.3854 0.5005 1.2985 0.1372 51.924 27.977 22.723 22.723 0.3854
TX= 0.3854

HYDROSTATIC: PARA. 3.6.4.5

RATIO = 95.500/[SQRT(6*D*0.5005)] = 4.4997
T2 = TX + (Tl - TX)*{2.1 - 4.4997/1.25) = 0.2128
T2T = 0.3854

MINIMUM DESIGN THICKNESS = 0.4746

USE: 0.475 IN. A573 70

FIGURE 3A-7 -API 650 VARIABLE POINT CALCULATIONS

22
 RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL
5 0.3125" A36
4 0.3125" A36
3 0.3750" A573GR70
2 0.4750" A573GR70
1 0.5990" A573GR70

TABLE 3A-2 - ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES

(API 650 DESIGN)

Wtr (ring 5) = 95.50 INCHES

Wtr (ring 4) = 95.50
Wtr (ring 3) = 60.54
Wtr (ring 2) = 33.61
Wtr (ring 1) = 18.79
SUM OF Wtr = 303.94 INCHES
= 25.33 FEET

FIGURE 3A-8 - TRANSPOSED SHELL HEIGHT

(API 650 DESIGN)

may be considered when actual experience with similar
- tanks and foundations at a particular site indicates
that satisfactory performance can be expected.
Tank Grade
The tank grade (surface which supports the tank
bottom) can be constructed of earth materials
provided the subgrade beneath the tank bottom is
capable of supporting the weight of the contained
fluid. The tank grade usually consists of a 4" sand
cushion placed over properly compacted fill or soil. It
is recommended that the finished tank grade be
constructed at least 6 inches above the surrounding
ground surface and be crowned from its outer
periphery to its center. A slope of 1 inch to 10 feet is
suggested. The sand should be clean and free of
corrosive elements. Care should be taken to exclude
lumps of earth or other deleterious materials from '
coming into contact with the bottom. These materials
can cause electrolytic action that will result in pitting
of the bottom plate.
If the sand cushion is placed on top of crushed
rock fill, the rock should be carefully graded from
coarse at the bottom to fine at the top. If this is not
done, the sand will percolate down through the voids
in the coarser rock.
An excellent tank grade can also be obtained by
substituting about 1112 inches of asphalt road paving
mix for the sand cushion. This material is available
from ready mix plants in many sections of the
country. It is very important that the paved tank
grade be constructed level and to the proper profile,
particularly near the shell. Once the asphalt has set
up, it is extremely difficult for the tank builder to
correct inaccuracies by taking down the high and
filling in the low spots.
Drainage is important both from the standpoint of
soil stability and bottom corrosion. Good drainage
should be provided under the tank itself and in ' the
general area around the tank. Where the terrain
does not afford natural drainage, proper ditching
around the tank may help to correct the deficiency.
Foundations
The shell of a flat bottom tank can be supported on
a compacted granular berm, concrete ringwall or
concrete slab foundation. Local soil conditions, tank
loads and the intended use of the tank will determine
which of these foundations is suitable for a particular
site. Tanks that require anchor bolts must be
supported, by ringwall or slab foundations.
Granular Berm Foundation - When a qualified
geotechnical evaluation concludes that it is
unnecessary to construct a ringwall or slab
foundation, the shell can be supported by a granular
berm foundation. The berm should be constructed of
well graded and properly compacted stone or gravel.
The berm should extend a minimum of 3 feet beyond
and 2 feet inside the tank shell as shown in Figure
38-1. The berm should be level to within + 1/8 inch
in any 10 feet of circumference and to within ± 1/2
inch in the total circumference. Adequate drainage

23
 away from the berm must be provided to prevent The top of the ringwall should be smooth and level
erosion of the berm under the shell. Alternatively, a to within ± 1/8 inch in any 30 feet of circumference.
welded or bolted steel grade band can be used to No point on the total circumference should vary more
retain the outer portion of the berm. than ± 1/4 inch from the specified finish elevation.
Concrete Ringwall Foundation - When suitable Slab Foundation - When the subgrade beneath the
bearing is not available at the surface, but is tank bottom cannot adequately support the weight of
available at a reasonable depth below the surface, a the contained fluid, a slab foundation is required.
ringwall foundation should be considered. The depth The area of the slab must be sufficient to produce a
of the ringwall will depend on local conditions and soil bearing (due to the total weight of the tank,
must be sufficient to place the bottom of the ringwall foundation and contained product) less than the
below anticipated frost penetration and within the allowable soil bearing. The depth to the bottom of
specified bearing strata. As a minimum, the bottom the slab will depend on local conditions and must be
of the ringwall should be located 2 feet below the sufficient to place the bottom of the slab below
lowest adjacent finish grade. The width of the anticipated frost penetration and within the specified
ringwall must be sufficient to produce a soil bearing bearing strata.
less than the specified allowable soil bearing. As a The detailed design of the slab and requirements
minimum, the ringwall width should be 1 foot. The for the materials, construction and testing should be
inside horizontal projection (inside the tank shell) in accordance with the American Concrete Institute's
should be no less than 4 inches. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
The ringwall must be reinforced to resist the (ANSIIACI 318).
following forces:
1. Direct hoop tension resulting from the lateral References, Part III
earth pressure on the inside face of the
1. API Standard 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil
ringwall. Unless substantiated by proper
Storage, Division of Refining, American Petroleum
geotechnical analysis, the lateral earth pressure
Institute, Eighth Edition, November 1988.
should be assumed to be 30 0/0 of the vertical
2. AWWA Standard 0100-84 Welded Steel Tanks for
pressure due to the contained fluid and the soil
Water Storage, American Water Works
weight.
Association.
2. Bending moment resulting from the uniform
3. Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute
moment load. The uniform moment load is due
of Steel Construction, Inc., Ninth Edition.
to the eccentricities of the shell and pressure
4. "Oil Storage Tanks", The Prince William Sound,
loads relative to the centroid of the soil bearing
Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks,
stress. The pressure load is due to the fluid
Volume II, Part A, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1967.
pressure on the inside horizontal projection of
5. "Fluid Mechanics", Dodge & Thompson.
the ringwall.
3. Bending, torsion and shear resulting from
lateral, wind or seismic, loads. A rational
analysis, which includes the effect of the
foundation stiffness, should be used to
determine the soil bearing stress distribution
and the above internal design forces.
The area of reinforcement provided must be
sufficient to resist the above forces and should not
be less than the following minimums. These
minimums are intended to prevent excessive
cracking due to shrinkage and temperature.
1. For wall-like ringwalls the area of vertical
reinforcement provided should not be less than
0.0015 times the horizontal cross-sectional area
of the ringwall.
2. The area of hoop reinforcement provided should
not be less than 0.0025 times the vertical cross-
sectional area of the ringwall.
The detailed design of the ringwall and
requirements for the materials, construction and
testing should be in accordance with the American
Concrete Institute's Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete (ANSIIACI 318).
Recesses shall be provided in the concrete ring-
wall for flush type cleanouts, drain off sumps and any
other appurtenances that require recessing. Refer to
API 650 for details of recesses at flush type cleanouts.

24
 Figure 38-1 -Example of Foundation with Crushed Stone Ringwall
from API 650, Eighth Edition, November 1988

4' MIN. OF COMPACTED CRUSHED STONE,

SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND,

3' MIN.
"II 2' MIN.
OR SIMILAR MATERIAL

SLOPE IF
PAVED
SLOPE

:::' ,"

.. !
... ! !
. ...
.
! ,

~1
COARSE STONE OR "" 1
COARSE GRAVEL -
11 MAX. SIZE THOROUGHLY COMPACTED FILL
OF FINE GRAVEL, COARSE SAND,
OR OTHER SUITABLE MATERIAL

Note: Bottom of excavation should be level. Remove any unsuitable

material and replace. with suitable fill, thoroughly compacted.

Figure 38-2 - Example of Concrete Ringwall Foundation

1/21 THICK (MIN) 4' MIN. OF COMPACTED CRUSHED STONE.
II
ASPHALT - IMPREGNATED SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND.
BOARD (OPTIONAL) II DR SIMILAR MATERIAL
II SLOPE

Z
0-< FINISH
~

. GRADE
\D

MATERIAL AND
FILL,
z
......
~

-
ru

REINFORCEMENT AT BOTH FACES FOR

RINGWALL WIDTHS EXCEEDING 12
INCHES. CLOSED STIRRUPS MAY BE
II' MIN:.I REQUIRED FOR SHEAR AND/OR TORSION.

25
 Part IV
Stainless Steel Tanks
for Liquid Storage
Introduction
t the present time, the only rules for stainless
A . steel storage tanks are given in Appendix Q
of API Standard 620(1) which covers low-
pressure tanks for liquefied hydrocarbon gases,
particularly liquefied ethane, ethylene, and methane,
at a minimum temperature of - 270F. Rules for the
design and construction of pressure vessels -
including stainless steel vessels - are given in the
ASME (2) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 1 and Division 2, Pressure Vessels.
In the following discussion rules are presented for
design and construction of stainless steel tanks at
atmospheric pressures. These rules are not intended
to cover storage tanks which are to be erected in
areas subject to regulations more stringent than
specified in the following pages. These rules are
recommended only insofar as they do not conflict
with local requirements.
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION
OF STAINLESS STEEL
There are a total of 62 stainless steel compositions
that are recognized as standard by the American
Iron and Steel Institute (3), as well as commercially
available proprietary compositions.
The five stainless steels most generally used as
plate material for construction of liquid storage tanks
are Types 304, 304L, 316, 316L and 410S. The last
is not recognized as standard by American Iron and
Steel Institute. The chemical compositions of these
types are listed in Table 4-1 and their mechanical
properties are listed in Table 4-2.
The selection of a particular type of stainless steel
for a given corrosive environment often follows
extensive study of comparative data, and sometimes
even pilot or service testing. However, a general
understanding of the corrosion resistance capabilities
of the five stainless steels, in terms of their relative
resistance to various common media, is shown in
Table 4-3. The five types fall within two categories:
namely, Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L are in the
chromium-nickel group, while Type 410S is in the
straight chromium group.
27
Type 304
Possessing corrosion resistance, strength and
fabricability, this is the general purpose stainless
steel, long known as "18-8". Attesting to its wide
usage is the fact that it accounted for 35% of all
stainless steels produced in the United States in
1980. Type 304 is extensively specified for food
handling and storage, dairy equipment, nuclear
fluids, and in general most applications where even
small amounts of corrosion product would be
intolerable.
Type 316
Containing higher nickel than Type 304, and 2-30/0
molybdenum, Type 316 possesses greatly improved
resistance to corrosion by pitting. It is used under
conditions too severe for Type 304, such as mineral
acids (phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid), strong organic
acids (oxalic, formic, etc.) and halides in various
dilutions.
Types 304L and 316L
Containing 0.03% maximum carbon, these are the
low carbon counterparts of Types 304 and 316. The
lower the carbon content, the less the chromium
carbide that can be formed.
Chromium-nickel stainless steels form a grain
boundary chromium-carbide precipitate when heated
in the 800-1650F temperature range for sufficient
time (see Figure 4-1) (5). If the degree of precipitation
is severe - Le. the grains are completely
surrounded - there may be a loss of corrosion .
resistance in aggressive media such as hot, oxidizing
acids (e.g. strong nitric acid), iron or copper sulfates
in hot dilute sulfuric acid, and air-saturated hot
sulfuric acid. Such aggressive corrosion conditions
do not normally exist in storage tanks.
Intergranular corrosion attack used to be a
common occurrence when the stainless steels
contained up to 0.12% carbon (as in Type 302, for
example). This was enough carbon to remove
considerable chromium from solution during welding
cycles, causing mild to heavy carbide preCipitation in
the weld heat-affected zone. Corrosive attack would
 be evident in this zone, if the environment was
severe. This situation resulted in widespread
specifying of low carbon (0.03 0/0 maximum) stainless
steels, but it should be understood that there are
relatively few situations where the L grades are
actually required for storage vessels. Even these
should be carefully investigated to establish such a
need before the additional expense of the L grades
is incurred. Types 304 and 316 (0.08 0/0 maximum
carbon) can, in many cases, be welded free of
carbide precipitation. If a small amount does
develop, it may be unaffected by the liquid being
stored, except possibly as indicated above.
It should be noted here that galvanized material or
other zinc products welded to stainless steel will
cause intergranular cracking.
In general, the L grades should be used when -
and only when - it is ascertained that conditions will
be present, which are conducive to intergranular
attack on as-welded 0.08 0/0 maximum carbon
stainless steel (see Figure 4-1). The general
corrosion and pitting resistance of the L grades is
not better than their higher carbon counterparts in
the annealed condition; nor is there any advantage in
weldability or fabricability.
Type 410S
This straight-chromium stainless steel is not subject
to the above form of carbide precipitation. It finds
use where moderate corrosion resistance is needed,
and slight product contamination is not critical (see
Table 4-3). The low carbon (0.08 0/0 maximum) results
in a tough plate product which avoids formation of
the less-tough metallurgical structures possible in
high-strength, low-alloy steels.
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Another phenomenon associated with the chromium-
nickel stainless steels Types 304, 304L, 316 and
316L, is stress corrosion cracking.
By definition, stress corrosion cracking involves the
combined action of a tensile stress and a corrosive
medium. Aside from some ultra-pure metals, most
commercial metals are subject to this phenomenon
in certain specific environments. While the initial
reaction may be one of great concern, it should be
emphasized that throughout industry there are
numerous applications of stainless steel in
environments where stress corrosion cracking does
not occur or which have been engineered to avoid
stress corrosion cracking.
Although stress corrosion cracking is not fully
understood, there are some general guidelines that
can be related to stainless steels:
1. The form of stress corrosion usuaUy found in
the AISI 300 stainless steels is related to
exposure to hot chloride-containing corrosive
media.
2. At temperature much below 160 of, stress
corrosion failures are not very likely to occur.
3. At temperatures exceeding 160 o F, the time to
28
failure of life of the vessel is very dependent on
temperature, concentration of chloride and
stress. Increased values in each case will
shorten the life of the vessel.
4. While Types 304 and 316 are both susceptible
to hot chloride stress corrosion cracking, Type
316 under similar service conditions. tends to
give better life ·than Type 304.
5. Because of variation in fabrication and service
stresses, it is frequently difficult to predict the
life of an austenitic stainless steel vessel in hot
chloride-containing media.
STAINLESS STEEL PLATE
Manufacture
Stainless steel plate is defined as a flat rolled or
forged product, 3/16 inch (4.76 mm) and over in
thickness, and 10 inches (254 mm) and over in width
(3). It is formed in the same type of equipment as
utilized for carbon steel plate, although production
allowances must accommodate the much greater hot
strength of stainless steel over carbon and low alloy
steels.
In producing plate, care is taken to attain the good
surface condition that is essential to corrosion
resistance. The first of several surface cleaning
operations occurs at the slab stage, where the 4 to
10-inch-thick bloomed slab is ground or scarfed
overall to remove not only the scale but some of the
underlying base metal as well. The slab is then cut
to size, yielding the ordered plate size, reheated and
hot rolled. The plate is then annealed, and again
cleaned of scale by either a chemical solution or
mechanical means, or both.
During the hot rolling, high pressure water jets and
other mechanical devices are employed to assure
that the refractory scale is not rolled into the surface.
Light gauge plate (3/16 inch and 114 inch thick)
can be rol/ed in coils up to 60 inches wide on
continuous mills. This product normally has improved
surface, gauge accuracy and offers greater flexibility
in length.
Forming
Press brake flanging or bending, and roll bending
are the most widely used cold forming operations
performed on stainless steel plate.
Type 410S has cold forming characteristics similar
to carbon and low alloy steels in the 35,000-50,000
psi yield strength range.
The chromium-nickel stainless steels (Types 304,
304L, 316, 316L), on the other hand, work-harden
quite rapidly with increasing plastic deformation. As
the steel increases in strength with increased
deformation, the bending forces exerted by the
forming equipment rise commensurately.
The most noticeable effect of work hardening is
the greater degree of springback, compared with
carbon steel. Dies for brake bending and rolls for roll
bending must overbend the stainless steel to
compensate for the springback. In brake bending,
 bending to a smaller radius can compensate for the
greater springback.
Cutting
Most stainless steel plates are cut by tank fabricators
with the plasma arc process. Thin plates can be
sheared. Thicker plates can be cut by saw cutting or
abrasive wheel cutting. Gas-oxygen (oxy-gas) is also
applicable if used in conjunction with iron powder.
Stainless steel cannot be cut by conventional flame
cutting, but in some cases may be cut and beveled
with the carbon-arc gouge if the cut edges are
ground to remove oxides.
Welding
Gas metal arc and ' submerged arc welding are high-
production methods and are usually used in the
down hand position, fully automated. Both give deep
penetration and, for high volume welding that can be
positioned, are the lowest cost methods for joining
plates. A modification of gas metal arc called
interrupted (or pulse) arc welding is useful for butt,
fillet, and lap welding.
Shielded metal arc~ welding is widely used for all
types of stainless steel welding, particularly where
automatic welding is impractical. Advantages are low
cost equipment and mobility. Disadvantages are slow
speeds and high labor cost for skilled operators. An
essential requirement for any '!Velding method is
clean edges (and near-edge areas) prior to welding.
Contaminants, whether organic or inorganic, can
cause problems when they decompose in the arc
heat. The oxide film on stainless steel surfaces is
very refractory and reduces the wetting action
between parent and weld metal.
The filler metals for welding stainless steels are
listed in Table 4·4.
When stainless steel is welded to carbon or low
alloy steels, Type 309 electrodes are normally used.
Cleaning and Passivation
These two terms are actually synonymous if the word
clean is strictly interpreted to mean "the complete
removal of all contaminating materials from the
stainless steel surface". If the surface is clean, it will
self passivate.
Iron particles and!or oil are the contaminants most
generally encountered, and to the extent that they
are present some surface staining or rusting may
occur. Whether such an occurrence is serious or not
depends on the requirements of the application
which can range from "food quality surfaces" to
simply "retention of structural strength".
Prevention of contamination is to be preferred over
removal of contaminants. A main source of
contamination due to iron particles results from co-
mingling plate fabrication operations involving carbon
steel and stainless steel. Another source is the
existence of weld scale or weld spatter, which can
only be removed by energetic chemical or
mechanical means. In extremely demanding
29
requirements, finishing may include a final polishing
to produce the brightest surface possible.
Various cleaning practices are summarized in
ASTM A380 (6) and more comprehensively described
in ASTM Special Technical Publication 538 (7).
FACTORS AFFECTING TANK DESIGN
Th,e design rules and details of API Standards 650
(8) and 620 (1) are applicable for stainless steel
tanks at atmospheric pressure with certain
exceptions. In the following. discussion, the design
stresses recognize the increased toughness of
stainless steels over carbon steels and the low yield!
tensile ratios of Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L. The
increased toughness permits designing to a higher
proportion of yield strength, but the lower yield
strength introduces the problem of permanent strain.
Section VIII of the ASME Code (2) recognizes the
strain by stating two allowable design stresses for
the austenitic stainless steels. The higher stresses
are related to the following footnote to the ASME
table of stresses:
"Due to the relatively low yield strength of these
materials, these higher stress values were
established at temperatures where the short time
tensile properties govern to permit the use of these
alloys where slightly greater deformation is
acceptable. These higher stress values exceed
62112 percent but do not exceed 90 percent of the
yield strength at temperature. Use of these stress
values may result in dimensional changes due to
permanent strain. These stress values are not
recommended for flanges of gasketed joints or
other applications where slight amounts of
distortion can cause leakage or malfunction."
After consideration of the allowable design
stresses of the ASME Code and the API Standards,
the following stress basis is suggested for stainless
steel tanks at atmospheric pressure:
a. The design basis for shells where permanent
strain ~ .05 0/0 is acceptable is the lesser of:
Sd = .8 x 'Yor
.3 x Ft see Table 4-5(a)
b. The design basis for shells where permanent
strain ~ .1 % is acceptable is the lesser of:
Sd = .9 x 'Yor
. .3 x Ft see Table 4-5(b)
where 'Y = min. yield strength
F t = min. tensile strength
Sd = design stress
c. Because the lower carbon grades (Types 304L,
316L) usually exhibit yield strengths at room
temperature greater than the specified minimum
value, the allowable stress for 100 0 F has been
based only on the tensile factor.
d. Where a lower level of permanent strain is
desirable such as mentioned above for
gasketted joints or other applications where
slight amounts of distortion can cause leakage or
mechanical malfunction see Table 4-5(c) for values.
 e. The yield values at temperature can be
obtained from table AHA2 of ASME Section
VIII, Div. 2.
The allowable stresses listed in Table 4-5, a, b, and
c, result from these bases, with the higher stresses
for the austenitic grades taking into account the
greater deformation of item b above. Table 4-5(b)
should be the default basis unless directed otherwise for
shells and Table 4-5(e) should be used for flanges.
The design thickness for each shell course can be
calculated by the formula in API Standard 650,
modified by the allowable stress and joint efficiency:
t = (2.6) (D) (H-1) (G) + C
(E) (1000S d )
where:
t = minimum thickness, in inches
C = an additional thickness required for corrosion
allowance (rarely if ever required)
D = nominal diameter of tank, in feet. This shall
be the centerline diameter of the shell plates,
unless otherwise specified by the purchaser
H = height, in feet, from bottom of course under
consideration to top of top angle, or to
bottom of any overflow which limits tank
filling height
G = specific gravity of liquid to be stored, but in
no case less than 1.0
Sd = maximum allowable stress in ksi. Values
tabulated in Table 4-5, a or b
E = 1.0 if tank is radiographed in accordance
with section 6
= 0.85 if tank is radiographed in accordance
with A.5.3
= 0.7 if tank is not radiographed. This value
shall be given as part of the buyers'
specifications
Stainless steel separation pads (or poison pads)
should be considered at points where carbon steel is
welded to the stainless steel tank to avoid carbide
precipitation. Typical areas for this would be anchor
bolts and support brackets.
The recommended nominal thickness of shell
plates should not be less than th~,,~; based
on construction minimums:
Nominal Tank Nominal Plate
Diameter Thickness
Smaller than 50' 3/16"
50' to 120' excl. 1/4"
120' to 200' incl. 5/16"
Over 200' 3/8"
Throughout this design procedure it shall be
remembered that Young's Modulus for stainless steel
is less than that of carbon steel. Therefore designs
for compression and stability should consider this
fact.
Normally the tank shell should be designed to
resist the design wind velocity given in the
customer's specifications. API Standard 650 provides
rules for stiffening tank shells. The background for
the API rules was given in a paper, "Stability of API
30
Standard 650 Tank Shells", presented in May, 1963,
to the API Division of Refining.
For the design of shells under external load (small
negative pressures) the designer should refer to
ASME Section VIII or Part III of "Design of Plate
Structures" (11). For the design of structural
members, the designer should refer to the Stainless
Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design Manual (10).
NOTE: Roof designs for stainless steel tanks may be
done in a similar manner as that outlined in part III
for carbon steel tanks but normally all .structural units
will need to be fabricated in custom shapes. A lighter
gage, lighter than .17 allowed in API 650 for carbon
steel structural units, may be used to accommodate
forming.
FACTORS AFFECTING
FABRICATION & CONSTRUCTION
Before proceeding with any fabrication or
construction of a stainless steel tank, satisfactory
weld procedure qualifications should be performed in
accordance with all the essential variables of Section
IX, Welding Qualifications, of ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, including conditions of
postweld heat treatment or the omission of postweld
heat treatment. Requirements and restrictions for
postweld heat treatment are described in ASME
Section VIII. Materials that would require postweld
heat treatment should not be used for storage tanks
designed by the rules in this manual.
All austenitic chromium-nickel alloy steel welds,
both butt and fillet, between plates exceeding 3/4
inch nominal thickness, shall be examined for
detection of cracks by the liquid penetrant method,
before the hydrostatic test of the tank. All cracks
shall be eliminated.
Butt-welded joints in Type 410S welded with
electrodes that produce an austenitic chromium-
nickel weld deposit shall be radiographed when the
thinner plate at the welded joint exceeds 1112 inches.
Referring to Part AM of ASME Sect VIII Div 2 it
will be noted that both values of thermal conductivity
(TC) and thermal diffusivity (TO) (given in Btulhr ft OF
and ft 2 /hr respectively) are considerably lower (about
2 to 1) for stainless compared to carbon steel, which
indicates that heat (from welding) is not conducted
away or diffused as rapidly with stainless steels and
therefore distortion is likely unless design steps are
taken to assure that nozzle location (with respect to
vertical and horizontal seams) should be thought out.
Also the tolerances given in API 650 for banding and
peaking may not be achievable for stainless steel
shells.
For the design of stainless steel tanks at
refrigerated temperatures, the designer is referred to
Appendix Q "Low-Pressure Storage Tanks for
Liquefied Hydrocarbon Gases" of API Standard 620.
This subject is beyond the intended scope of this
discussion.
 FIGURE 4-1

900 1652

,,
;'
0.080 I
............

800 1472

U
o.
!! 700 1292
'"~
0

::I ::l
eK !
8.
E E
~ ~
600 1112

500 932

10aec. 1min. 1Omln. 1hr. 10 hrs. 1OOhrs. 1OOOhrs. 10.000hrs.

TIme

Time required for formation of carbide precipitation in stainless steels

with various carbon contents. Carbide precipitation forms in the areas
to the right of the various carbon-content curves. ·W ithin time-periods
applicable to welding, chromium-nickel stainless steels with 0.05%
carbon would be quite free from grain boundary precipitation. (5)

31
 TABLE 4-1 - STAINLESS STEELS COMMONLY USED
FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS (4)
COMPOSITION, PERCENT
ASTM UNS Carbon Manganese Phosphorus Sulfur Silicon Other
Type No.8 max. max. max. max. max. Chromium Nickel Elements

304 (830400) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 . 1.00 18.00 ~ B.OO-

N 0.10 Max.
20.00 10.50
304L (830403) 0.03 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00- B.OO-
N 0.10 Max.
20.00 12.00
316 (831600) 0.045 2.00-3.00
0.08 2.00 0.030 1.00 16.00 - 10.00 -
Molybdenum
18.00 14.00
N 0.10 Max.
2.00-3.00
316L (831603) 0.03 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00- 10.00 -
Molybdenum
18.00 14.00
N 0.10 Max.
4108 (S41 008) O.OB t.OO 0.040 0.030 1.00 11 .50 - 0.60
13.50 (max)

aUnified Numbering System, originated by ASTM and 8AE, developed to provide a single orderly system for designating
commercial metals and alloys.

TABLE 4·2 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS

COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS (4)
Tensile Strength, Yield Strength, Elongation,8 Hardness,
ASTM UNS min min min max
Type No. ksi MPa ksi MPa Percent Bhn b RBc

304 (830400) 75 515 30 205 40 202 92

304L (S30403) 70 485 25 170 40 183 88

316 (831600) 75 515 30 205 40 217 95

316L (S31603) 70 485 25 170 40 217 95

4108 (841008) 60 415 30 205 22.0 183 88

a Elongation in 2 inches (50.8 min)

b Brinell
C Rockwell-B

32
 TABLE 4·3 - RELATIVE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS
,COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS
ASTM UNS Mild Atmospheric Atmospheric Salt Chemical
Type No. and Fresh Water Industrial Marine Water Mild Oxidizing Reducing

304 (S30400) X X - - X - -
304L (S30403) X X X - X X -
316 (S31600) X X - X X - X

316L (S31603) X X X X X X X

410S (S4100B) X - - - X - -
Note: X's indicate environments to which the various stainless steels
may be considered resistant.

TABLE 4-4 - TYPICAL FILLER METALS FOR WELDING STAINLESS STEELS

Base Metal Electrodes (AWS)

Type 304 E30B-15 or 16; ER30B; E30BT-2

Type 304L E30BL-15 or 16; ER30BL; E30BT-2

Type 316 E316-15 or 16; ER316; E316T-2

Type 316L E316L-15 or 16; ER316L; E316T-2

Type 410S** E410*-15; ER410*; E410T*-2

*Type 410 electrodes must be specified to O.OB% maximum carbon in all cases.
* * It is permissible (and often desirable) to weld Type 410S with austenitic
(chromium-nickel) electrodes.

33
 TABLE 4·5 - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL
Minimum Minimum
For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile,
KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F 500°F 600°F

304a 30.0 75.0 22.5 20.0 18.0 16.6 15.5 14.6

304 b 30.0 75.0 22.5 22.5 20.3 18.6 17.5 16.4

304La 25.0 70.0 21.0c 17.0 15.3 14.0 13.0 12.4

304Lb 25.0 70.0 21.0c 19.2 17.2 15.8 14.7 14.0

316a 30.0 75.0 22.5 20.6 18.6 17.1 15.9 15.0

316 b 30.0 75.0 22.5 22.5 21.0 19.3 17.9 16.8

316La 25.0 70.0 21.0c 16.9 15.1 13.8 12.7 12.0

316Lb 25.0 70.0 21.0C 19.0 17.0 15.5 14.3 13.5

410S a 30.0 60.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0

Note: a, b, & c explained on page 32.

34
 TABLE 4-S(a) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL
=
Limiting % Strain O.OS%
Minimum Minimum
For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile,
KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F 500°F 600°F

304 30 75 22.5 20 18 16.6 15.5 14.6

304L 25 70 21 17 15.3 14 13 12.4

316 30 75 22.5 20.6 18.6 17.1 15.9 15

316L 25 70 21 16.9 15.1 13.8 12.7 12

4108 30 60 18 18 18 18 18 18

TABLE 4-S(b) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL

=
Limiting % Strain 0.10/0
Minimum Minimum
For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile,
KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F 500°F 600°F

304 30 75 22.5 22.5 20.3 18.6 17.5 16.4

304L 25 70 21.0 19.2 17.2 15.8 14.7 14.0

316 30 75 22.5 22.5 21.0 19.3 17.9 16.8

316L 25 70 21.0 19.0 17.0 15.5 14.3 13.5

TABLE 4-S(c) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR FLANGES OR GASKETTED JOINTS OF STAINLESS STEEL
Limiting % Strain = 0.01 % per 62.50/0 Fy Yield Strength limit
Minimum Minimum
For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile,
KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F 500°F 600°F

304 30 75 20.0 16.7 15.0 13.9 12.9 11.5

304L 25 70 16.7 14.3 12.8 11.7 10.9 10.3

316 30 75 20.0 16.7 15.0 13.9 12.9 11.5

316L 25 70 16.7 14.3 12.8 11.7 10.9 10.3

4108 30 60 18 18 18 18 18 18

35
References, Part IV TABLE 4-6
1. API Standard 620 - Recommended Rules for FACTORS FOR LIMITING PERMANENT
Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low- STRAIN IN HIGH-ALLOY STEELS1
Pressure Storage Tanks; Division of Refining,
American Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, Limiting Permanent
June 1990. Strain, 0/0 Factors
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
1980. 0.10 0.90
3. "Steel Products Manual - Stainless and Heat 0.09 0.89
Resisting Steels", December 1974, American 0.08 0.88
Iron and Steel Institute. 0.07 0.86
4. ASTM Designation A240-80b (ANS G81.4) - 0.06 0.83
Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting 0.05 0.80
Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel 0.04 0.77
Plate, Sheet and Strip for Fusion-Welded Unfired 0.03 0.73
Pressure Vessels. 0.02 0.69
5. Svetsaren English edition 1-2; 1969, p. 5. 0.01 0.63
6. ASTM Designation A380-78 (ANS G81.16)
Standard Recommended Practice for Cleaning
and Descaling Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment NOTE:
and Systems. (1) Table 4-6 lists multiplying factors which, when
7. ASTM S.T.P. 538 "Cleaning Stainless Steel" applied to the yield strength values shown on
includes ASTM A380 and 22 papers presented at Table AHA-2, will give a value that will result in
a symposium. lower levels of permanent strain. If this value is
8. API Standard 650 - Welded Steel Tanks for Oil less than the design stress intensity value listed
Storage; Division of Refining, American in Table AHA-1, the lower value shall be used.
Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, November
1988.
9. ASTM Designation A370-77 (ANS G60.1) -
Standard Methods and Definitions for Mechanical
Testing of Steel Products.
10. "Stainless Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design
Manual - 1974 Edition", American Iron and
Steel Institute.
11. "Desig,('l of Plate Structures", Vol. 2, AISI/SPFA,
1991.
12. Steel Products Manual - Plates; Rolled Floor
Plates: Carbon, High Strength Low Alloy, and
Alloy Steel, January 1979.

Other Information on Corrosion

"Corrosion Resistance of the Austenitic Chromium-
Nickel Stainless Steels in Chemical
Environments", The International Nickel Co., April
1970, 16 pages.

"Selection of Stainless Steels", American Society for

Metals, 1968, 82 pages.

"Corrosion Engineering", G. Fontana and N.D.

Greene, McGraw-Hili Book Co., 1967.

"The Possibility of Service Failure of Stainless Steels

by Stress Corrosion Cracking", J.E. Truman and
H.W. Kirkby, Metallurgia, August 1965.

36
Steel Plate Engineering Data-Volume 2

Useful Information on the

Design of Plate Structures
Revised Edition-' 1992

Published by
AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

With cooperation and editorial collaboration

STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC.

Revised December 1992

 Acknowledgements

or the preparation of the original version of this te.ch.nical publication,

F the American Iron and Steel Institute initially retained Mr. I.E. Boberg
and later obtained the services of Mr. Frederick S. Merritt. For their
skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute gratefully acknowledges its
appreciation.

The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and valuable

contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators Association
and representatives from the member steel producing companies of
American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later revising and
updating, the material for this publication.

Appreciation is expressed to the American Institute of Steel

Construction, American Petroleum Institute, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Business Communications, Inc., Chicago Bridge
and Iron Company, Pitt-Des Moines, Inc., U.S. Army Mobility Equipment
Command, and the American Water Works Association for their
constructive suggestions and review of this material. Much of the
illustrative and documentary material in this manual appears through their
courtesy.

American Iron and Steel Institute

The material presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with recognized
engineering principles and Is for general information only. This Information should not be used
without first securing competent advice with respect to Its suitability for any given application. The
publication of the material contained herein is not Intended as a representation or warranty on the
part of American Iron and Steel Institute-or of any other person named herein-that this
Information is suitable for any general or particular use or of freedom from infringement of any
patent or patents. Anyone making use of this Information assumes all liability arising from such use.

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 1300 Washington, D.C. 20036-4700

December 1992

jj
 Introduction

olume 1 of this series, "Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage," deals with

V the design of flat-bottom, cylindrical tanks for storage of liquids at

essentially atmospheric pressure. Steel plates, however, are used in a
wide variety of other structures, such as pipe, penstocks, pressure vessels,
stacks, elevated tanks, and bulk storage tanks. These structures present
special problems in design and detail, the answers to which are not readily
available without searching a number of sources. Volume 2 gives useful
information to aid in design of such structures.

Scope
Volume 2, "Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures," does
not cover in depth the design of any particular structure. For example,
design of stacks involves problems of vibration that are beyond the scope
of this volume. Similarly, design of pressure vessels requires a detailed
knowledge of ASME, state and, sometimes, city codes. Designers should
work with the applicable code. Any attempt to summarize pressure-vessel
codes could be misleading and even dangerous, because of constant
revision and updating by the various regulatory bodies.
There are, however, many facets of plate design that are generally
applicable to many types of structures. Information on these is not now
conveniently collected in one source.
Drawing on many sources, this volume offers such information and
discusses some of the more commonly encountered problems. Included is
an outline of membrane theory, data for weld design, commonly used
details, plus data and mathematical tables useful in design of steel plate
structures. The intent is to include information principally pertinent to plate
structures. For convenience of users of this volume, some data readily
available elsewhere, particularly in mathematical tables, has been
incorporated.
Volume 3, "Welded Steel Pipe," and Volume 4, "Penstocks and Tunnel
Liners," of this series treat these applications in detail and are available
from Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.

iii
 Contents

Part I Flat Plates ................................. 1

Part II Large Diameter Plate Tubular Columns .......... 7
Part III External Pressure on Cylinders ............... 11
Part IV Membrane Theory .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Part V Self-Supported Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Part VI Supports for Horizontal Tanks and Pipe Lines ... 35
Part VII Anchor Bolt Chairs .......... . .......... . ... 49
Part VIII - Design of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Part IX Inspection and Testing of Welded Vessels ...... 63
Part X Appendices ........ '....................... 65

v
 Part ' l
Flat Plates
lat plates are used in many conventional
F structural forms, such as plate girders, built-up
columns, or component parts of trusses. Such
uses are well covered in standard texts or
handbooks and are not discussed in this volume.
Instead, Part I will cover applications in steel tanks.
Bending Stresses and Deflections
Used as a membrane, as in the shell of a tank, a
steel plate is a very efficient member. In contrast, a
flat plate in bending normal to its plane is inefficient.
Circumstances, nevertheless, sometimes dictate the
use of a ' flat-walled tank because of space
limitations, or the storage of a corrosive liquid may
dictate use of a grillage-supported bottom to facilitate
inspection. In such cases, a stiffened flat surface is
indicated.
On the next page, formulas are given for
calculating the maximum bending stresses and
maximum center deflections of certain flat plates.
These formulas have been derived from various
sources, the most important being based on an
analytical derivation from elastic theory. However,
those relating to three classes of elliptical plates and
to certain others with a central applied load are less
rigid in their derivation though sufficiently reliable for
the use of the designer. It must be remembered that
all formulas apply to materials such as steel, for
which Poisson's ratio is 0.30.
The inherent limitations of these formulas must be
kept in mind. It is assumed that tensions in the plane
of the plate appropriate to membrane action are
small or negligible compared with the stresses due to
bending. In general, the deflection must be small
compared with the plate thickness if this is to be
true. For greater deflections, other more complicated
formulas must be used in whose derivation both
membrane and bending action are considered. The
formulas given may yield reliable working stresses
yet be absolutely unreliable in calculating the load at
failure and the corresponding deflection, particularly
in the case of materials which elongate materially
before failure, or which assume a dished form under
load through initial stressing beyond the elastic limit.
In general it must not be expected that these
formulas will yield stresses accurate to better than 5 0/0.
1
The mode of support and manner of loading
specified must be complied with if the stresses are to
be realized. No commercial edge fastening will
correspond exactly with the theoretical conditions.
The exact restraint of the edge, where bending is of
prime importance, will depend on the rigidity of the
support, the flexibility of any gaskets used, the
position of the bolting circle and the spacing of the
bolts therein, as well as the tightness with which the
joint is bolted up. When membrane action is of
importance, the degree of bolting up and the ability
of the reinforced opening to resist slight deformations
under radial tensions will largely determine the exact
stress in the plate and the corresponding
deformation. The bending moment at the edge is of
less importance than at points where plate resistance
depends primarily on bending. In view of these
remarks, the conditions "Fixed" and "Supported"
serve as guides to the possible range of stress and
deflection.
Notation
a = length, in., of semi-minor axis of supporting
ellipse for elliptical plates
A = length, in., of semi-major axis of supporting
ellipse for elliptical plates
b = length, in., of short side of rectangular plate at
supports
8 = length, in., of long side of rectangular plate or
side of square at supports
81 = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, fixed-
edge, rectangular plates (Tables 1A and 18)
82 = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, simply
supported, rectangular plate (see Tables 1A
and 18)
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
f = maximum fiber stress in bending, psi
Fy = specified minimum yield strength, psi
H = uniform load, ft. of water
Ls = stiffener spacing, in.
n = alA or bIB
p = uniform load or pressure, psi
P = concentrated load, lb.
r radius, in., of central loaded area plate approaches a catenary between supports,
r' = i~side knuckle radius, in., for flat, unstayed, the support spacing is given approximately by the
circular plates following formula:
R
S
= radius, in., to support for circular plates
= spacing, in., of adjacent staybolts at corners
Ls = ~( 2;') 112 (1-3)

of square plates Because of the approximate nature of the

= plate thickness, in.
~ = center deflection, in., of plate relative to
supports
<1> = factor for stress in circular flanged plate
(see Table 1A)
<1>1 = factor for deflection of uniformly loaded
fixed-edge, rectangular plates (see Tabl~s
1A and 1 B)
<1>2 = f~ctor for deflection of uniformly loaded,
simply supported rectangular plates (see
Tables 1A and 1B)
<1>3 = factor for deflection of fixed-edge,
rectangular plates subjected to central
concentrated load (see Tables 1A and 1B)
One of the most commonly encountered
conditions is a uniformly loaded flat plate
supported on uniformly spaced parallel stiffeners.
In the absence of any code or specification
requirement, assume an allowable bending stress
equal ~o 3/4 of the specified minimum yield stress
value In the plate for determination of stiffener
spacing Ls, in.
The plate stress can be obtained from the
formula in Table 1A for the case of a rectangle b
x B, where B = CD and b is taken as Ls. Thus,
for the fixed condition (continuous over the
supports), the maximum permissible spacing of
stiffeners becomes:
Ls = (54,0:0 /2 ) ,12 (1-1)
solution, a conservative value for f is indicated.
Assu~ing f = 10,000t and E = 29,000,000 psi
for mild carbon steel, the equation becomes:
Ls = 900 1- = 2,076 1- (1-4)
P H
Figure 1-2 gives graphical solutions for Eqs. 1·3
and 1-4.
For the catenary approach, it is essential that
a lateral force of 10,OOOt be resisted at the
peripheral support. Since this is not always
practicable, application of the catenary approach
is limited. Similarly, it should not be used where
pressure is reversible or where deflection is
objectionable.
In the above discussion, only plate stresses
have been considered, and it is assumed that any
welded plate joints will develop the full strength of
the plate including appropriate joint efficiencies.
Also, the stiffener system should be in
accordance with accepted structural design
principles.
Protection against brittle failure of a structure
sho~ld be considered at the time of design. Since
environmental extremes, design detail, material
selection, fabrication methods and inspection
adequacy are all interrelated in protecting a
structure from such failure, these factors should
be evaluated.

For convenience in connection with tank bottoms,

the load can be expressed in feet of water, rather
than psi, in which case:

Ls = ( 124,6 15 t2) 1/2 (1-2)

H
Figure 1-1 gives graphically stiffener spacing
determined from Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2 for an allowable
bending stress of 27,000 psi (i.e. Fy =36,000
psi).
If deflection exceeds t12, the plate will tend to
act as a membrane in tension and exert a lateral
pull on the outside support that must be taken
into account. An alternative solution, therefore, is
to assume that yielding does occur at the support
and the plate acts as a catenary between
supports. At intermediate supports, the tension in
the plate will be balanced; but at the outside
support, restraint must be provided to· resist that
tension. This is not always easily accomplished.
When the span is such that the profile of the

2
 • 50
CONTINUOUS BEAM

• 45

•
40
-.....
'-
(1)
35
t = 5/16"
Note: Plate figured .. a oontlnuoua beam with a unit II.reaa
of 27,000 pel In bending. May be uaed for other
II.reaaea by varying H directly with unit strea•.
co
~

•I
\t- 30
o
.....
(1)
25
- 20
(1)
u..
J:
...
"C
co 15
(1)
J:

I 10
5

I
, 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

,
Support Spacing, Ls (in)

Figure 1-1. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate Acting as Continuous Beam.

, 50
CATENARY ACTION

10,000 t - - I - - _......- - i ~--- ~f-: l~, O~O

.........
45
I Ls

-..... 4035 ~~_~

'-
~~~_~~~~_ _~_ _ _~~~~on~~~~.(~~) ~ ~.(9~)
Caution: UN thla graph only to determine limiting
value. for comparison.

I
(1)
__
CO
~ t = 7116" NOTE: Platea IIgured .. a catenary at 10,0001
tension. End. must be reatralned and capable of taking
\t-
O
30 a horizontal pull par Inch of 10,000 time. thlckneea.
= 1/2"
I .....
(1)
(1)

~
25
t

J: 20
I "C
CO
(1)
J:
...
15
10
I 5

I 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Support Spacing, Ls (in)

Figure 1-2. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate with Catenary Action.

I ,3
 Table 1-1A. Flat Plate Formulas
Poisson's Ratio = 0.30

Center Deflection
Edge Maximum Fiber Stress, psi
SHAPE Loading ~ Remarks
Fixation f
In .
R4
(~) ?
R2

Uniform
Fixed 0. 75P -r
t
0.17 f max . at edge
p
O:.695(£~
R2
Circle Supported 1.24p- f max. at center
t
2 E t3
Radius ...
Central uniform over
R
concen· Fixed 1.43 [,og IO (-~)+0.11 (fi) J
2 Pit 2 0.22(1.) K3 circle, radius r.
E t Center Stress
trated
P
on r
Supported 1.43'~OglO(;!r 0.334 + 0.06(~)2J ?' P
0 .55 (p) £t. As above
Center Stress
E t3
4
Fixed 6 a2 1.365 (p) a a Exact
Uniform
4
3n + 2n2 + 3
P-;r 3n 4 + 2n 2 + 3 E -;r
n=-
A SOlution
p 2
3 a n = ~ Approximate
Supported 4 P- *
0.420 + n2 + 1 2
t .. Fits n :.: 0 and n == 1
Ellipse
2A X 2a
n - alA Approximate
50 P Fi ts n = 0 and n = 1
a< A Central
Fixed
3n 4 + 2n2 + 12.5 ""1 t Load over 0.01 % of
concen· area
trated
p 13.1 P n = a/A Ap;Jroximate
Supported t Fits n == 1, load over
4
0.42n + n + 2.5 2 7 0.01 %of area

b2
Uniform
Fixed B) p -
t2
¢I (!)-;;- ¢) and 8 I depend
on B/b . See Table 1 B.
P
b2 4
¢2 and 8 depend
Supported B2 p...:... ¢ --
(p)
2 E t3
b 2
Rect.angle t2 on Bib. See Table 1 B.
BXb 2 b .
4 .00 P
~ B = n Approximate
b<B Central
concen·
Fixed
1 + 2n2 7 ¢(p)
-- b
3 E t3
Fits n = 1 and n = 0
trated 5~3 b .
P Supported
P
t B = n ApproxlnJ(lte
1 + 2.4n 2 -;r Fitsn = 1 andn = 0
2
Uniform '
Fixed 0.308 p-
6 0.0138 (E.) £3 f max. center of side
_12 E t
p 4
~)
B'l
Supported 0.287 p -
2 0.0443 E 78 f max. of center
Square t
BXB P As above.
Central Fixed 1.32"2 Deflection nearly
concen· t exact .
Approximate for J;
trated
P Supported
P
1.582"
t O. '2S t)K
E t3
area of contact not too
small.
Staybolts If plate as a whole de·
Flat spaced at S2 forms, superimpose the
Uniform PT
Stayed
p
corners of
square of
0 .228
t E7
0.0284 (p) S4 stresses and deflections
on those for plate flat
Plate
when loaded.

t
sideS

Fastened
(R -~ 1+~R ¢varies with shell
Circular
Flanged
Uniform
p
to
shell
p .!.. +cP
2t
2
t J] and joint stiffness from
0.33 to C.38
Knuckle 8adius, r'

*Formula of proper form to fit circle and infinite'rectangle as n varies from 1 to O.

tFormulas for load distributed over 0.0001 plate area to match circle when n =1. They give reasonable values
for stress when n = O. Stress is lower for larger area subject to load.
tFormulas of empirical form to fit Hutte values for square when n = 1. They give reasonable values when
n =O. Assume load on 0.01 of area.
Apparent stresses only considered.
These formulas are not to be used in determining failure.

4
•
• Table 1-1 B. Flat-Plate Coefficients

Stress Coefficients - Circle with .Concentrated Center Load

rlR 1.0 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
Fixed l 0.157 1.43 1.90 1.57 1.65 1.75 1.86 2.00 2.18 2.43 2.86
Supported 2

•
0.563 1.91 1.97 2.05 2.13 2.23 2.34 2.48 2.66 2.91 3.34

•
Stress and Deflection Coefficients - Ellipse

Ala 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 00

• Uniform Load'
Fixed.

•I
Stress 3 0.75 1.03 1.25 1.42 1.54 1.63 1.77 1.84 1.91 1.95 2.00
Deflection 4 0.171 0.234 1.284 0.322 0.350 0.370 0.402 0.419 0.435 0.442 0.455
Uniform Load
Supported 5 1.24 1.58 1.85 2.06 2.22 2.35 2.56 2.69 2.82 2.88 3.00
Central Load
Fixed 6 2.86 3.26 3.50 3.64 3.73 3.79 3.88 3.92 3.96 3.97 4.00
I Supported' 3.34 3.86 4.20 4.43 4.60 4.72 4.90 5.01 5.11 5.16 5.24

• Stress and Deflection Coefficients - Rectangle

"

• Bib

Stress 8 1
1.0

0.308
1.25

0.399 0.454
·1.5 1.6 1.75

0.490
2.0

0.497
2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 00

0.500

• Stress 82
4
1 + 2n2
5.3
1 + 2.4n2
0.287
1.33

1.56
0.376 0.452
1.75

2.09
2.12

2.56
0.517
2.25

2.74
0.569
2.42

2.97
0.610
2.67

3.31
3.03

3.83
0.713
3.27

4.18
0.741
3.56

4.61
0.74·8
3.70

4.84
0.750
4.00

5.30

• Deflection 4>1
Deflection 4>2
Deflection 4>3
0.0138 0.0199 0.0240

0.1261 0.1671
0.0264 0.0277
0.0443 0.0616 0.0770 0.0906 0.1017 0.1106
0.1802 0.1843 0.1848
0.0284
0.1336 0.1400 0.1416 0.1422
0.1849

• IValues of 1.43 [Iog 1 0 Rir + 0.11 (rfR)2 1 SVaJues of 3/(0.42n4 +·nl + 1)

•
2Values of 1.43 [Iog 10 Rir + 0.334 + 0.06 (rfR)2 1 6VaJues of 50/(3n 4 + 2n2 + 12.5)
3Values of 6/(3n 4 + 2n2 + 3) 7Vawes of 13.1/(0.42n4 + n2 + 2.5)
4Values of 1.365/(3n4 + 2n2 + 3)

•
• 5
 •
•
•
•Part II

•Large Diameter Plate

Tubular Columns~~~~~~~~~~_

•I, V olume 1, "Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage,"

covered the design of cylindrical tanks
subjected to internal pressure. Cylinders (and
e
0L
= half apex angle of cone, deg.
= critical local buckling stress for Proposed
AWWA formulas, ksi

•
cones), however, may also be used as columns, in
which case they are subjected to axial compression .
This application is discussed in the following. The Column Formulas for Circular Tubes
cylinder-cone junction is discussed in Part V. Small diameter pipe columns have long been

•I
designed using conventional column formulas .
Notation However, for tubular columns of relatively large
A = cross sectional area of column, in. 2 = diameter and thin plate, when local buckling controls
n(Do - t)t the column strength, the conventional column rules
Cc = column slenderness ratio separating elastic and no longer apply.

, inelastic buckling for AISC formulas

C~ = column slenderness ratio separating elastic and
inelastic buckling for Proposed AWWA formulas
D; = inside diameter of cylinder, in.
Do = outside diameter of cylinder, in.
The PIA::;; XY formula, developed in the 1930's
for mild carbon steels with minimum yield strengths
of 30-33 ksi, has been widely used for design of
carbon steel columns. It has been specified for
elevated tank column designs by AWWA and ~FPA
for the past 50 years.

•
E = modulus of elasticity, ksi Formulas suitable for use with carbon or alloy
Fa = allowable axial compressive stress in the steels having higher minimum yield strengths are
absence of bending moment, ksi now available for use. The ASME code, section VIII,
Fb = allowable bending stress in the absence of Division 1 and the AISC specification for buildings

• axial force, ksi

Fy = yield stress of steel being used, ksi
FS = factor of safety
include such formulas, and AWWA is proposing them
for the next revision of the water tank standard.
The allowable stresses are applicable to axially
loaded cones if e s 60 degrees and R1 and t1, at the

•
I = moment of inertia of column, in.4 =
point being investigated, are substituted for Ro and t
n(Do4 - D,A)/64
respectively, in the formulas.
K = effective length factor The formulas for tubular columns are useful in
K~ = slenderness reduction factor for Proposed

•I
AWWA formulas
M = moment at design point, in.-kips
P = vertical axial load on column, kips
Ro = outside radius of cylinder, in.
R1 = outside conical radius, in.
S = section modulus of column, in.3 =
n(D0 4 - D;4)/32 Do =21IDo
determining allowable axial and bending stresses in
many structures, such as tanks, buildings, stacks,
pipes and skirt-supported vessels. The requirements
of the specification, standard or code that is
applicable to the specific structure being designed
should be used to determine the allowable axial,
bending and combined stresses.
When forces due to earthquake or wind are

• fa = computed axial stress, ksi = PIA

fb = computed bending stress, ksi = MIS
L = actual unbraced length of column, in.
included, the allowable stresses may be increased by
113.
Only the Proposed AWWA and the AISC formulas

•I
r = radius of gyration, in. =1/4 v'D02 + D?
t = wall thickness of cylinder or column, in.
t1 = wall thickness of cone, in.
are presented here. Persons interested in the current
AWWA and the ASME formulas are directed to those
documents for information. Values of Fa for KUr = 0
for both the Proposed AWWA and the AISC formulas

7
are shown graphically in Fig. 2-1 for Fy = 30 ksi and For tiRo ~ Fy 11650
in Fig. 2-2 for Fy = 36 ksi. Fb = 0.66 Fy (2-13)
Fa = the value obtained from formula 2-11 when
Proposed AWWA KUr < Cc or from formula 2-12 when KUr";?
Fb= oLIFS (2-1 ) Ce·
Fa = oLKetiFS (2-2) Ce = ""'2 1(2 EIFy (2-14)
fe/Fa + ft/Fb s: 1 (2-3)
References
For Fy ~ 34 ksi Proposed Revision to AWWA Standard 0100-84.
tiRo Range (} L AISC 1989 Specification for Structural Steel
tiRo $ 0.0031088 3500 tiRo [1.0 + 50000 (tIRo)2) (2-4) Buildings - Allowable Stress Design and Plastic
0.0031088 <tiRo <0.012 11.55+1476 tiRo (2-5) Design
tiRo ~ 0.0125 30

For Fy> 34 ksi

tiRo Range (}L
tiRo $ 0.0035372 Formula (2-4)
0.0035372 ~ tiRo < 0.012 13.86 + 1771.2 tiRo (2-6)
tiRo ~ 0.0125 36

FS = 2
C'c = ""'2 1(2Elo L (2-7)

Kef> C'C)2
= 0.5 (KUr when KUr~ C'c (2-8)

K", = 1-0.5 (~~r when KUr < C'c (2-9)

when KUr ~ 25

AISC
Some of the formulas in the AISC Specifications are
presented in terms of Dclt. Those formulas, when
shown below, have been converted to tiRo terms, so
they are not in the exact same form as those in the
specification.
Members subjected to both axial compression and
bending stresses should be proportioned to satisfy
the combined stress requirements of the A'ISC
specification. The combined stress formulas are not
presented here so must be obtained from the AISC
specification. .
The AISC specification contains no
recommendations for allowable stresses when tiRo <
Fy16500.
For Fy 16500 ~ tiRo < Fy 11650
Fb = 331 tiRo + 0.40 Fy (2-10)
Fa = smaller of the value obtained
from formula 2·10 or
1 - (KUr)21 F
[ 2Ce2 J Y
when KUr < Ce (2-11 )
.§. + 3(KUr) _ (KUr)3
3 8Ce 8Ce3

12 1[2E h KU > C (2-12)

or 23(KUr)2 w en r - e

8
 •
•
~ 20

18

•
AISC- ~
16
~
~
~ ---- -----
---- ---- . /V
./"

•
14

12
Fa k"
•
(ksi) 10
/' " "-PR OPOSE DAVM
./ A
8
/
•I 6

oV
/
I

o 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.02

I t/ Ro

KUr = 0, Fy = 30 ksi
II Figure 2-1

•
".

\ )'.
22

-- ~

• 20 ~

---------
!-""
A1SC
18 ~
----- ~ -/~

,•
16

14 V
Fa 12 A
(ksi)
10 ~
/' i'-Pf ~OPos r-DAWV JA

/
• 8

6
I
/ -

• 4

2
l(
L

• o
o 0.004 0.008 0.012
t/ Ro
0.016 0.02

• KUr = 0, Fy = 36 ksi
Figure 2-2

• 9
.>
•
•Part III

•IExternal Pressure
on Cyli nders ________________________

•I C ylindrical vessels subjected to external

pressure must be designed as tubular
columns to resist axial loads imposed on the
heads. In addition, circumferential stiffeners may be
required to prevent buckling of the shell due to radial
pressure.
p
Pa
= external pressure, psi
= allowable external pressure, psi
For a vessel with atmospheric pressure inside,
and greater than atmospheric pressure outside,
p and ' Pa refer to the gage pressure outside the
tank. For a vessel with atmospheric pressure
outside and a partial vacuum inside, p and Pa

•
Notation refer to the partial vacuum inside the tank, in
A = strain factor (see Fig. 3-1) psi, taken as a positive number. For vessels
As = cross-sectional area, sq in., of stiffener which are simultaneously exposed to a partial
vacuum inside and greater than atmospheric

•
B = allowable pressure factor (see Fig. 3-1) pressure on the outside, P and Pa should be
Do = outside diameter, in., of cylinder plate taken as the maximum difference in the inside
Ro = outside radius, in., of cylinder and outside absolute pressures.

•
E = modulus of elasticity, psi t = minimum thickness, in., of cylindrical plate; or
F = safety factor wlrespect to predicted failure for determining stiffener spacing, average
Fa = allowable unit stress, psi thickness, in., of unsupported shell between
stiffeners; or for short spans, thickness, in., of

•
h = height or length, in., of cylindrical shell
middle quarter of span
between end stiffeners
t1 = weighted average thickness, in., of shell
Is = required moment of inertia of the stiffening ring between end stiffeners
cross section about its neutral axis parallel to

•
the axis of the shell, in.4
I~ = required moment 'of inertia of the combined
ring-shell cross section about its neutral axis
parallel to the axis of the shell, in.4
L = design length, in., of cylinder = largest of
following:
Distance between head bend lines plus one-
!l = Poisson's ratio = 0.30 for steel
Types of Pressure Vessels
With respect to the spacing and sizing of stiffeners,
cylindrical vessels may be grouped into three general
classifications:
A. Vessels designed for an external (or internal)

•II
third depth of each head if there are no pressure greater than 15 psi. These are usually
stiffener rings subject to the rules of ASME Code. The code
Greatest distance center to center between any provides a safety factor of 3 for stiffener spacing
two stiffener rings based on buckling of the shell between stiffeners.
Distance from first stiffener to head bend line B. Vessels subject to both axial and radial/oads
plus one-third depth of head and designed to operate at 15 psi or less. These are
not always specified to be in accordance with code
Ls = half the distance, in., from center of stiffener to rules. When the external pressure approaches the

•
next stiffener or line of support on one side
. plus half the distance, in., to next stiffener or
line of support on the other side
N = number of complete waves into which stiffener
upper limit or the pressure cycle alternates between
internal and external, the stiffener design might best
be in accordance with code rules with a minimum

•
safety factor of 3. For less severe conditions, some
ring will buckle designers have reduced the safety factor to 2112 with
= number of waves into which unstiffened shell successful results.
between end stiffeners will buckle C. Storage tanks of large diameter. These are

11
 sometimes subjected to relatively static, small,
external pressures that are radial only. Examples are
earth pressure on buried tanks, or granular or liquid
pressure on the inner shell of a double-walled tank.
In such cases, successful results have been
achieved with the stiffener design based on a safety
factor of 2.
It should be noted that the ASME code as well as
most of the experimental and analytical shell
buckling information aVpilable are for a uniform
round shell with uniform static loading. In the case of
a buried or submerged horizontal tank, or a vertical
tank subjected to wind loading, the external pressure
will vary around the periphery of the tank. In the
case of a partially buried vertical tank, varying
compaction and soil conditions may cause the
external pressure to vary in an irregular way around
the tank. Wind or water currents may produce
dynamic effects which would present problems in the
analysis. Any such variation in the loading, or any
significant deviation from a true circular shape, may
result in bending stresses in the cylindrical shell and
stiffeners, which are not accounted for by the
following analysis. Additional investigation may be
required in these cases.
The selection of the factor of safety in all cases
should take into account the consequences
associated with a failure of the structure, as well as
the accuracy of the analysis and accuracy and
duration of the loadings. Caution should also be
exercised in applying ASME design equations to
shells which do not meet ASME tolerances.
Design of Pressure Vessels
Design of types A, Band C vessels is discussed in
the following:
Type A. ASME Code Rules. To serve as an
illustration, Figs. UCS 28.1 and 28.2 and UGO-28.0
have been reproduced here as Figs. 3-1 and 3-2.
These charts are used to determine shell thickness
of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external
pressure when constructed of carbon steel having a
yield strength of 30,000 to 38,000 psi. The procedure
for using the chart is as follows:
Step 1. For the assumed t, determine ratios
UDo and Delt.
Step 2. Enter left-hand side of Fig. 3-1 at the value
of UD o.
Step 3. Move horizontally to the line representing
Delt.
Step 4. From this intersection move vertically
downward to determine the value of factor
A.
Step 5. Using the value of A from Step 4, enter the
applicable material chart in Fig. 3-2. Move
vertically to the material/temperature line for
the maximum design temperature.
Step 6. From this intersection, move horizontally to
the right and read value of B.
Step 7. Compute the allowable external pressure
from the following formula:
Pa = 4B (3-1)
3Delt
12
If A from Step 4 is to the left of the applicable
material/temperature line, then use:
_ 2AE
Pa - 3(Oclt) (3-2)
When t may be determined by factors other than
external pressure, then, for known values of Pa and
Do, and a known or assumed value of t, factor Bean
be determined from Eq. 3-1. The steps outlined
above can be reversed to determine stiffener spacing
from the corresponding UDo ratio obtained from the
chart.
ASME also provides charts for steels of other
strengths, as well as other metals and alloys. Where
pressure-vessel codes apply, reference should be
made to the latest edition of the code.
Sizing the stiffener rings as prescribed by ASME is
done as follows:
The required moment of inertia should not be less
than:
(3-3)
or:
I' = DQ 2Lsft + A/LJA
s 10.9 (3-4)
The width of shell contributing to the combined
moment of inertia (Is') should not be greater than
1.10 VDot. Assume that half the width lies on each
side of the centroid of the ring, except that there
should be no overlap of effective widths between two
adjacent stiffeners.
The procedure for stiffener design is as follows:
Step 1. Assuming the shell has been designed, Do,
Ls and t are known. Assume a stiffener
section and determine its area, As, and
moment of inertia, Is. Then calculate B vom
pDQ ]
B = 3/4 [ t + AILs (3-5)
Step 2. Enter the right-hand side of chart on
Fig. 3-2 at the computed value of B.
Step 3. Follow horizontally to the design
temperature line.
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart
and read the value of A.
Step 5. Calculate required value of Is from Eq. 3-3
or I~ from Eq. 3-4.
Step 6. If Is required is greater or substantially less
than Is provided, assume a new section and
repeat the steps.
Step 7. If the value of B in Step 3 is below the left
end of the applicable material temperature
line, then use A = 2BIE.
Type B. Non-Code Vessels Subject to Both Axial and
Radial Loads. For pressure vessels, stiffener design
might best be in accordance with code rules with a
minimum safety factor of 3. Code charts, however, do
not include Delt ratios greater than 1,000 whereas
many non-code vessels are of .reJatively large
diameter and have Delt ratios greater than 1,QOO. In
such cases, internal pressure often controls shell
thickness. But even small external pressures may
require stiffeners because of the large diameter.
 20.0 0 \
\
11.0 .• \.lH-4-+,,-+1H-+-R--t-IrHH--+++++HH-H-+t-t-tt--r-t-t-t-ttt-t-t-rr-t-tt-rtM1tt-H
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10.0 ~\ \ i\ \ \

f
9.0 1\ \ \
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o ~ \ ~
6.0 r-" _ '0 \ 1\ \ 1\ \ 1\ 1 \
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,
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~ 2.5 - ~~ i\. \~ \ ~ \ \ \. \ ~ r\ 1\ r\ \ \ r\ \ i\ \ \ \ r\ ~\O

~ 2.0 -~ \ \ 1 \ \ _\ _~ '\ 1\ I\. i\ \ r\ '.)~
~ ::: \ \ ' 1\ 1\ \\ \ \ i\ \ [\ \ \ ~~ \,.;
·to \ \ \ \ 1\ \ 1\ f' \ \ \ \ \ ~-:.. \
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~_
240'
.80 \ \ [\. \ \ \ \ \ \J 1\ \ \. \"\ 1\ \ ~'.-
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.10 \ \ \ \ ['\0
\ I\. \ \ J\ \ \ \ I ~
.60 t--+-+-+-+--I-t-+-~~-+-+-1f-l.cf-~\H--H.:-IH-l~\:-:4.~~~:-+--*+.1f+P+--+-~I~\~~+.-1=+W-i
\ \ \ \ \ , 1\ \ \ \ \ \ \~
.50 t--+-+-+-+--+-""';-+-H~\-f-1~~\r-+-1Ito\+TI\+-!-l+--+'-I\-1\r-+-Jod--''r-\.-+--+\M-!\o~\r-+--''r-T-I\~
' ~",_..

1\ \ \ \' r \ \ . . . . . -"" i
I
'J-
t-+-+-+-I-+-+-+-+-Hf-1l,,,,,~~--j-J~.,\~.,,,+-,,~\..:Ir4-l,-\+--4\-1I~
\~,\+l-1M1\-PI\~\-+-l\-f\M\~i-\~'-PI!li
\ 1 \ \ "\ •

.4Q

.J5 . , \ ~ \ \ 1\ ~ \. i\ 1\ \ \ 1\ \ r\ :\ \.. :)~J

::: 1\:\ \ \ [\ \. \ \ \\ \r\ " 1\, \ \ \1\ 1\ \.~

•I .20
.18
. \6
,, i\ 1\ \ r\ \
.1. t--t-+-+-+-~H-H-T+-+--+-I~~+-+-+rHflt-~~+-+-4r-++*+~~-+--f-Il'o,~~
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t\ \
~y/
0 I:'

.12

.10
NOTE: Sec hble UGO·28.0 10' ubulM nlun _\

1\ r..
1\ '\. \

\ \
I\. \ I\. \
\ \~ .\
f\ 1\
\ " !\'\
I\.

N
\~ _}:'~'

I ::~!=:~~=~:~~~\~v.~X~\~~~~~~~t§
.010 t--:t-+-+-+-+-H-+-H+--+-+--1H--+-+++I\'%~-~1\~~~~~~~~
.060 t-+-+-+-+-+-t-+-+-H+--I-+--1I-+--+-+++t,1 }J
~~=t~:~
I 1\1 Il\ l\ I "I "\J I'\. Lf'. \ I -\ I'

I ,osa _____~-'-'"""-........I..O-.I.___'"""-........'-'-........I-\....

.00001
345678V
U....ll..l.l_~II......I......J..ll_.l-.I.I.....I...I.I..I..~J..I.

.0001
II_"·_.J-...J 1t -J...J.I.....".J.'IJ.J.JI
111.....J-..I..
3 ~56}U

FACTOR A
.001
3.56789
.01
3.,56789
.1

I
Fig. 5-UGO-28.0 Geometric Chart for Cylindrical Vessels under External
I or Compressive Loadings (for All Materials)
FIGURE 3·1

I 13
 20,000
- ~TE;I s':' iabl~ ~d~d8~11t()( tabUI.J vJu~ I I I
18.000
up to :lOOF ~- 16.000
/ I I 14.000
---. l..- I-- .....- ...- ...-"- ":"1- JOO1F
~ -~ .... .... , fo-- I
12.000
~ ...
L--' :.- -,.,- 700 F
....... .,. 10.000
- ~ :...--~ ...". -I- 800 F fo--- 9,000 'I
I ~i'" l,......- ........ .... i-'~ ~ ..... I I
., 900 F ~-- 8,000 /,

~~ .,;'"
~ ....... ,.,. .... r- V al
/, L.-"" .,..,. .-'"
.J#O .....
7.000 a:
0
11 ~ .," 6.000
~
u
I ./ ~ --;;.;,. <
u..
Ii", ... ./ 5,000
V
.E • 29.0 x 10e
......... ...... I
I"
'11/
".
, ...
E. 27.0 x 10e 4.000
E • 24.S x 104'
~
......... {/, '1/ ......
::3.500
E • 22.8 x 10e
......... I: ~, l-
3.000
E - 20.8 )( 10'
r;
'h '1: ~
2.500
(A~
2.000
2 3 4 5 6789 2 3 " 5 6789 2 :1 4 5 6789 2 3 045&789

.OO(X)1 .0001 .001 .01 .1

FACTOR A

Fig. 5-UCS-28.1 Chart for Determining Shell Thickness of Cylindrical and Spherical
Vessels Under External Pressure When Constructed of Carbon Or Low-Alloy Steels
(Specified Minimum Yield Strength 24,000 psi To, But Not Including, '30,000 psi)

25.000
NclTE: I se!. iab'~ s-Ld~2'8~ 'f t~ular' Val~.!
., ~i"'"tptJ3lL
Of'

.... ~- 20,000

-- sao F- ~ ... 18.000

--- V?OO F-
I I I
~~ 16,000

V
./
V
.-~
....... -,... ... V
...". ~
...-
---- ,.,.'"
•
-
~I
I
800 F-
J900 F_
I

II
I

---- 104,000

-
V.,. 12.000
..... ~
~ ........ ... ...V
/1
1/",,"
/
~
.-'"
;;;;;;--
.- ........ ~
--- :-.- .............
............. ,...
~
~
JO.ooo
9.000
aJ
a:
8.000 0
;;.ii" ~
VI
'I'
~ ....
/ ~
~"...,.
7.000
U
«
u..
~ :/.
.... 6.000
I, 'I
" .;'
5.000
II, ~
E - 29.0 x 10'
JI/1.
e-
e-
27.0 "'r--. Illll
x 10' ...... 1-0....
24.5 )( 10' 1-0....
4.000
3.500
e- 22.8 x 10' ~ [j)
E - 20.8 )( 10'
'Ii' 3.000

I 1111' rh ~ 'I 2.500

2 :1" 5 6789 2 3 456789 2 3 4 5 6789 2 3 04 5 6789

.00001 .0001 .001 .01 .1

FACTOR A

Fig. 5-UCS-28.2 Chart for Determining Shell Thickness of Cylindrical and Spherical
Vessels Under External Pressure When Constructed of Carbon Or Low-Alloy Steels
(Specified Minimum Yield Strength 30,000 psi and Over Except for Materials Within This Range
Where Other Specific Charts Are Referenced) and Type 405 and Type 410 Stainless Steels
FIGURE 3-2

14
 Where this situation occurs, design may be in
accordance with the following discussion of type C
vessels If The Limitations Given Therein Are Followed.
Note that the curves in Fig. 3-2 based on material
strength (temperature curves) are not straight over
their entire length. The procedure outlined for type C
vessels is applicable only to the straight portion of
the curve, where most type C vessels will fall. If the
same rules were applied indiscriminately, inadequate
design could result.
Where the rules do apply to type B vessels, the
safety factor for stiffener spacing should preferably
be at least 3, but may be less at the designer's
discretion, depending on severity of loading, inherent
hazard, etc.
Type C. Storage Tanks of Large Diameter Subject
to Radial Loads Only, or Small Vacuums Where the
Axial Load is Negligible. In determination of stiffener
ring spacing, the safety factor of 3, as specified by
the ASME code, seems excessive for storage tanks
of this type. Furthermore, the code design of
stiffeners assumes that they will buckle into two
waves. Stiffeners on short tanks with large diameters
may be stayed so that buckling takes place in more
than two waves. In that case, design in accordance
with the code may be overconservative.
The following procedure was developed to provide
a more reasonable design basis for such tanks. In
using this approach, however, designers should
remember that it applies to a special situation,
frequently encountered, and is not a general solution
for all cylinders subjected to external pressure. (See
preceding discussion of type B structures.)
The procedure is based on the use of two end
stiffeners of sufficient strength to permit installation
of small intermediate stiffeners based on the wave
pattern postulated for the unstiffened shell between
end stiffeners. An .example for a vertical storage tank
would be incorporation of one end stiffener at the
bottom of the shell and one at the roof or at an
upper point of the shell where the radial external
pressure becomes zero. Intermediate stiffeners would
be located between these end stiffeners.
Intermediate Stiffener Rings
Within the following limitations, the spacing Ls of
intermediate stiffeners may be determined from the
David Taylor Model Basin formula 1 (Eq. 3-6). The
formula, however, does not a2.Q!y if the resulting
spacing Ls is less than 0.9 vo;;t.The circumferential
stress in the shell alone, not including the stiffeners,
should not exceed the allowable working stress for
the shell material in compression.
The David Taylor Model Basin formula is:
h = • It f0.45 + 2.42E (tJDQ)2]
Do t' 0: l Fp (1 - ~2)O.7j
For shells constructed of mild carbon steel under
radial pressure only and for temperatures to 3DDoF,
1Col/apse by Instability of Thin Cylindrical Shells Under External
Pressure, by Dwight Windenburg and Charles Trilling.
it is recommended that a minimum safety factor of 2
be used.
Some vessels may be subjected to external
pressures that vary from zero at an upper point on
the shell to a maximum at the shell-to-bottom
junction. For this type of triangular radial loading,
determination of the first lower unsupported span LS1
should be based on the pressure at the bottom. This
locates the first intermediate stiffener above the
bottom. Then, the next span LS2 should be based on
the pressure at the first stiffener. This procedure
should be repeated up the shell. For each span, the
thickness should be assumed as the thickness of the
middle quarter of the span, or the average thickness
of the plates in the span.
To prevent buckling of the intermediate stiffeners,
the moment of inertia should be at least:
I~ = FpL s D Q 3
8E (N2 - 1) (3-7)
In Eq. 3-7, computation of I~ provided may include a
portion of the shell :guivalent to the lesser of
v
1.1 t Dot = 1.56t Rot or the area As of the
stiffener.
The moment of inertia for intermediate stiffeners
attached to shells under radial pressure only or
under both radial and axial pressures should have a
minimum safety factor of 2.
In Eq. 3-7, N is an integer with approximate value
of:
N2 = 0.663 s: 100 (3-8)
h • r-IL
Do t' Do
To prevent yielding of the stiffener, it should also
satisfy the following requirement for minimum cross-
sectional area:
As = P.l::.8 (3-9)
Fa
where Fa should be taken as 15,000 psi for mild
carbon steel.
In determination of As provided, a width equal to
v
0.78 Rot of the available shell each side of the
stiffener should be included in the composite area.
To insure a nominal-size stiffener, in no case should
the area of the stiffener alone be less than half the
required area.
Both Eq. 3-7 and 3-9 are based on the assumption
that all the circumferential shell force is carried by
the stiffeners. This is a very conservative assumption
and could be relaxed with a more rigorous analysis.
End Stiffener Rings
For the preceding design procedure for
intermediate stiffeners to apply, the ends of the
(3-6) cylindrical shell must be held circular. It is assumed
that half the total external radial load on the shell is
transferred to the end stiffeners. This load is further
distributed to the end stiffeners in inverse proportion
to the ratios of their distances from the resultant of
the load on the shell to the distance between end
15
stiffeners. The required moment of inertia for end
stiffeners therefore should be at least
I; = Fph Do 3 (3-10)
16 E(N2_1)
For open top tanks, N for the top end stiffener
must be taken as 2. When the end stiffener is stayed
by a cone roof or radial framing, N equals the
number of rafters at the shell. For a flat bottom, a
full diaphragm, or a self-supporting roof, N should be
calculated in the same way as for intermediate
stiffeners.
An end stiffener can be a circular girder composed
of a portion of a flat bottom fora web, a portion of
the shell for one flange, and a circumferential
member welded to the bottom for the other flange.
The proportions of such a girder should be limited by
the AISC rules for compression ·members.
The required .cross-sectional area of a composite
end stiffener should be at least
As = phDo (3-11)
4 Fa
If available, a portion of the shell equal to
0.78 y'Rot on each side of the stiffener can be
16
assumed as part of the required area. Fa should be
taken as 15,000 psi for mild carbon steel.
Top Intermediate Stiffener Ring
For a cylindrical shell with external pressure on
only a portion of its total height, such as a partly
buried tank, additional consideration must be given
to the distribution of load to the end stiffeners. In any
case, always locate the top intermediate stiffener at
the surface elevation of the external pressure. N
should be taken the same as that recommended for
intermediate stiffeners (unless this stiffener is
assumed to be the end stiffener). The load on the
top intermediate stiffener depends on the distance
from this stiffener to the top end of the cylinder. If
this distance is greater than twice the greatest
intermediate stiffener spacing, assume that no load
is transmitted through the shell to the top end of the
cylinder. Therefore, the top intermediate stiffener
should be designed as a top stiffener. If this distance
is less than twice the greatest intermediate stiffener
spacing, the regular end stiffener design may be
provided at the top of the cylinder, while the load on
the top intermediate stiffener is computed as for the
other intermediate stiffeners.
Part IV
Membrane Theory~~~~~~~~~~
ost vessels storing liquid or gas are surfaces
M of revolution, formed by rotation of one or
more continuous pl~me curves about a
straight line in their plane. The line is called the axis
of revolution. All sections of a shell of revolution
perpendicular to the axis of revolution are circles.
Usually the axis of revolution of a storage vessel is
vertical, in which case all horizontal sections are
circles.
Notation
P = The internal pressure on shell. It may be due
to gas alone (PG) , liquid alone (Pd, or both
together (PG + Pd (psi).
T, = The meridional force (sometimes called
longitudinal force). This is force in vertical planes,
but on horizontal sections (pounds per inch).
T, is positive when in tension.
T2 = The latitudinal force (sometimes called hoop or
ring force). This is Jorce in horizontal planes,
but on vertical section (pounds per inch).
T2 is positive when in tension.
R = Horizontal radius at plane ·under consideration
from axis of revolution (in).
R1 = Radius of curvature in vertical (meridional)
plane at level under consideration (in).
Generally R, is negative if it is on the
opposite side of the shell from R2.
R2 = Length of the normal to the shell at the plane
under consideration, measured from the shell
to its axis of revolution (in).
Generally R2 is positive unless the plane
results in more than one circle.
W = Total weight of that portion of the vessel and its
content, either above or below the plane under
consideration, which is treated as a free body
in computations for such plane (pounds). W has
the same sign as P when acting in the same
direction as the pressure on the plane of the
free body, and the opposite sign from P when
acting in the opposite direction.
AT == Cross sectional area of the interior of the vessel
at the plane under consideration (square
inches).
y = Density of product (pounds per cubic inch).
17
Note:
Radii R, and R2 lie in the same line, but have
different lengths except for a sphere where R1 == R2.
T1 and T2 are loads per inch and will give the
membrane stress in the plate when divided by the
thickness of the plate.
General Equation for Membrane Forces
Consider an element of a spherical section of unit
length in each direction.
Figure 4-1 indicates the radii and forces T1 and T2
acting on the element.
Figures 4-2 and 4-3 indicate the pressure on the
element and the components of the membrane unit
forces in the latitudinal and meridional planes.
For equilibrium, the summation of forces must be
equal to zero.
l: Outward Force = P.R2 <l>2.R1 cJ>1
l: Inward Force =
2T1 <l>1R2<1>2 + 2T2 <I>2R,cJ>,
"2 "2
Equating the two:
P.R2 <l>2.R1<1>1 =
2T1 <I>,R2<1>2 + 2T2 <l>2R1<1>,
"2 2"
:. PR1R2 = T,R2 + T2R,
:. p = 11 + 12 (4-1)
R1 R2
Equation 4-1 is the general equation for membrane
forces. This equation considers membrane forces
primarily produced by the product contained within
the vessel. The weight of the vessel itself may add to
these forces and should be considered in the
analysis.
Modified Equations for Membrane Forces
In general, the meridional force is the unit force in
the wall of the vessel required to support the weight
of the product, internal pressure, and plate weights
at the plane under consideration.
In the free body diagram (figure 4-5), consider the
forces acting at plane 1-1.
The total forces acting at plane 1-1 from above the
plane = p.rr.R2.
 General Equation for Membrane Forces

PLANE B·B
(VERTICAL)

PLANE A·A
(NORMAL TO SURFACE)

FIGURE 4·1

Plan View, Plane A-A Elevation View, Plane B-B

FIGURE 4-2 FIGURE 4-3
18
 Modified Equations for Membrane Forces

1-'-----'1

FIGURE 4-4

1--~

R = R2 SIN<I>

FIGURE 4-5

19
 Total forces acting at plane 1-1 from below the For figures 4-6, 4-7,4-8,4-9, and 4-14, the equations
plane = W. for membrane forces are:
Total vertical downward force = P.TI.R2 + W
Vertical force required along circumference at T1 = ~[P
2
+~]
AT
plane 1-1 to support the downward forces:
T
VI -
_ P.TIR2+ W
2TIR
T. = R. [p - ~~]
For figures 4-10,4-11,4-12, and 4-13 where R1 =
Membrane force co, the equations for membrane forces reduce to:
_ JJLL _ P.TIR2+ W
T, - Sin cI> - 2TIR Sin cI> T1 =~[p+~]
2 AT

or T, PR .W T2 = PR2
= 2 Sin cI> + 2TIR Sin cI>
The sign of R1, R2, P, W, and AT are shown in table

= 2 s~n 4> [ p + n~.] 4-1 and must be included in computing the forces.
For any other vessel configuration, a free body
diagram can be drawn and the forces T, and T2
Since R
Sin cI>
= R2 and TIR2 = AT calculated in a similar way.

Further Simplifications
T, = ~. [p + ~] (4-2)
The equations for membrane forces can be further
simplified for some of the shapes.
From Equation 4-1
a.Spheres
T. = R. [ P - ~~] For spheres with no product (gas pressure
only), the equations reduce to:
These are the equations used in API 620.
T, = PGR2
Simplified Equations for 2
Commonly Used Shapes
T2 = R2 .[ P _ PR2]
Figures 4-6 to 4-14 show the common vessel shapes 2R,
used and the direction and magnitude of the radii, Since R, = R2 = R
pressure, and weights acting on the free body
diagram. Table 4-1 indicates the sign for each T1 = T2 = PR
variable . The figures use the following notations: 2
where R = radius of sphere.
fE[l Level of product in the vessel.
b. Cylinders
Wj Volume of product to be used in calculating If the weight of the plate is neglected and
the weight of product above or below the free there is no internal pressure in the vessel and since
body diagram. R2 = R:
II Area of plate to be used in calculating the
T, = 2"R [ PL -
TIR2YH]
TI R2
weight of plate above or below the free body
diagram.
Since rH = PL
For all figures: T1 =0
P = PG + rH T2 = PL.R
AT = TIR2 where R = radius of cylinder.

20
 LINE OF
I
_ ...1-1----
[
T SUPPORT

R=R2 SIN cp

FIGURE 4-6
Spherical Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

R=R2 SIN cp

I LINE OF
l---L---~T-ri~H"'i+.ri.~~T:-ri~r-l · · . SUPPORT

~ :~:.I-I----
[
T

FIGURE 4·7
Spherical Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.

21
 .. .. . ..., .:.
. ... . -: . .: .
,'
. . .. . . .
., . .
.. . ' ': . LINEOF

J -T
' . . '

. SUPPORT

R=R2 SIN cp
FIGURE 4·8
Spheroidal Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

R=R2 SIN cp

I [LINE OF
l------L-f't~~~~~r-A~~~~~~~lr-l SUPPORT

-r-· -r
FIGURE 4·9
Spheroidal Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.

22
 LINE OF
SUPPORT

R-R2 CDS cp

R 1 = .DO
FIGURE 4·10
Conical Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

R=R2 CDS cp

I
1
LINE OF
SUPPORT

I
R 1 = DO
FIGURE 4·11
Conical Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.

23
 ~~
I
v

Rl = 00

FIGURE 4·12
Conical Vessel or Segment. Pressure on convex side.
Plane above line of support.

R=R.;:>

PGI
/ / /:':'~ ,')' 'J ':" / :::;",';
'~
X
<.;WI ",,) ,r.:: ,'')
:;/:
::,~
I
1 1:: r,
1- \" .
LINE OF :',:,

\l (\'
~">
::,:,)" :',<,,:' :;,:
~;)}
SUPPORT ',,; :',::, ':',' ' .. : .":'>,': ',,' y' ''':;
:/'::":::/,:':,:, ::':, ...:: ::.',

f
I
R1 = 00
FIGURE 4·13
Cylindrical Vessel. Plane above line of support.

24
 I

FIGURE 4-14
Curved Segment. Pressure on convex side.
Plane above line of support.

TABLE 4-1

Figure R1 R2 P W AT

4-6 + + + + +

4-7 + + + - +

4-8 + + + + +

4-9 + + + - +

4-10 co + + + +

4-11 co + + - +

4-12 co + - + +

4-13 co + + - +

4-14 - + + - +

25
Part V
Self-Supported Stacks ....................._
Scope
he scope defined for this Volume stated that
T stacks would not be discussed in detail
because of the complicated problem of
resonant vibrations. Apart from this phase, however,
there are purely structural facets that may be of
interest. For the benefit of those not familiar with the
problem, a brief explanation of stack vibration
follows:
Wind-Induced Vibrations
When a steady wind blows on an unsheltered,
unguyed stack, formation and shedding of air
vortices on each side of the stack can apply
alternating lateral forces that cause movement of the
stack perpendicular to the direction of the wind.
The frequency of vortex shedding is a function of
wind velocity and stack diameter. The term critical
velocity denotes the wind velocity at 'A'hich the
frequency of vortex shedding equals the natural
frequency of the stack. Under such conditions,
resonance occurs.
Excessive lateral dynamic deflection and vibration
of the stack from vortex shedding may occur at wind
velocities considerably below the maximum wind
velocity expected in the area.
One way to avoid resonance and consequent
damage to the stack is to proportion the stack so
that the critical wind velocity exceeds the highest
sustained wind velocity that is likely to occur. In most
areas, for example, it is unlikely that a steady wind
of more than 75 mph will occur. Hence, a stack
having a critical velocity of 75 mph is probably safe
in those regions, though gusts of greater velocity
might occur.
There may be reasons, however, why a stack of
such proportions will not serve the purpose. If so, the
effects of dynamic vibrations must be thoroughly
investigated. If the critical wind velocity is low
enough, it may be that the stresses due to dynamic
deflections are within design limits. In that case, the
stack is structurally adequate if noticeable movement
of the stack is not objectionable.
If investigation shows that stresses due to
vibrations are not within safe limits, the only
solutions are to change the stack diameter or to add
27
a damping device. Such devices might consist of a
gunite or similar lining or so-called "wind spoilers"
on the exterior of the stack. '
The subject is quite complex. To attempt a brief
summarization could be dangerously misleading.
Instead, a bibliography of references is appended at
the end of this part for the benefit of those who wish
to explore the subject more thoroughly.
Minimum Thickness and Corrosion
In view of the corrosive nature innate to stack
operation, it is wise to add a corrosion allowance to
the calculated shell thickness. The nature of the flue
gasses and moisture content in the area are some
important parameters in determining the amount of
corrosion for which to allow.
Erection requirements usually dictate minimum
plate thicknesses and the stress formulae in this part
are not considered valid for thicknesses less than
Y4". Therefore, the minimum thickness for shell plate
is taken to be Y4" nominal.
Notation
A = Cross sectional area of base ring, in.2
(l = Vertical angle of cone to cyl., degrees
AB = Anchor bolt circle, in.
As = Required area for stack stiffeners, in.2
~ = Critical damping ratio of .stack
G = See Fig. 10 Sec. A-A
G'c = Euler Factor
GL = Lift coefficient (0.2 for circular cylinder)
o = Outside diameter of stack, in.
Do = OutSide diameter of cylindrical portion of
stack, ft.
E = Modulus of elasticity, psi at design temperature
E1 = Joint efficiency for base plate design
Fa = Allowable compressive stress for
circumferential stiffeners, 12000 psi
(unless otherwise noted)
Fb = Allowable bending stress, 0.6 F4, psi for
stiffeners
Fe = Allowable compressive stress, ksi
Fer = Critical buckling stress, ksi
FL = Equivalent static force, Ibltt of height
Fs = Allowable compressive stress, psi (in cone-
cylinder junction area)
 Fy = Yield point of stack material, ksi
FS = Factor of safety
H = Overall height of stack, ft.
H1 = Overall height of stack, in.
Minimum base diameter
Is = Required moment of inertia for stack do = H/10 (5-1)
stiffeners, in.4
K4> = Effective length factor Minimum bell height
h = 0.3H (5-2)
K = Slenderness reduction factor
Ls = Stiffener spacing, ft. Minimum diameter of
L = length for KUr .r cylinder, Do = H/13
(5-3)
LS1 = Stiffener spacing, in.
M = Moment at any design point, inch-pounds
N = Number of anchor bolts
Pd = Wind load, psi ~
---a..-..-o.-" /---,-.-

R 1 = Outside conical radius, in. I_ do~

Ro = Outside radius of cylinder portion of stack, in. Figure 5-1. Cylindrical Stack with Belled Base.
S = Strouhal number (0.2 for steel stack)
Ss = Required section modulus for stack stiffeners, Stacks are likely to be subjected at least to the
in.3 following loads:
1. Metal Weight.
T = Load per bolt, lb.
2. Lining Weight.
V = Total direct load at any design point, lb. 3. Wind: Wind load provisions may be found in
Ver1 = Critical wind velocity, mph ASCE 7-88. Local building codes should also be
VCr2 = Critical wind velocity, ftlsec. consulted.
Vo = Resonance velocity, ft/sec. 4. Icing (if required).
5. Seismic (if required).
W = Chord for arc W', in. 6. Thermal cycling (vertical & circumferential).
W' = Arc length of breeching opening, in. 7. Possible negative pressures.
Ws = Unit weight of stack shell, Ib.lin. 3 8. Other requirements of local building codes.
do = Outside diameter of belled stack base, ft.
Dynamic Wind Criteria
fe = Compression stress, ksi
The dynamic influence of wind may be approximated
fo = Frequency of the lowest mode of ovaling by assuming an equivalent static force, FL, in pounds
vibration, cps per foot of height, acting in the direction of
f t = Natural frequency, cps oscillations, given by:
9 = Acceleration of gravity, 386 in.lsec. FL = CL Do qer/2~ (5-4)
h = Height of stack bell, ft. NOTE: ~ = Critical damping factor which varies from
p = Wind load, psf 1% for an unlined steel stack of small
qer = Dynamic wind pressure, psf diameter to 5 0/0 for concrete.
r = Radius of gyration, in. The dynamic wind pressure, qcr, in psf, is given by:
*qer = 0.00119 Vel. The critical wind velocity, Ver2 in
= Thickness of stack, in. fps, for resonant transverse vibration is given by:
w = Uniform load over breeching opening, Ib.lin.
Veriftlsec) =~ (5-5)
S
Static Design Criteria The natural frequency, ft (cps), of vibration of a stack
of constant diameter and thickness is given by:
In the suggested static design criteria below, the
ft = 3.52 D [~]\h (5-6)
proportions indicated are those desirable from a 4nH12 2Ws
structural standpoint. Independent calculations are
Critical velocity for a steel stack with an S value of
needed to determine sizes to satisfy draft or capacity
0.2 is given by:
requirements. In general, stacks proportioned as
suggested will probably have a high critical wind Ver1 (mph) = 3.41 Doft (5-7)
velocity, but a dynamic check should be made to Values of effective diameters and effective height for
verify this. stacks of varying diameter and thickness may be
Short stacks (less than 100 ft. high) may be determined by methods found in reference number 19.
straight cylinders without a belled base. *Reference number 14(b)

28
Critical Wind Velocity for Ovaling Vibrations P
In addition to transverse swaying oscillations, stacks
experience flexural vibration in the cross-sectional
M~
plan as a result of vortex shed~ing .. Thi~ freq~ency
of the lowest mode of ovaling vibration In a circular
shell is:
v
(5-8)
Ro
Resonance occurs when frequency of the lowest
H
mode of ovaling vibration is twice the vortex
shedding frequency; thus, the critical wind velocity
for ovaling frequency is:
v
Vo = toDo = (ft/see) (5-9)
cos ~
28
Unlined stacks are subject to ovaling vibrations. In
order to prevent this phenomenon, the thickness of
the stack should not be less than DI250 or
intermediate stiffeners are required to raise the
resonant velocity above 60 mph. Care should be
! \
exercised in coastal areas to give special attention to Figure 5~2. Loads on Cylinder·Cone Junction
high winds as outlined in the aforementioned ASCE
7-88. Cylinder-Cone Junction
Stack Stresses In many applications of tubular columns, it is
desirable to use a base cone to provide a broader
The stresses associated with buckling have four base for anchorage. At the junction of the cone and
ranges into which they can fall depending on the tlR cylinder (Fig. 5-2), it is necessary to provide
ratio. They in turn may be affected by the Euler reinforcement to resist the maximum vertical force.
effect or slenderness ratio reduction factor. The
stresses calculated in this manner are not to be V = -p- + ~ (5-11)
increased for wind or earthquake stresses. 2nR o nRo2
and the radial thrust
Fer tiRo Range
H = V tan a (5-12)
5.8 x 103 tiRo 0.017 < tiRo S Fy/11600
The ring compression to be resisted is
FY[0.35 + ~:] Fy/11600 ~ tiRo S 0.01
G = HRo = VRo tan a (5-13)

~:] 0.01 ~ tiRo S .04 The area of reinforcement required is

Fy [ 0.8 +
As = VRo tan a (5-14)
Fy tiRo> .04 Fs
Under load, the junction reinforcement, or stiffener,
G'e =.r/ 2nFer£ 2
FS = 2.0 will move elastically inward. This will induce
secondary vertical bending stresses on each side of
the junction. For that reason, it is desirable to keep
Fe = Kc'PFer/FS (5-10) allowable stress Fs relatively low. If Fs is inthe,range
of 8,000 psi, the secondary stresses can usually be
If GTe < KUr Kc'P = 0.5 [ C'C]2 ignored if Do is not greater than about 15 ft. For
KUr
greater diameters or higher values of Fs it would be
If G'e ;::: KUr Kc'P =1 _ 0.5 [ KUr ]2 advisable to evaluate the secondary stresses. Note
G'e that V is the maximum value resulting from both
vertical load and bending moment in the cylinder at
Tables 5-1, 5-2 and 5-3 have been developed
the junction level.
using A8TM A36 steel with a yield of 36 ksi. The
The moment of inertia Is of the stiffener section
value of K is taken as 2 in view of the fact that a
should not be less than:
stack is normally a cantilever.
These allowable stresses will also be used for HR o 3 (5-15)
tapered or belled base stacks using the equivalent £
cylindrical radius approach as ~hown bel?w. In o~der
to arrive at allowable stresses In the cOnical section based on a factor of safety of 3 for critical buckling.
The area of reinforcement and computation of Is
one would substitute R 1 into the above formulae for
provided by a stiffener may, include an area of
Ro·
29
cylinder and cone plate equal to and bottom flanges. The shell of the stack will serve
as the web. Each ring girder must be capable of
0.78(t vRot + t1 vR 1t) (5-16) carrying a uniform distributed load, in terms of
where R 1 = Ro Icos a pounds per inch of arch W', of:
This approach can be used in designing the w= ~ + ~ (5-22)
junction of two cones having different slopes, except reDo reDo2
that H would be the difference between the The bending moment in the girder is:
horizontal components of the axial loads in the two
cones. Mq = WW'2 (5-23)
12
Circumferential Stiffeners Allowable bending stresses may be chosen using
AISC rules.
A stiffener is required at the top of the stack, also
intermediate ring stiffeners are required to prevent
deformation of the stack shell under wind pressure Base Plates
and to provide structural resistance to negative draft.
Spacing of intermediate stiffener Ls is: In addition to bending stresses due to bending loads,

Ls =60 v' ~ (5-17)

the stack base plate must resist ring tension due to
the horizontal component of the base cone if one is
used. Maximum ring tension should be limited to
To insure a nominal size of intermediate stiffener, 10,000 psi to account for secondary bending
the spacing is limited within 1.5 times the stack stresses in the base cone. This value may be varied
diameter. upward depending upon the extent of secondary
Intermediate stiffeners should meet the following stress evaluation. Tension should be checked at the
minimum requirements: minimum cross-section occurring at the anchor bolt
holes or at a weld joint where 85 010 or 100 010
Ss = pL S1 D2 (i n3 ) (5-18) efficiency may be assumed.
1100Fb
A base plate area may be calculated by the
(5-19) following equation:

A = VDotana (5-24)
(5-20) 20,000£,
A = Pd Ls1 D (in2)
s 2Fa
To satisfy the requirements of the above
intermediate stiffener d~Sign formulae a port. ion of
the stack equal to 1.1 t Dot may be included.

Breeching Opening
The breeching opening should be as small as
consistent with operating requirements with a
maximum width of 20013.
The opening must be reinforced vertically to
replace the area of material removed increased by
the ratio of DelC. Therefore, each vertical stiffener on
each side of the opening should have a cross-
sectional area of:
A = W'tD o (5-21). A
s 2C A
,Fig. 5-4) (Fig. 5-4)
Each vertical stiffener in conjunction with a portion
of the liner shell would be designed as a column.
Each stiffener should extend far enough above and
below the opening to develop its strength.
Horizontal reinforcement should be provided by a
ring girder above and below the opening. These
girders should be designed as fixed-end beams to Figure 5·3. Elevation of Stack.
carry the load across the opening above and below.
The span in bending is the width W between the side
column, but the girders should encircle the stack to
preserve circularity at the opening. To form each ring
girder, stiffener rings should be placed to act as top

30
 Base plate thickness may be determined by using
AISC formulae and allowable bending stresses.

Anchor Bolts
Minimum diameter = 1112"
c Maximum spacing of anchor bolts = 5'-6'
Maximum tension at root of threads = 15,000 psi
Each bolt should be made to resist a total tension in
pounds of:
T = 4M - V · (#/Bolt) (5-25)
ND N
N = # of AB
Figure 5-4. Horizontal Section Through Opening. A suggested design procedure for anchor bolt
.(Section A-A, Fig. 5-3) brackets is covered in Part VII.

For tiRo from .0017 through Fyl11600

~
.0017 .00192 .00214 .00236 .00258 .0028 .00302
KLir ~ .
0 4930 5568 6206 6844 7482 8120 8758
17.5 4917 5551 6185 6819 7452 8085 8717
35 4878 5502 6124 6744 7362 7979 8594
52.5 4813 5419 6071 6618 7212 7803 8389
70 4722 5303 5876 6443 7003 7556 8101
87.5 4605 5154 5691 6217 6733 7238 7732
105 4462 4971 5414 5942 6404 6850 7281
122.5 4293 4755 5196 5616 6015 6392 6747
140 4097 4507 4887 5240 5565 5862 6132
157.5 3877 4225 4537 4814 5056 5263 5434
175 3630 3909 4145 4338 4487 4593 4655
Table 5-1
Fe Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

31
 For tiRo from Fy/11600 to .01

~
.003104 .00425 .0054 .00655 .0077 .00885 .00999
KUr l
a 9094 10128 11162 12196 13230 14264 15298
17.5 9049 10073 11095 12116 13136 14155 15173
35 8917 9908 10895 11888 12855 13829 14797
52.5 8695 9634 10562 11480 12387 13284 14171
70 8386 9250 10095 10928 11732 12523 13295
87.5 7988 8756 9496 10207 10889 11543 12168
105 7501 8152 8762 9331 9859 10345 10791
122.5 6926 7439 7896 8297 8642 8930 9163
140 6262 6616 6896 Z~.Q$. Zg$.? Zg~a Z~Q~.
157.5 ~t?~.~ ~R~$. ~ZR~ 5769 5769 5769 5769
175 4670 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673
Table 5·2
Fe Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

For tiRo from .01 to ·.04

~
.01 .015 .02 .025 .03 .035 .04
KUr l
0 15300 15750 16200 16650 17100 17550 18000
17.5 15175 15617 16060 16502 16944 17385 17827
35 14798 15219 15638 16057 16474 16891 17307
52.5 14173 14556 14936 15315 15692 16067 16440
70 13296 13627 13954 14277 14597 14914 15227
87.5 12169 12432 12690 12942 13189 13431 13666
105 10792 10972 11146 11311 11468 11618 11760
122.5 ~~.R~ ~g~? ~~gQ ~~~$. ~~~~ ~~7.~ ~RQ~
140 7302 7302 7302 7302 7302 7302 7302
157.5 5769 5769 5769 5769 5769 5769 5769
175 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673

If tiRo> .04 Fe = .5 X Fy X KcI>

Table 5·3
Fe Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

Dotted lines are an indicator at which point G'c> KUr

32
References
1. M.S. Ozker and J.O. Smith, "Factors Influencing
the Dynamic Behavior of Tall Stacks Under the
Action of Winds," Trans. ASME Vol. 78, 1956,
pp. 1381-1391.
2. P. Price, "Suppression of the Fluid-Induced
Vibration of Circular Cylinders," Proceedings of
ASCE, Vol. 82, EM3, Paper No. 1030, 1956, p.
22.
3. W.L. Dickey and G.B. Woodruff, "The Vibration
of Steel Stacks," Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 80,
1954, p. 20.
4. T. Sarpkaya and C.J. Garison, "Vortex Formation
and Resistance in Unsteady Flow," Journal of
Applied Mechanics, Vol. 30, Trans. ASME, Vol.
85, Series E, 1963, pp. 16-24.
5. A.W. Marris, "A Review on Vortex Streets,
Periodic Wakes, and Induced Vibration
Phenomena," Journal of Basic Engineering,
Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 86, 1964, pp.
185-196.
6. J. Penzien, "Wind Induced Vibration of
Cylindrical Structures," Proceedings of ASCE,
Vol. 83, EM 1 Paper No. 1141, January, 1957, p.
17.
7. W. Weaver, "Wind-Induced Vibrations in Antenna
Members," Transactions of ASCE, Vol. 127, Part
1, 1962, pp. 679-704.
8. C. Scruton and D. Walshe, "A Means of
Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures
with Circular or Nearly Circular Cross-Section,"
NPLlAero/335, October 1957.
9. C. Scruton, D. Walshe and L.Woodgate, "The
Aerodynamic Investigation for the East Chimney
Stack of the Rugeley Generating Station,"
NPLlAero/352.
10. A. Roshko, "On the Development of Turbulent
Wakes from Vortex Streets," NACA Report 1191,
1954.
11. A. Roshko, "On The Drag and Shedding
Frequency of Two-Dimensional Bluff Bodies,"
NACA Technical Note 3169, July 1954.
12. N. Delany and N. Sorensen, "Low-Speed Drag of
Cylinders of Various Shapes," NCA Technical
Note 3038, November, 1953.
33
13. G.B. Woodruff and J. Kozok, "Wind Forces on
Structures: Fundamental Considerations,"
Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper No.
1709,1958, p. 13.
14. -F.B. Farquaharson, "Wind Forces Structures:
Structures Subject Oscillations," Proceedings of
ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper 1712, 1958, p.13.
15. ASCE Transaction Paper #3269 {"Wind Forces
on Structure"}.
16. C.F. Cowdrey and J.A. Lewes, "Drag
Measurements at High Reynolds Numbers of a
Circular Cylinder Fitted with Three Helical
Strakes," NPLlAero/384, July 1959.
17. L. Woodgate and J. Maybrey, "Further
Experiments on the Use of Helical Strakes for
Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures
with Circular or Near Circular Cross-Section"
NPLlAero/381, July 1959. '
18. A. Roshko, "On the Wake and Drag Bluff
Bodies," presented at Aerodynamics Sessions,
Twenty-Second Annual Meeting, lAS, New York,
N.Y., January, 1954.
19. J.~. Smith and J.H. McCarthy, "Wind Versus
Tall Stacks," Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 87,
. January, 1965, pp. 38-41.
20. Gaylord and Gaylord, "Structural Engineering
Handbook." 2nd Edition, Chapter 26.
21. R. Stuart III, A.R. Fugini, A. DeVaul, Pittsburgh-
Des Moines Corp. Research Report #98528,
"Design of Allowable Compressive Stress
Cylindrical or Conical Plates, AWWA D100,"
May, 1981.
22. Roger L. Brockenbrough, Pittsburgh-Des Moines
Corp. Research Report 98030, "Determination of
The Critical Buckling Stress of Cylindrical Plates
Having Low t/R Values." October 5, 1960.
23. Tom Buckwalter, Pittsburgh-Des Moines ··Qorp.
Supplement to RP 98030, "Determination of the
Critical Buckling Stress in a Cylinder Having a
tlR of 0.00426," December 20, 1960.
24. AISC 1989 "Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings - Allowable Stress Design and Plastic
Design."
 Part VI
Supports for Horizontal
Tanks and Pipe Lines -----------------
different distribution of stress in the pipe or vessel

T
here is considerable information available on
design of supports for horizontal cylindrical
shells where a complete ring girder is used.
There are many installations where a horizontal
tank, pressure vessel, or pipe line is supported by a
saddle extending less than 180 0 around the lower
. part of the cylinder. The effects of vertical deflection
of the cylinder and the concentration of stress
around ·the horn of the saddle, which result in a
wall from that encountered with a full ring support,
are discussed in the following paper by L. P. Zick. It
includes some revisions of and additions to the
original paper published in "The Welding Journal
Research Supplement", September, 1951, and
reprinted in "Pressure Vessel and Piping Design -
Collected Papers 1927-1959", published by ASME in
1960.

Original paper published in September 1951 liTHE WELDING JOURNAL RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT." This paper
contains revisions and additions to the original paper based upon questions raised as to intent and coverage.

Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindrical

Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports
Approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels supported on two saddles at various conditions
and design of stiffening for vessels which require it

by L.P. Zick

INTRODUCTION which vessels may be designed for internal pressure

The design of horizontal cylindrical vessels with
dished heads to resist internal pressure is covered
by existing codes. However, the method of support is
left pretty much up to the designer. In general the
cylindrical shell is made a uniform thickness which is
determined by the maximum circumferential stress
due to the internal pressure. Since the longitudinal
stress is only one-half of this circumferential stress,
these vessels have available a beam strength which
makes the two-saddle support system ideal for a
wide range of proportions. However, certain
limitations are necessary to make designs consistent
with the intent of the code.
The purpose of this paper is to indicate the
approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels
supported on two saddles at various locations.
Knowing these stresses, it is possible to determine
L.P. Zick is a former Chief Engineer for the Chicago Bridge & Iron
Co., Oak Brook, III.
alone, and to .design structurally adequate and
economical stiffening for the vessels which require it.
Formulas are developed to cover various conditions,
and a chart is given which covers support designs
for pressure vessels made of mild steel for S.torage
of liquid weighing 42 lb. per cu. ft.
HISTORY
In a paper1 published in 1933 Herman Schorer
pOinted out that a length of cylindrical shell
supported by tangential end shears varying
proportionately to the sine of the central angle
measured from the top of the vessel can support its
own metal weight and the full contained liquid weight
without circumferential bending moments in the shell.
To complete this analysis, rings around the entire
circumference are required at the supporting points
to transfer these shears to the foundation without
distorting the cylindrical shell. Discussions of
Schorer's paper by H.C. Boardman and others gave

35
 Figure 6-1. Strain gage test set up on 30,000 gal. propane tank.

approximate solutions for the half full condition.
When a ring of uniform cross section is supported on
two vertical posts, the full condition governs the
design of the ring if the central angle between the
post intersections with the ring is less than 126 0,
and the half-full condition governs if this angle is
more than 126°. However,the full condition governs
the design of rings supported directly in or adjacent
to saddles.
Mr. Boardman's discussion also pointed out that
the heads may substitute for the rings provided the
supports are near the heads. His unpublished paper
has been used successfully since 1941 for vessels
supported on saddles near the heads. His method of
analysis covering supports near the, heads is
included in this paper in a slightly modified form.
Discussions of Mr. Scharer's paper also gave
successful and semi-successful examples of
unstiffened cylindrical shells supported on saddles,
but an analysis is lacking. The semi-successful
examples indicated that the shells had actually
slumped down over the horns of the saddles while
being filled with liquid, but had rounded up again
when internal pressure was applied.
Testing done by others 2 ,3 gave very useful results
in the ranges of their respective tests, but the
investigators concluded that analysis was highly
indeterminate. In recent years the author has
participated in strain gage surveys of several large
vessels. 4 A typical test setup is shown in Fig. 6-1.
In this paper an attempt has been made to
produce an approximate analysis involving certain
empirical assumptions which make the theoretical
analysis closely approximate the test results.

Table 6-1 - Values of Coefficients in Formulas for Various Support Conditions

Maximum Circumf. Additional Ring Rinfl. stiffeners Tension
Saddle lonf}' bending Tangent. stress top head compres. Circumf. Direct across·
angle, stress, shear, of saddle, stress, in shell, bending, stress, saddle,
e Mkl. K1 " K2 K3t K4 Ks K6 K7 K8
Shell unstiffened
120 0 0.63 (AIL = 0.09) 1.171 0.0528 0.760 0.204
150 0 0.55 (AIL = 0.11) 0.799 0.0316 0.673 0.260
Shell stiffened by head, A $ RI2
120 0 1.0 (AIL = 0) 0.880 0.0132 0.401 0.760 0.204
150 0 1.0 (AIL = 0) 0.485 0.0079 0.297 0.673 0.260
Shell stiffened by ring in plane of saddle
120 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 0.319 0.0528 0.340 0.204
150 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 0.319 0.0316 0.303 0.260
Shell stiffened by rings adjacent to saddle
120 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 1.171 0.0132 0.760 0.0577 0.263 0.204
150 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 0.799 0.0079 0.673 0.0353 0.228 0.260
·See Fig. 6·5, which plots K, against AIL, for values of K, corresponding to values of AIL not listed in table.
tSe€, Fig. 6·7.

36
 ~
I"-.
\
~ I Ve: 120'; /
""- \ /e = I II
1.09 =~
/
'" e: IZO· IZO / L

"-
\ o~
A
l~ .2 II o~ .Izi
~ :!
1/ / /
'"
L

"" "-
~
\ 'J

// / /
'"
h.DD
\~ I I Rlt-GS

~ fa: 7 150·

"z~ '\ / // -:l AT

" "'" ~ "'-.s'

I¥'

/e-I~~
k-
L
• . I~
.., A _
P~TS

·r
'""" \
.............
~, Rf A~ 16... ~ADD ~INCS AT
"L-
/
/ \ ... ...... V
6' "'"
"- SUPPORT
~ t'-... Lt.:
............

"-, \. / VA"! .. fr;~ ~

V.17
~r ~ .2.4 / NOT

~
........
/,. ~6~ ~~.5 ify
~ ~~ \ V BE
~ ~ "CtJE ....K ~AO/
~ / /
PPORT ED CJ-I
TWO SADO "-ES

~
~
PL T~~
_'T~r~ foil'.-:-
-~
~ ~
./
- ./'
"'ADO Rlt-GS AT SU PPORT ~ f'- .25

IV:2 l:re 1)4 lYe I 'ta 3/4 ~a ~ ~(2 .. 20

SHELL THICKNESS. t. IN INCHES ~ 30 ~ ......... 30
~ ~, .........
-.

~ ~ @ 4'" 40
~ ,"'-
,
~ " "'-
~ ~O 50

""'::: 6"
,,,,,- 60

'" """" '"

...
L
~ 1- 7o
BASIS OF' DESIGN ,~
A-265 CRADE C CARBON STEEL ~ 80 80
LIQUIO WT. - . 42 LBS PtR. CU. F'T
EX AMPLE SHOWN BY ARROWS
:r:
~ 90 ~:~
"'-, 9o
R - 5'} USE 120" SADOLES
L- 80' A = R/2 OR LESS
~
~I~ ~" ~~~
"\ ~.s I'Z'
< I00
t • 3/;' CHECK HEAD PL THK
W
~ 110
to) 12-' .'" '\~ "~ "'" ""'~ II

12 o
o

~ 1-
.~:

Figure 6-2. Location and type of support for horizontal pressure vessels on two supports.
I...,
"\
''""'"'" '" '" ~13
,.

SELECTION OF SUPPORTS should be increased for extremely heavy vessels,

When a cylindrical vessel acts as its own carrying and in certain cases it may be desirable to reduce
beam across two symmetrically' placed saddle this width for small vessels.
supports, one-half of the total load will be carried by Thin-wall vessels of large diameter are best
each support. This would be true even if one support supported near the heads provided they can support
should settle more than the other. This would also their own weight and contents between supports and
be true if a differential in temperature or if the axial provided the heads are stiff enough to transfer the
restraint of the supports should cause the vessel load to the saddles. Thick-wall vessels too long to
acting as a beam to bow up or down at the center. act as simple beams are best supported where the .
This fact alone gives the two-support system maximum longitudinal bending stress in the shell at
preference over a multiple-supporting system. the saddles is nearly equal to the maximum
The most economical location and type of support - longitudinal bending stress at mid-span, provided the
generally depend upon the strength of the vessel to shell is stiff enough to resist this bending and to
be supported and the cost of the supports, or of the transfer the load to the saddles. Where the stiffness
supports and additional stiffening if required. In a few required is not available in the shell alone, ring
cases the advantage of placing fittings and piping in stiffeners must be added at or near the saddles.
the bottom of the vessel beyond the saddle will Vessels must also be rigid enough to support normal
govern the location of the saddle. external loads such as wind.
The pressure-vessel codes limit the contact angle Figure 6-2 indicates the most economical locations
of each saddle to a minimum of 120 0 except for very and types of supports for large steel horizontal
small vessels. In certain cases a larger contact angle pressure vessels on two supports. A liquid weight of
should be used. Generally the saddle width is not a 42 lb. per cu. ft. was used because it is
controlling factor; so a nominal width of 12 in. for representative of the volatile liquids usually
steel or 15 in. for concrete may be used. This width associated with pressure vessels.

37
 (a) UNSTIFFENED SHELL t ;t

~
3H
T r",
I \ ASSUMED A- ~ (1-+1)
I \ TANGENTIAL
I , SHEAR STRESS - ,~ (~ +:.»

Q Qd
I I
... / i
(b) SHELL STIFFENED BY RINGS
ADJACENT TO SADDLE B i

(I ~ :
SECT A·A
;' ! RING

A(~)
l Cl.) LO .... OS ~ AtACTIO. NS
B4
1.~1
!
I. (QL)(~-<4~
_ 1.<4H L
(e) SHELL STIFFENED BY RING IN
PLANE OF SADDLE

~l+T
Q (~)

4 X
(d) SHEAR DIAGRAM SADDLE
AWAY FROM HEAD

(b) MOMEWT OIAGA....... IN 'T.- Las

(e) SHELL STIFFENED BY HEAD

MAX_ OSlNa ( a-SlNu cos. )

Figure 6·3. Cylindrical shell acting as beam over supports. 10 ~-;;-;- . -. + SiNocos.

Where liquids of different weights are to be stored

or where different materials are to be used, a rough
design may be obtained from the chart and this
design should be checked by the applicable formulas
outlined in the following sections. Table 6-1 outlines
the coefficients to be used with the applicable
formulas for various support types and locations. The
notation used is listed at the end of the paper under
the heading Nomenclature.
MAXIMUM LONGITUDINAL STRESS
The cylindrical shell acts as a beam over the two
supports to resist by bending the uniform load of the
vessel and its contents. The equivalent length of the
vessel (see Figs. 6-2 and 6-3) equals L + 4H13,
closely, and the total weight of the vessel and its
contents equals 20. However, it can be shown that
the liquid weight in a hemispherical head adds only
a shear load at its junction with the cylinder. This
can be approximated for heads where H ~ R by
representing the pressure on the head and the
longitudinal stress as a clockwise couple on the head
shown at the left of Fig. 6-3. Therefore the vessel
may be taken as a beam loaded as shown in Fig.
6-3; the moment diagram determined by statics is
also shown. Maximum moments occur at the
midspan and over the supports.
Tests have shown that except near the saddles a
cylindrical shell just full of liquid has practically no
circumferential bending moments and therefore
behaves as a beam with a section modulus
lie = 1tr2t.
However, in the region above each saddle
circumferential bending moments are introduced
allowing the unstiffened upper portion of the shell to
deflect, thus making it ineffective as a beam. This
reduces the effective cross section acting as a beam
SECTC·C
Figure 6·4. Load transfer to saddle by tangential
shear stresses in cylindrical shell.
just as though the shell were split along a horizontal
line at a level above the saddle. [See Fig. 6-4 (a)]. If
this effective arc is represented by 2A (A in radians)
it can be shown that the section modulus becomes:
A + sin A cos A - 2 Sin: A )
lie = 1tr2t u
It ( Si~ ~ - cos ~)
Strain gage studies indicate that this effective arc is
approximately equal to the contact angle plus one-
sixth of the unstiffened shell as indicated in Section
A-A of Fig. 6-4. Of course, if the shell is stiffened by
a head or complete ring stiffener near the saddle the
effective arc, 2A, equals the entire cross section"
and lie = 1tr2t.
Since most vessels are of uniform shell thickness,
the design formula involves only the maximum value
of the longitudinal. bending stress. Dividing the
maximum moment by the section modulus gives the
maximum axial stress in lb. per sq. in. in the shell
due to bending as a beam, or
S1 = ± 3K1QL
1tr2t
K1 is a constant for a given set of conditions, but
actually varies with the ratios AIL and HIL ~ RIL for
different saddle angles. For convenience, K1 is
plotted in Fig. 6-5 against AIL for various types of
saddle supports, assuming conservative vafues of

38
 1.6
1.4
~/
1.2
?
1.0
-........
of?
K, .8
'-.... "re
.6
..... ~
~ ~~17
~
.4
o 3
o .02 .04 .06 .08 .10
RATIO A
Figure 6-5. Plot of longitudinal bending-moment
constant, K1 •
H = 0 when the mid-span governs and H = R when
the shell section at the saddle governs. A maximum
value of RIL = 0.09 was assumed because other
factors govern the design for larger values of this
ratio. As in a beam the mid-span governs for the
smaller values of AIL and the shell section at the
saddle governs for the larger values of AIL; however,
the point where the bending stress in the shell is
equal at mid-span and at the saddle varies with the
saddle angle because of the reduced effective cross
section. Fig. 6-SA in App. 8 gives acceptable values
of K1 •
This maximum bending stress, S1' may be either
tension or compression. The tension stress when
combined with the axial stress due to internal
pressure should not exceed the allowable tension
stress of the material times the efficiency of the girth
joints. The compression stress should not exceed
one half of the compression yield point of the
material or the value given by
S1 ~( E..)
29
(tlr) [2 - (2/3) (100) (tlr)]
which is based upon the accepted formula for
buckling of short steel cylindrical columns. * The
compression stress is not a factor in a steel vessel
where tlr~ 0.005 and the vessel is designed to be
fully stressed under internal pressure.
·See also par UG·23 (b) ASME Code Section VIII Div. I.
TANGENTIAL SHEAR STRESS
Figure 6-4 (d) shows the total shear diagram for
vessels supported in saddles away from the heads.
Where the shell is held round, the tangential
shearing stresses vary directly with the sine of the
central angle 4>, as shown in Section 8-8 of Fig. 6-4,
and the maximum occurs at the equator.
However, if the shell is free to deform above the
saddle, the tangential shearing stresses act on a
reduced effective cross section and the maximum
occurs at the horn of the saddle. This is
approximated by assuming the shears continue to
vary as the sin 4> but only act on twice the arc given
/
v /
by (0/2 + ~/20) or (1t - a) as shown in Section A-A
of Fig. 6-4. The summation of the vertical
lv~
components of these assumed shears must equal
«<t. 0 the maximum total shear.
~~
,;::.f? ~
~«;
The maximum tangential shear stress will occur on
-::i "'{<
-Y ".:>
~«;
~vv
the center side of the saddle provided the saddle is
4' beyond the influence of the head but not past the
quarter point of the vessel. Then with saddles away
from the heads the maximum shear stress in lb. per
i'--.!!'lyG sq. in. is given by
~'f:f:€
~~ S = K2Q (L - 2A )
2 rt L + 4H
-.12 ' .14 .16 .18 .20 .22 .24
Values of K2 listed in Table 6-1 for various types of
T supports are obtained from the expressions given for
the maximum shears in Fig. 6-4, and the appendix.
Figure 6-4 (f) indicates the total shear diagram for
vessels supported on saddles near the heads. In this
case the head stiffens the shell in the region of the
saddle. This causes most of the tangential shearing
stress to be carried across the saddle to the head,
and then the load is transferred back to the head
side of the saddle by tangential shearing stresses
applied to an arc slightly larger than the contact
angle of the saddle. Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 indicates
this shear distribution; that is, the shears vary as the
sin 4> and act downward above angle a and act
upward below angle a. The summation of the
downward vertical components must balance the
summation of the upward vertical components. Then
with saddles at the heads the maximum shear stress
in lb. per sq. in. is given by
8 2 = K2 Q
rt
in the shell, or
.
in the head.
Values of K2 given in Table 6-1 for different size
saddles at the heads are obtained from the
expression given for the maxim.um shear .stress in
Section C-C of Fig. 6·4 and the appendix.
The tangential shear stress should not exceed 0.8
of the allowable tension stress.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS AT
HORN OF SADDLE
In the plane of the saddle the load must be
transferred from the cylindrical shell to the saddle.
As was pointed out in the previous section the
tangential shears adjust their distribution in order to
make this transfer with a minimum amount of
circumferential bending and distortion. The
evaluation of these shears was quite empirical
except for the case of the ring stiffener in the plane
of the saddle. Evaluation of the circumferential
bending stresses is even more difficult.
Starting with a ring in the plane of the saddle, the
shear distribution is known. The bending moment at
any point above the saddle may be computed by any
39
 • • IZO SH[L~ v.. sr Irr(~o
----------~,~___ - - - Ut
/
, O~
I ..' ISO· ~tL~ UII"
'H" (D

//
0' .. V/
..
120·
.0 I
11O·
o
o ..5
~
" ...TIO
,,-
Figure 6·7. Plot of circumferential bending-
moment constant, K3 •
Figure 6-6 Circumferential bending-moment
diagram, ring in plane of saddle. near the horn of the saddle. Because of the relatively
short stiff members this transfer reduces the
of the methods of indeterminate structures. If the circumferential bending moment still more.
ring is assumed uniform in cross section and fixed at To introduce the effect of the head the maximum
the horns of the saddles, the moment, M\f)' in in.-Ib. moment is taken as
at ,any point A is given by:
Mp = K3Qr

M\f) = Or {
1t
cos <1> + ' cI> sin cI> -
2
~~
2 f3
+
cos P _ 1 (cos cI> - ~) x
2413
9- 4-6(T)'+2COS2B]}
[ Si~ Pcos f3 + 1 - 2( Si~ PY
This is shown schematically in Fig. 6-6. Note that 13
must be in radians in the formula.
The maximum moment occurs when <l> = 13.
Substituting f3 for <1> and K6 for the expression in the
brackets divided by 1t, the maximum circumferential
bending moment in in.-Ib. is
Mp = K6 0r
When the shell is supported on a saddle and there
is no ring stiffener the shears tend to bunch up near
the horn of the saddle, so that the actual maximum
circumferential bending moment in the shell is
considerably less than Mp, as calculated above for a
ring stiffener in the plane of the saddle. The exact
analysis is not known; however, stresses calculated
on the assumption that a wide width of shell is
effective in resisting the hypothetical moment, M p,
agree conservatively with the results of strain gage
surveys. It was found that this effective width of shell
should be equal to 4 times the shell radius or equal
to one-half the length of the vessel, whichever is
smaller. It should be kept in mind that use of this
seemingly excessive width of shell is an artifice
whereby the hypothetical moment Mp is made to
render calculated stresses in reasonable accord with
actual stresses.
When the saddles are near the heads, the shears
carry to the head and are then transferred back to
the saddle. Again the shears tend to concentrate
where K3 equals K6 when AIR is greater than 1.
Values of K3 are plotted in Fig. 6-7 using the
assumption that this moment is divided by four when
AIR is Jess than 0.5.
The change in shear distribution also reduces the
direct load at the horns of the saddle; this is
assumed to be 0/4 for shells without added
stiffeners. However, since this load exists, the
effective width of the shell which resists this direct
load is limited to that portion which is stiffened by
the contact of the saddle. It is assumed that St each
side of the saddle acts with the portion directly over
the saddle. See Appendix B.
Internal pressure stresses do not add directly to
the local bending stresses, because the shell rounds
up under pressure. Therefore the maximum
circumferential combined stress in the shell is
compressive, occurs at the horn of the saddle, and is
due to local bending and direct stress. This
maximum combined stress in lb. per sq. in. is given by
S3 =- 0 - 3K30, if L>- 8R
4t(b + 1Ot) 2t2
or
S3 =- 0 - 12KaQR, if L * < 8R
4t(b + 1Ot) Lt2
• Note: For multiple supports:
L = Twice the length of portion of shell carried by saddle.
If L ~ 8R use 1st formula.
It seems reasonable to allow this combined stress to
be equal to 1.50 times the tension allowable provided
the compressive strength of the material equals the
tensile strength. In the first place when the region at
the horn of the saddle yields, it acts as a hinge, and
the upper portion of the shell continues to resist the
loads as a twa-hinged arch. There would be little
distortion until a second paint near the equator
started to yield. Secondly; if rings are added

40
to reduce this local stress, a local longitudinal
bending stress occurs at the edge of the ring under
pressure. 5 This local stress would be 1.8 times the
design ring stress if the rings were infinitely rigid.
Weld seams in the shell should not be located near
the horn of the saddle where the maximum moment
occurs.
EXTERNAL LOADS
Long vessels with very small tlr values are
susceptible to distortion from unsymmetrical external
loads such as wind. It is assumed that vacuum relief
valves will be provided where required; so it is not
necessary to design against a full vacuum. However,
experience indicates that vessels designed to
withstand 1 lb. per sq. in. external pressure can
successfully resist external loads encountered in
normal service.
Assume the external pressure is 1 lb. per sq. in. in
the formulas used to determine the sloping portion of
the external pressure chart in the current A.S.M.E.
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. Then when the vessel
is unstiffened between the heads, the maximum
length in feet between stiffeners (the heads) is given
approximately by
L + 213H = E Yif( i)2
52.2 r
When ring stiffeners are added to the vessel at the
supports, the maximum length in feet between
stiffeners is given by
L - 2A = E Yif( i)2
52.2 r
ADDITIONAL STRESS IN HEAD
USED AS STIFFENER
When the head stiffness is utilized by placing the
saddle close to the heads, the tangential shear
stresses cause an additional stress in the head
which is additive to the pressure stress. Referring to
Section G-G of Fig. 6-4, it can be seen that the
tangential shearing stresses have horizontal
components which would cause varying horizontal
tension stresses across the entire height of the head
if the head were a flat disk. The real action in a
dished head would be a combination of ring action
and direct stress; however, for simplicity the action
on a flat disk is considered reasonable for design
purposes.
Assume that the summation of the horizontal
components of the tangential shears is resisted by
the vertical cross section of the flat head at the
center line, and assume that the maximum stress is
1.5 times the average stress. Then the maximum
additional stress in the head in lb. per sq. in. is
given by
S4 = 30 ( sin2 a )
8rth 1t - a + sin a cos a
or
41
r(n-- a: .. lIINa:cosa::1
' - -_ _~
_ MAl( = £( Ii" C.O$$
SIN~COs.d
)
,.. 00.".
Figure 6-8. Loads and reactions on saddles.
This stress should be combined with the stress in
the head due to internal pressure. However, it is
recommended that this combined stress be allowed
to be 25 0/0 greater than the allowable tension stress
because of the nature of the stress and because of
the method of analysis.
RING COMPRESSION IN
SHELL OVER SADDLE
Figure 6-8 indicates the saddle reactions, assuming
the surfaces of the shell and saddle are in
frictionless contact without attachment. The sum of
the assumed tangential shears on both edges of the
saddle at any point A is also shown in Fig. 6-8.
These forces acting on the shell band directly over
the saddle cause ring compression in the shell band.
Since the saddle reactions are radial, they pass
through the center O. Taking moments about point 0
indicates that the ring compression at any pOint A is
given by the summation of the tangential shears
between a and <1>.
This ring compression is maximum at the bottom,
where <I> = 1t. Again, a width of shell equal to 5t
each side of the saddle plus the width of the saddle
is assumed to resist this force. See Appendix B.
Then the stress in lb. per sq. in. due to ring
compression is given by
S5 = 0 ( 1 + cos a )
t(b+ 10t) 1t - a + sin a cos a
or
S5 = K5 0
t(b + 10t)
The ring compression stress should not exceed
one-half of the compression yield pOint of the material.
WEAR PLATES
The stress may be reduced by attaching a wear
plate somewhat larger than the surface of the saddle
to the shell directly over the saddle. The thickness t
used in the formulas for the assumed cylindrical shell
thickness may be taken as (t1 + t2) for S5 (where t1 :
shell thickness and t2 = wear plate thickness),
provided the width of the added plate equals at least
(b + 10t1) (see Appendix B).
 The thickness t may be taken as (t1 + t2) in the
..... 1l. .;1t
formula for 52, provided the plate extends rl10 H[ [ "IN. - 10'
inches above the horn of the saddle near the head,
and provided the plate extends between the saddle
and an adjacent stiffener ring. (Also check for 52
stress in the shell at the equator.)
The thickness t may be taken as (t1 + t2) in the
first term of the formula for 53, provided the plate
extends rl10 inches above the horn of the saddle
near the head. However, (t12 + t22) should be
substituted for t2 in the second term. The combined
circumferential stress (53) at the top edge of the
wear plate should also be checked using the shell
plate thickness t1 and the width of the wear plate.
When checking at this point, the value of K3 should Figure 6-9. Circumferential bending-moment
be reduced by extrapolation in Fig. 6·7 assuming e diagram, stiffeners adjacent to saddle.
equal to the central angle of the wear plate but not
more than the saddle angle plus 12°. shown in Section A·A. Conservatively, the support
may be assumed to be tangential and concentrated
DESIGN OF RING STIFFENERS at the horn of the saddle. This is shown
schematically in Fig. 6·9; the resulting bending-
When the saddles must be located away from the moment diagram is also indicated. This bending
heads and when the shell alone cannot resist the moment in in.·lb. at any pOint A above the horn of
circumferential bending, ring stiffeners should be the saddle is given by
added at or near the supports. Because the size of
rings involved does not warrant further refinement, Mcp = Or { ~ - <I> sin <I> -
the formulas developed in this paper assume that the 2nn sin 13
added rings are continuous with a uniform cross cos c!> [3/2 + (It - 13) cot III }
section. The ring stiffener must be attached to the
shell, and the portion of the shell reinforced by the For the range of saddle angles considered, M~ is
stiffener plus a width of shell equal to 5t each side maximum near the equator where <I> = p. This
may be assumed to act with each stiffener. The ring moment and the direct stress may be found using a
radius is assumed equal to r. procedure similar to that used for the stiffener in the
When n stiffeners are added directly over the plane of the saddle. Substituting p for <I> and K6 for
saddle as shown in Fig. 6·4 (e), the tangential shear the expression in the brackets divided by 21t, the
distribution is known . The equation for the resulting maximum moment in each ring adjacent to the
bending moment at any point was developed saddle is given in in .-Ib. by
previously, and the resulting moment diagram is
shown in Fig. 6-6. The maximum moment occurs at
Mp = K6 Or
n
the horn of the saddle and is given in in.-Ib. for each
stiffener by Knowing the moments Mp and Mf, the direct load at
p may be found by statics and is given by
- K6Or
M J3 .;... -
n P -
p -
0 [
nn
p sin p
2(1 - cos p)
_ cos p] _
Knowing the maximum moment MJ3 and the moment
at the top of the vessel, Mf, the direct load at the cos P (Mp + Mt)
point of maximum moment may be found by statics. r(1 - cos p)
Then the direct load at the horn of the saddle is or
given in pounds by
Pp = K7 Q
n Pf) = Q [ (} sin p - cos p]+ n
n 2(1 - cos 13) Then the maximum combined stress due to liquid
cos P (MJ3 - M1) load in each ring used to stiffen the shell at or near
r(1 - cos P} the saddle is given in lb. per sq. in. by
or S6 = - !5.zQ ± K60 r
PJ3 = K7 Q na nllc
n where a = the area and lIe = the section modulus
If n stiffeners are added adjacent to the saddle as of the cross section of the composite ring stiffener.
shown in Fig. 6-4 (b), the rings will act together and When a ring is attached .to the inside surface of the
each will be loaded with shears distributed as in shell directly over the saddle or to the outside
Section a-a on one side but will be supported on the surface of the shell adjacent to the saddle, the
saddle side by a shear distribution similar to that maximum combined stress is compression at the

42
shell. However, if the ring is attached to the opposite
surface, the maximum combined stress may be
either compression in the outer flange due to liquid
or tension at the shell due to liquid and internal
pressure.
The maximum combined compression stress due
to liquid should not exceed one-half of the
compression yield point of the material. The
maximum combined tension stress due to liquid and
pressure should not exceed the allowable tension
stress of the material.
DESIGN OF SADDLES
Each saddle should be rigid enough to prevent the
separation of the horns of the saddle; therefore the
saddle should be designed for a full water load. The
horn of the saddle should be taken at the
intersection of the outer edge of the web with the top
flange of a steel saddle. The minimum section at the
low pOint of either a steel or concrete saddle must
resist a total force, F, in pounds, equal to the
summation of the horizontal components of the
reactions on one-half of the saddle. Then
F =Q [ 1 + cos (3 - 112 sin2(3 ] = KaQ
7t -(3 + sin (3 cos (3
The effective section resisting this load should be
limited to the metal cross section within a distance
equal to r/3 below the shell. This cross section
should be limited to the reinforcing steel within the
distance r/3 in concrete saddles. The average stress
should not exceed two-thirds of the tension allowable
of the material. A low allowable stress is
recommended because the effect of the
circumferential bending in the shell at the horn of the
saddle has been neglected.
The upper and lower flanges of a steel saddle
should be designed to resist bending over the
web(s), and the web(s) should be stiffened according
to the A.I.S.C. Specifications against buckling. The
contact area between the shell and concrete saddle
or between the metal saddle and the concrete
foundation should be adequate to support the
bearing loads.
Where extreme movements are anticipated ·or
where the saddles are welded to the shell, bearings
or rockers should be provided at one saddle. Under
normal conditions a sheet of elastic waterproof
material at least V4 in. thick between the shell and a
concrete saddle will suffice.
Nomenclature
Q = load on one saddle, lb. Total load = 20.
L = tangent length of the vessel, ft.
A = distance from center line of saddle to tangent
line, ft.
H = depth of head, ft.
R = radius of cylindrical shell, ft.
r = radius of cylindrical shell, in.
t = thickness of cylindrical shell, in.
43
th = thickness of head, in.
b = width of saddle, in.
F = force across bottom of saddle, lb.
S1, 8 2, etc. = calculated stresses, lb. per sq. in.
K1, K2, etc. = dimensionless constants for various
support conditions.
M4>, M~, etc. = circumferential bending moment due
to tangential shears, in.-Ib.
8 = angle of contact of saddle with shell, degrees.
(3 = (. 180 - ~) = central angle from vertical to
2 horn of saddle, in degrees
(except as noted).
~ = ~ ( .!!
180 2
+ Q)
6
= ~ ( 58
180 12
+ 30 ). 2~ = arc, in
radians, of unstiffened shell in plane of saddle
effective against bending.
a = 7t - ~( ~ +
180 2
JL)
20
= the central angle, in radians,
from the vertical to the assumed point of
maximum shear in unstiffened shell at saddle.
<I> = any central angle measured from the vertical, in
radians.
p = central angle from the upper vertical to the point
of maximum moment in ring located adjacent to
saddle, in radians.
E = modulus of elasticity of material, lb. per sq. in.
Ilc = section modulus, in. 3
n = number of stiffeners at each saddle.
a = cross-sectional area of each composite stiffener,
sq. in.
pP' p~ = the direct load in lb. at the point of
maximum moment in a stiffening ring.
Bibliography
1. Schorer, Herman, "Design of Large Pipe
Lines," A.S.C.E. Trans., 98, 101 (1933), and
discussions of this paper by Boardman, H.C., and
others.
2. Wilson, Wilbur M., and Olson, Emery D., "Test
of Cylindrical Shells," Univ. III. Bull. No. 331.
3. Hartenberg, R.S., "The Strength and Stiffness
of Thin Cylindrical Shells on Saddle Supports,"
Doctorate Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1941.
4. Zick, L.P., and Carlson, C.E., "Strain Gage
Technique Employed in Studying Propane Tank
Stresses Under Service Conditions," Steel, 86-88
(Apr. 12, 1948).
5. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Penstock Analysis
and Stiffener Design. Boulder Canyon Project Final
Reports, Part V. Technical Investigations, Bulletin 5.
Appendix
The formulas developed by outline in the text are
developed mathematically here under headings
corresponding to those of the text. The pertinent
assumptions and statements appearing in the text
have not been repeated .
Maximum Longitudinal Stress The bending moment in ft.-lb. at the mid-span is
Referring to Fig. 6-3, the bending moment in ft.-lb. at 2Q [(L - 2A)2 _ 2HA _ A2 R2 - H2 ] =
the saddle is L + 4H 8 3 2 + 4
3
20 [2HA + A2 _ R2 - H2] =
L + 4H 3 2 4
3 1 + 2 R2 .- H2 )
OL L2 _ 4 ~
1 + 4H
[1 ___-_Z_+_R_2_~_L_H_2_ ]
4 L
(
OA 3L

1 +~ The section modulus = nr2t, and

3L
Referring to Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 the centroid of
51 = 3K10L
nr2t
the effective arc = r sin d. If <5 equals any central
d where
angle measured from the bottom, the moment of - H2
1 + 2 R2 L2 )
- - - - = - - - 4 ~L
inertia is
2f3t §: ( cos2 0 - 2 cos 0 Si: /1 + Si~/ ) do =
K1 =
(
1 + 4H
3L

2r3t [1/2 sin <5 cos <5 + Q _ 2sin <5 sin d + sin2 d <5]~ = Tangential Shear Stress
2 d d2 0
Section a-a of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the shears
adjacent to a stiffener. The summation of the vertical
f.lt [sin /1 cos /1 + /1 - 2 Si~/1 ] components of the shears on each side of the stiffener
must equal the load on the saddle Q. Referring to Fig.
The section modulus for the tension side of the 6-4 (d) the sum of the shears on both sides of the
equivalent beam is stiffener at any point is Q sin c'Phtr. Then the summation
of the vertical components is given by
d + sin d cos d _ 2 sin2 d ]
d
~ 1t 0
r2t
[ 2 sin 2 <l> rd<l> = 20 .[ <l> _ sin c'P cos c'P] 1£ =0
sin d - cos <5
d ~ 0 nr 1£ 2 2 0

Then the stress in the shell at the saddle in lb. per The maximum shear stress occurs at the equator
sq. in. is given by when sin <l> = 1 and K2 = 1/1£ = 0.319. ~
Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the
1 A R2 - H2 shears in an unstiffened shell. Again this summation
S1 = 30L 4A (1 _ __-_I_+_---'=-2A...:..::L"---_) x of the vertical components of the shears on each
nr2t [ L 1 + ~ side of the saddle must equal the load on the
3L saddle. Then the total shear at any point is
sin <l>o
r(n - a + sin a cos a)
and the summation of the vertical components is
given by
or
S1 = 3K1 0L 2 ~n 0 sin 2, <l> rd<l> =
nr2t ~ a r(n - a + sin a cos a)
where
o[ ]1£ = 0
1t( Si:/1 - cos /1 ) 1 <l> - sin <I> cos <I>
n - a + sin a cos a a
. 2
K, = [ /1 + sin d cos d - 2 Sind d
X
The maximum shear occurs where c'P = a and
K2 = _ _ _s,;:..i..;,..;.n..,.;:a..:...-_ _
n -a + sin a cos a

1 - ~ + R22AL
.- H2 ) 1
Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 indicates the shear transfer
across the saddle to the head and back to the head
[
~ (
1 - _L+-4H side of the saddle. Here the summation of the
vertical components of the shears on arc a acting
3L downward must equal the summation of the vertical

44
component of the shears on the lower arc (1t - a) ~ <1> Q sin <1>, rd<1>, = _ ~ <P Q sin <P2d<I>2 =
acting upward. Then ~ a 1tr ~ a (1t - a + sin a cos a)

~
0 sin2 <1>, rd<1>,
~in ex cos ex
2 ao -~~--=--!.- =
1tr - [ 1[ - ex + ][ COS 4>2 ] : =
o sin2 <1>2 a sin a cos a ]
1tr [ 1t - ~ + sin a cos a rd<1> o[ 1t - cos <1> + cos a ]
- a + sin a cos a
or The ring compression becomes a maximum in the
20 [<1>, _ sin <1>, cos cI>,] a = shell at the bottom of the saddle. Or if <P = 1t this
1t 2 2 0
expression becomes

o[ 1 + cos a ]
2~ [ a - sin a cos a
1t - a + sin a cos a
] [<1>2 _ sin <1>2 cos <1>2] 1t
2 2 a 1t - a + sin a cos a

Then
Finally

Q (a - sin a cos a) = Q (a - sin a cos a)

+ cos a ]
1t 1t - a + sin a cos a
The maximum shear occurs when cI>2 = a and
Design of Ring Stiffeners;
K2 = sin a [ a - sin ~ cos a ]
Stiffener in Plane of Saddle
1t 1t - a + Sin a cos a
Referring to Fig.6~6, the arch above the horns of the
Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle saddle resists the tangential shear load. Assuming this
See under the heading Design of Ring Stiffeners. arch fixed at the top of the saddles, the bending moment
may be found using column analogy.
Additional Stress in Head Used as Stiffener If the arch is cut at the top, the static moment at any
pOint A is
Referring to Section G-G of Fig. 6-4, the tangential
shears have horizontal components which cause
tension across the head. The summation of these Ms = Or ~ If> (sin If>, - sin If>, cos If>, cos If> - sin 2 <1>, sin <1» d<l>,
components on the vertical axis is 1t ~ 0

~a Q sin cI>, cos cI>, rdcI>1 - -_ -Or [ - COS'V1

"" - -
cos-<I> Sin
. 2 ""
'V1 +
~ 0 1tr 1t 2

~ 1t Q sin cI>2 cos cI>2 [ a - sin ~cos a ] rdcI>2 = ! sin <I> sin <I> cos <P _ <1>1 sin <I> ] <1>
~ a 1tr 1t - a + Sin a cos a 2 1 1 2 0

a - sin ~ cos a ] [Sin 2 cI>2]1t} =

~ sin 4> 1
Q {[ sin2 cI>1]a _ [
1t 2 0 1t - a + Sin a cos a 2 a 0,: [ 1 - cos 4> -
o( sin2 a )
Then the Ms lEI diagram is the load on the analogous
2 1t - a + sin a cos a
column.
Then assuming this load is resisted by 2rth and that The area of this analogous column is
the maximum stress is 1.5 times the average
8, = 2 ~P -'- dcI> = gfu:
84 = K4 0 ~o EI EI
rth
where The centroid is sin P/J3" and the moment of inertia
about the horizontal axis is
K4 = -s3 ( sin2 a )
1t - a + sin a cos a
Ih = 2 ~ P ( cos <I> _ sin P )2 r3 d<I> =
Wear Plates ~0 . P EI
The ring compression at any point in the shell over
the saddle is given by the summation of the
2r3 [ 1. sin <I> cos <I> + 1. <I> _ 2 sin cI> sin B + <I> sin2 B] B=
tangential shears over the arc = (cI> - a) shown in EI 2 2 B B2 .0
Section A-A or G-G of Fig. 6-4 or in Fig. 6-S. Then
r3 [ sin pcps P+ P_ 2 sin2 p]
_ ~ cI> 0 sin <I> 2 ( a - sin a cos a ) ,dcI>2 _ EI P
~ a 1t, 1t - a + Sin a cos a

45
 VALUES OF ~ WHEN R = H

H/L = .10 ~ ~ 0> .~ ~ ~ .~ ~ ~ ~ ?P .~ .~ .~

IV V V V V
VV VVV V V /--"V V V V V V V V V V V V V V
V
= .05
~ 5- ::::--V / ~- :/V V '/ ~ t/ Y ~ ;:, ~
H/L ,/'
/" ~V ~ ::/ ~ / V / -:/ -:/ /
HfL = 0 - / V
1,

1.4 :<lI V I. 4
~-<-7 V
1.2 t;:~ ~
,~'t; I. 2
~~/ ,,~y
l.O v/
v"} ~ I. o
........ ~v J
KI
•8
"-. ....
......... ......... 0"
<-v.6/ ~o/
'" .8
K,
........ , .... # oj
.6 -" ........ ....... k
K~",0
0
,.'7 6

.4 ~ ..ft!tvr:
. .4

----- -
-...-;.~ ,
Iff:"r:-
~~ AOQf2-
.2
- 2

J 0
~ "'J ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~
""-
'""::'-~""-'"''"""'" a""""~V"'""'0"'~8
"-
~
~ '""""~-
" "~O ~
~ "- ,"J
"
(J
,"'-... "'-
"YV
"-
'"'"
"- ,~ ,"'- ,~ "\,......... ,"'- ,"- ~,
~. "'<e ""~o ""'~ ~.
"- ""- "-"-
,~
..........,
~
~ ......"'- ................
~
.........

VALUES OF A WHEN R = 2H
L
Figure 6-SA. Plot of longitudinal bending-moment constant K , "

The load on the analogous column is ~; [ ~ sin Bcos J3 + ~ B_ 3 S~2 ~ + BS~2 ~ ]j!
q = 2 ~ ~ Ms rd<l> = 20r2 ~ ~ ( 1 - cos <l> - ~ sin <1» d<l>
~ 0 EI reEl ~ 0 2 Then the indeterminate moment is

q = 20r2 [ cI> _ sin cI> _ sin <l> + <I> cos cI> ]~ = Mi = -.SL _ M.nr. = Or { 2p - 3 sin p + P cos P _
rtE! 2 2 0 U1 Ih rt 2~

Or2 [2~ - 3 sin ~ + ~ cos ~ ] L [ 9~ sin p cos p + 3P2 - 12 sin2 p + 2p2 sin 2p ] }
rtE! 4r ~ sin ~ cos ~ + ~2 - 2 sin2 ~

The moment about the horizontal axis is The distance from the neutral axis to pOint A is

Mh = - 2 ~ ~ M.s ( cos <I> - ~ ) r2dcI> =

given by Y = ( cos 4> - Si~ B ) "
~ 0 EI ~
Finally, the combined moment is given by
~~
~2 sin cI> -
- Or3 [ 2 cos cI> - 2 cos 2 cI> - cI> sin cI> cos cI> -
rtfl ~ 0 M<J) =- Ms + M; = Or { cos cI> +.
re
Si~ J3 (2 - 2 cos 4> - 4> sin 4» ] d4> =
3 sin J3 + cos J3 - 1/4 ( cos ·cI> - ~ ) x
2 ~ 2 ~
- Or3 [ 2 sin cI> - cos <I> sin <I> _ cI> _ sin cI> cos cI> +
rtB 4
9 _ 4 - 6 ( ~ )2 + 2 cos2 B ]}
~- <I> sin2 <I> _ sin ~ (24) - 2 sin 4> - sin 4> + 4> cos <1» ] p = [ ~cosll+1-2(~y .
4 2 ~ 0

46
 This is the mrXimum when <P = ~; then Design of Saddles
The summation of the horizontal components of the
Mp = Or p sin p - ~ cos ~ + ~ ~ + radial reactions on one-half of the saddle shown in
1t 2 4 4 ~ Fig. 6-8 must be resisted by the saddle at <I> = 1t.
Then this horizontal force is given by

F = ~. 1t O( - cos <I> sin <I> + cos p sin <1» rd<I> =

~ p r(1t - ~ + sin ~ cos ~)

o[ - 112 sin2 <I> - cos <I> cos P ]1t =

Finally 1t - ~ + sin ~ cos ~ ~

Because of the symmetry the shear stress is zero

at the top of the vessel; therefore, the direct load in
o[ 1 + cos P- 1/2 sin2 p ]
the ring at the top of the vessel, Ptl may be found by
1t - P+ sin ~ cos ~
taking moments on the arc ~ about the horn of the Then K8 =1 + cos P- 1/2 sin2 p
saddle. Then 1t - P+ sin ~ cos ~
(1 - cos ~)rPt
,1t
= Or [ 1 - cos ~ - ~2 sin ~ ] - (Mp - MJ
The bending at the horn would change the saddle
reaction distribution, and increase this horizontal
P - 0 [ 1 Psin p ] . 1 (M MJ force.
t - 1t - 2( 1 - cos ~) - r( 1 - cos ~) Il-

Appendix B
The direct load, PIl , at <I> = ~, the point of
maximum moment may be found by taking moments After the article had been published, certain
about the center. Then refinements seemed desirable; therefore, the
following has been added to take greater advantage
r(PI} + Pt) = Or (1 - cos ~) -(Mp - MJ of the inherent stiffness of these vessels. The
1t methods outlined in the paper will give conservative
Substituting the value above for Pt , and solving for Pp results.
gives The effective width of shell has been limited to 10t
in order to prepare the chart of Fig. 6-2. It has been
shown 5 that this effective width may be taken as
PIl = Q [ Psin p - cos B ] + cos P (M - MJ
1.56 Yrf. That is, where 5t each side of the saddle or
1t 2(1 - cos ~) r(1 - cos B) Il
stiffener has been used, the more liberal value of
or 0.78 vff each side could be used.
The values plotted in Fig. 6-5 for K1 cover
where conservatively all types of heads· between H = 0
and H = R. More liberal values are given in Fig.
6-5A for hemispherical and 2 to 1 ellipsoidal heads
K7 = -1t1 [ Psin B cos B] + cos P (Mil - MJ for values of HIL between 0 and 0.1. The minimum
2(1 - cos B) Qr(1 - cos P)
values of K1 given in Table 6-1 have not been listed
for specific values of AIL and HIL; so they are
If the rings are adjacent to the saddle, K6 and K7
may be found in a similar manner, except that the conservative. Specific minimum values of K1 may be
read from Fig. 6-5A.
static structure would become the entire ring split at
the top and loaded as indicated in Fig. 6-9.

47
Part VII
~nchor Bolt Chairs~~~~~~~~~_
w = weld size (leg dimension), in.

W
hen anchor bolts are required at supports
for a shell, chairs are necessary to
distribute the load to the shell. Small
tubular columns (less than 4 ft in diameter) may be
an exception if the base plate is adequate to resist
bending. Otherwise, chairs are always needed to
minimize secondary bending in the shell.
For flat-bottom tanks, choose a bolt circle to just
barely clear the bottom without notching it. For other
structures, follow the minimum clearances shown in
Fig. 7-1 a. The designer must evaluate anchor bolt
location for interference with base or bottom plate.
Notation
a = top-plate width, in., along shell
b = top-plate length, in., in radial direction
c = top-plate thickness, in.
d = anchor-bolt diameter, in.
e = anchor-bolt eccentricity, in.
e min = 0.886d + 0.572, based on a heavy hex nut
clearing shell by 1/2 in. See Table 7-1
f = distance, in., from outside of top plate to
edge of hole
fmin = dl2 + 118
g = distance, in., between vertical plates
(preferred g = d + 1) [Additional distance may
be required for maintenance.]
h = chair height, in.
i = vertical-plate thickness, in.
k = vertical-plate width, in. (average width for
tapered plates)
L = column length, in.
m = bottom or base plate thickness, in.
p = design load, kips; or maximum allowable
anchor-bolt load or 1.5 times actual bolt load,
whichever is less
r = least radius of gyration, in.
R = nominal shell radius, in., either to inside or
centerline of plate (radius normal to cone at
bottom end for conical shells)
s = stress at point, ksi
t = shell or column thickness, in.
W = total load on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
WH = horizontal load, kips per lin. in. of weld
Wv = vertical load, kips per lin. in. of weld
e = cone angle, degrees, measured from axis of
cone
Z = reduction factor
Top Plate
Critical stress in the top plate occurs between the
hole and the free edge of the plate. For convenience
we can consider this portion of the top plate as a
beam with partially fixed ends, with a portion of the
total anchor bolt load distributed along part of the
span. See Fig. 7-2.
s = ~2 (0.375g - 0.22d) (7-1 )
fc
or
c = [ :, (0.375g - 0.22d) ]1/2 (7-2)
Top plate may project radially beyond vertical plates
as in Fig. 7-1d, but no more than 1/2".
Chair Height
Chair must be high enough to distribute anchor bolt
load to shell or column without overstressing it. If the
anchor bolt were in line with the shell the problem
would be simple - the difficulty lies in the bending
caused by eccentricity of the anchor bolt with respect
to the shell. Except for the case where a continuous
ring is used at the top of chairs, maximum stress
occurs in the vertical direction and is a combination
of bending plus direct stress. Formulas which follow
are approximations, based on the work of Bjilaard.
s = pet2 .[ 1.32 Z + .031 ] (7-3)
1.43 ah2 + (4ah2).333 t'Rf
Rt

49
 Table 7-1. Top-Plate Dimensions
Anchor Bolt Nut
Based on anchor-bolt stresses up to 12 ksi for 11/2-in.-dia.

~
d + t)Hole dia bolts and 15 ksi for bolts 1% in. in diameter or larger;
r: " higher anchor bolt stresses may be used subject to
- J -
--,.--+-....~,-:"'.. c

H-:; ~"
001,. designer's decision.

Top Plate Dimensions, in. Bolt Load, kips

~TI---r-..:;---L---_~ d f ~l=d+ 1 a emin Cm/n p

1112 'lil 2112 41/2 1.B7 0.734 19.4
13/4 1 23A 4% 2.09 0.919 32.7
2 11fo 3 5 2.30 1.025 43.1
2114 1114 3114 5114 2.52 1.145 56.6

~~ el and where earthquake or winds over 100 mph

(a) Typical Plan & (b) Vertical Column must be considered.
Outside Views or Skirt Maximum recommended chair height h = 3a.

If chair height calculated is excessive, reduce

eccentricity e, if possible, or use more anchor bolts
of a smaller diameter. Another solution is to use a
continuous ring at top of chairs.
' If continuous ring is used, check for maximum
.c stress in circumferential direction, considering the
ring as though it were loaded with equally spaced
concentrated loads equal to Pe/h. Portion of shell
within 16t either side of the attachment may be
counted as part of the ring. (Refer to Fig. 7-3)
Note that the base plate or bottom is also
(c) Flat Bottom Tank (d) Conical Skirt subjected to this same horizontal force, except
inward instead of outward. This is true even if a
continuous ring is not used around the top of the
Figure 7-1. Anchor-Bolt Chairs.
chairs - but it should never cause any very high
stresses in the base, so we do not normally check it.
r---j However, it is a good thing to keep in mind in case
-L'I ,-\ I ,J
I
I
,
you have a very light base ring.

Vertical Side Plates

r d / ~ To.ol load Be sure top plate does not overhang side plate (as in
"L H Fig. 7-1d) by more than 1/2" radially.
Vertical-plate thickness should be at least

rcA)'-.. ~J I..J
Po,Holly
Fixed Ends
jmin = 1/2" or 0.04 (h - c), whichever is greater.
Another requirement is jk~ P125, where k is the
average width if plate is tapered.
~ These limits assure a maximum Ur of 86.6 and a
maximum average stress in the side plates of 12.5
Figure 7-2. Assumed Top-Plate Beam.

Where: Z = _____1..:...;.~0_ _ _ __ (7-4)

,1~ ( 7f + 1.0

Maximum recommended stress is 25 ksi. This is a

local stress occurring just above the top of the chair.
Since it diminishes rapidly away from the chair, a
higher than normal stress is justified but an increase
for temporary loads, such as earthquake or wind is
not recommended. The following general guidelines
are recommended.
.,
Minimum chair height h =6", except use h =12"
when base plate or bottom plate is 3/8" or thinner Figure 7-3. Chair with Continuous Ring at Top.

50
ksi, even assuming no load was transmitted into the
shell through the welds.

Assembly of Chair
For field erected structures, ship either the top plate
or the entire chair loose for installation after the
structure is sitting over the anchor bolts. _
Where base plate is welded to skirt or column in
shop, attach side plates in the shop and ship top
plate loose for field assembly. See Fig. 7-4.
Where base or bottom plate is not welded to shell
in the shop, as for flat-bottom tanks and single
pedestal tanks, shop attach side plates to top plates
and then ship the assembly for field installation.
When you do this, weld both sides at top of side
plates so shrinkage will not pull side plate out of
square. See Fig. 7-5.
Welds between chair and shell must be strong Figure 7-6. Loads on Welds.
enough to transmit load to shell. 1/4" minimum fillet
welds as shown in Figs. 7-4 and 7-5 are nearly Formulas may also be used for cones, although
always adequate, but you should check them if you this underrates the vertical welds some.
have a large anchor bolt with 'a low chair height.
Seal welding may be desired for application in Wv = P (7.;5)
corrosive environments. a + 2h
Assume a stress distribution as shown in Fig. 7-6 WH = Pe (7-6)
as though there were a hinge at bottom of chair. For ah + 0.667h 2
the purpose of figuring weld size, the base or bottom
plate is assumed to take horizontal thrust only, not
moment.
W = y'Wv + Wtt (7-7)
Note that loads are in terms of, kips per inch of For an allowable stress of 13.6 ksi on a fillet weld,
weld length, not in terms of kips per square inch the allowable load per lin. in. is 13.6 x 0.707 = 9.6
stress. Critical stress occurs across the top of the kips per in. of weld size. For weld size w, in., the
chair. The total load per inch on the weld is the allowable load therefore is
resultant of the vertical and horizontal loads.
9.6w ~ W (7-8)

Design References
H. Bednar, "Pressure Vessel Design Handbook",
1981, pp. 72-93.
M.S. Troitsky, "Tubular Steel Structures", 1982, pp.
5-10 - 5-16.
P.P. Bjilaard, "Stresses From Local Loadings In
Cylindrical Pressure Vessels," ASME
Transactions, Vol. 77, No.6, 1955.
P. Buthod, "Pressure Vessel Handbook," 7th
Edition, pp. 75-82.

Figure 7-4. Typical Welding,

Base Plate Shop Attached.

-:&-
16

Figure 7-5. Typical Welding,

Base or Bottom Field Attached.

51
 ,
•
•Part VIII

•D
Design of Fillet Welds
esign of butt welds is closely controlled by following:

•
weld details and jOint efficiencies clearly
specified in various codes and specifications.
Design of fillet welds, however, is not so clearly
outlined. The following pages are intended to fill the
gap. While referring to the following pages and
designing fillet welds, the designer is encouraged to
keep in mind actual shop and field welding practice
and the quality of fillet welds that can consistently be
expected. The size and length of the weld as well as
the allowable stresses used in their design should
reflect the actual shop and field welding and not
1. Use of 45° (equal leg) fillet welds whenever
possible
2. Minimum size of fillet
3. Lower cost of down welding position
4. Locate weld to eliminate eccentricity
5. Balanced welds to control distortion
6. Avoid locating welds in highly stressed areas
7. Readily accessible
Use the smallest size of fillet permitted (see Fillet
Weld Limitations). Flat fillets 5/16" and smaller are

•
necessarily the value used here .
Size of an equal-leg fillet weld is the leg width W
of the largest 45° right triangle which fits in its cross
section. They are referred to by their leg sizes, such
as a 1/4 in. fillet weld.
normally made in one pass and are more economical
than larger fillets. Generally, the fillet with the least
cross-sectional area is the most economical.
Increasing the size of a fillet weld from 1/4" to 3/8"
more than doubles the amount of filler metal, but the
strength only increases 500/0. A gap also requires
additional filler metal.

Figure 8-1. Fillet-Weld Sizes (Leg Dimensions) . .

Size of an unequal length fillet weld is described " triangle 9 triangle 13 friangle
by the leg lengths of the largest right triangle which volumes volumes volumes
fits in its cross section, such as a 3/8" by 1/2" fillet Figure 8·2. Volumes of 1-ln. Long Welds.
weld.
The strength of a fillet weld is assumed to equal Flat welding position is the most economical and
the allowable shearing stress times the throat area of overhead the least. For example, the relative costs of
the weld. The throat area of a weld is the length of 3/8" fillets for different positions are:
weld times the theoretical throat distance, which is
the shortest distance from the root of the weld to the lap flat 1000/0
theoretical weld's surface. flat fillet 11 00/0
Some codes, however, define the throat distance vertical fillet 240 0/0
differently. overhead fillet 250 0/0
AWWA defines the throat as .707 times the length The costs can vary according to weld procedure
of the shorter leg of the fillet weld. used.
AISC distinguishes between welding processes to Specify shop welding whenever practical. The
be used when determining throat distances (e.g. fitted-up material can normally be repositioned easier
AISC 1.14.6.2). The designer should check to see in the shop.
what code, if any, applies to the work.
~ In these papers, however, the fillet weld throat
dimension for an equal-leg fillet is assumed to be the
Types of Fillet Welded Joints
leg length times 0.707 (i.e. cos 45°). Single-fillet welded joints

I Strength depends on size of fillet.

, Economy of Welding
Economical design of fillet welds includes the

53
Do not use when tension due to bending is
concentrated at root of weld.
 Do not use for fatigue or impact loading.
Difficult to control distortion.
Figure 8·3. Types of Single Fillet Welds.
Double-fillet welded joints
Used for static loads.
Economical when fillet size is 1/2" or less.
Lap joint maximum strength in tension when length
of lap equals at least 5 times the thickness of thinner
material.
Figure 8~4. Types of Double Fillet Welds.
Double-fillet welded corner joint
Complete penetration and fusion.
Used for all types of loads.
Economical on moderate thickness.
Figure 8·5. Corner Joint.
Welds transmit forces from one member to
another. They may be named according to the
direction of the applied forces.
Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to their
axis. Fillet weld throat is stressed only in shear.
Parallel welds may also be called longitudinal welds.
Figure 8-6. Parallel Weld.
Transverse welds have forces applied at right
angles to their axis. Fillet weld throat has both shear
and normal (tensile or compressive) stresses.
Transverse welds are about 33 0/0 stronger than
parallel welds.
Figure 8·7. Transverse Weld.
54
Allowable Loads on Fillet Welds
Stress in a fillet weld is assumed as shear on the
throat area, for any direction of applied load.
Many codes express the allowable shear stress for
fillet welds in psi on the throat area. It is more r
convenient, however, to express the strength of fillet
welds as allowable load f, kips per lin. in. for 1" fillet.
The following formula may be used to convert
allowable shear stress on throat area to allowable
load for 1" fillet with equal leg lengths:
f = 0.707 x allowable shear stress, ksi (8-1)
Since transverse welds are stronger than parallel
(or longitudinal) welds some codes permit different
allowable stresses for them. API 620 6th Edition and
AWWA D100-84 are two codes that have different
allowable stresses for the two types of welds. API
650 8th Edition and AISC 9th Edition, however, make
no distinction between transverse welds and parallel
welds and use the same allowable stress for both.
The designer is cautioned to check which code
applies to the work at hand as well as the most
recent edition of the code to see if their approach to
these types of stresses has changed.
In the following pages, however, for the sake of
completeness, a distinction will be made between the
two types of stresses, fp and ft.
When a jOint has only transverse forces applied to
the weld, use the allowable transverse load ft. If only
parallel forces are applied to the weld, use the
allowable parallel load fp• If one of the forces is
parallel and the other forces are transverse, use the
allowable transverse load when the resultant force is
found from Eq. 8-3.
New specifications on allowable stress for fillet
welds are given in Section 8 of the latest revision of
AWS Structural Welding Code, 01.1.
Current AISC specifications also refer to:
1. allowable stress at weld for both weld metal and
base metal
2. minimum length of fillet weld
3. minimum size of fillet weld
4. maximum size of fillet weld
5. end returns or "boxing of welds"
6. spacing of welds
7. fatigue loading of welds
Notation
A = cross-section area, sq. in., of member
transmitting load to weld
Aw = length, in., of weld
b = length, in., of horizontal weld
C = distance, in., from neutral axis to outer parallel
surface or outer point
Ch = horizontal component of c, in.
C v = vertical component of c, in.
d = depth, in., of vertical weld
f = allowable load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in.
per in. of weld size
fb = bending stress, ksi Fillet weld size w, in., is found by dividing the
force W, kips per lineal inch, on the weld by the
fp = allowable parallel load on fillet weld, kips per
allowable load f (kips per lin. in. for 1" fillet) for the
lin. in. per in. of weld size
weld.
ft = allowable transverse load on fillet weld, kips W=W (8-2)
per lin. in. per in. of weld size f
f to = torsional stress, ksi
Table 8-1. Formulas for Force on Weld
I = moment of inertia, in.4, of member transmitting
Common
load to weld or of weld subjected to torque
Design Formula for
10 = moment of inertia about 0 axis, in.4 Type of Loading ormulas for Force on Weld
Ix = moment of inertia about x axis, in.4 . Stress, psi K/Kips per In.
Iy = moment of inertia about y axis, in.4
J = polar moment of inertia, in.4, of member
transmitting load to weld Tension or P w p
Jw = polar moment of inertia, in. 3, of weld lines A - Aw
Compression
subjected to torque
L = column length, in.
M = bending moment, in.-kips
n = number of plate sides welded or number of Vertical
V v
p
welds loaded
Shoar A w--
s~
= allowable concentrated axial load, kips
Q = statical moment of area, in.3, above or below a
point in cross section, about neutral axis
r = least radius of gyration, in.
S = section modulus, in.3, of member transmitting
Bending
M
load to weld or of weld subjected to moment 5
Sw = section modulus, in.2, of weld lines subjected
to bending moment
t = plate thickness, in., or thickness, in., of
thinnest plate at weld
T = torque, in.-kips
Torsion
Tc w _ Tc
v = vertical shear, kips T t Jw
w fillet weld size (leg dimension), in.
W = total load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
Wb = bending force on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
Wh = horizontal component of torsional force on Longi~udinal
YQ
weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
Shear tr
Wq = longitudinal shear on fillet weld, kips per lin.
in. of weld
Ws = average vertical shear on fillet weld, kips per Force W on a weld depends on the loading and
lin. in. of weld shape of the weld outline. Table 8-1 shows the.. basic
Wsa = actual shear on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of formulas for determining weld forces for various
weld types of loads.
Wt = torsional load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of Combining forces: There may be more than one
weld force on the weld, such as bending force and shear
Wv = vertical component of torsional force on weld, force. It is usually easier to determine each force
kips per lin. in. independently and then combine vectorially to obtain
x = distance from y axis to vertical weld a resultant force. All forces which are vectorially
added must occur at the same position in the weld.
y = distance from x axis to horizontal weld Be sure to find the position on the welded
connection where the combination of forces will be
Combined Loads on Welds maximum.
It is necessary to designate the size and length of To simplify calculations increase parallel forces by
fillet welds. Since neither are known, it is usually the ratio ftlfp before combining to account for the
simpler to assume the length and then calculate the lower allowable parallel shear stress specified by
size. some codes.

55
 w = ~ = ~ = 0.25" Use 1/4" fillet
f 9.6

Weld volume = (1/4)2 x 12.5 = 0.39 cu. in.

2
w
TryA w2 =5+5=10"

W2 =~ = ~ = 3.0 kips per lin. in.

Figure 8·8. Forces on Weld Combined.
To determine the resultant force for combined
forces, use Eq. 8-3. If only two forces exist, use 0 for
one force.
W = tfW 1 2 + W2 2 + [ W3 (ft lfp)1 2
Refer to Fig. 8-8 for explanation of W1 , W2 ,and W3 •
The total force shall be determined in accordance
with the applicable code.
Simple tension or compression loads: The force W,
kips per inch of weld, is the load P divided by the
length Aw of weld. As shown in Table 8-1 the tensile
or compressive force on a weld is:
W= P (8-4)
Aw
With this force W, the required fillet weld is
calculated from Eq. 8-2.
Example: Find size of fillet welds for the
connection shown in Fig. 8-9. Assume Aw =5 + 5
+ 2112 = 12112".
Aw2 10
W2 = ~ = ~ = 0.312" Use 5/16" fillet
f 9.6
Weld volume = (5/16)2 x 10 = 0.49 cu in.
2
Use 1/4" fillet on three sides because of less weld
volume. Check fillet size (see Fillet Weld Limitations).
(8-3)
Shear load is considered uniformly distributed
over the length of weld. Force formula Ws = VIAw
from Table 8-1 gives average shear force. Use
average shear force when combining with bending
force or torsional force. However, if the average
shear force about equals or exceeds the bending or
torsional force, determine the actual shear force
distribution to aid in locating the maximum combined
force.
The actual shear force per weld at any point can
be determined from:
(8-5)
For example, the average shear force and actual
shear force distribution are compared for a
rectangular member in Fig. 8-10.
mox
.hear

lf2 ~ t W

1 'to-
force

~I~~·:1·¥ avg actual

.ectlon
.hear .hear
thru member
30,000 lb. force forc.
at weld
Figure 8..9. Tension-Member Connection 1 • diagram diagram

Figure 8·10. Shear Distribution at Welds.

Referring to API 650 the allowable basic shearing
stress of an E60 electrode fillet weld is 13.6 ksi.
f = (.707)(13.6 ksi)(1 inch weld) = 9.6 kips/inch/1
Average shear force Ws =~ = JL. (8-6)
Aw 2d
inch weld
VQ tQ
W = ~ = ~ = 2.4 kips per lin. in. Wsa at 1 = VQ = 2 4 = 3V = 1.5Ws (8-7)
Aw 12.5
nl 2 (t1~) 4d

Wsa at 2 = VQ = ~ = 0 (8-8)
nI nI
1AISC for E60 electrodes would give f =
(.707)(.3)(60)= 12.7 ksi
shear stress with max shear stress on base metal of .4 yield of Bending or torsional load may be applied to the
base metal. same weld outline.

56
 Table 8·2. Properties of Weld Outlines
(Treated as a Line)

r Outl ine of
Welded Joint
Bending
(abollt x-x axi s)
Torsion

l
d'
Bending and Torsional Weld outline
dG-- x d
Sw - -
6
in.:Z J w " 12 in.'
shear load and shear load
..Jt.. 2
d(3b l + d2 )
S .. -d
on a weld on a weld

Figure 8-11. Moment and Torque on Weld.

d[+-+x w 3
J
w
..
6

In the figure with the bending load, the weld must

~ l 2
J w • b{b + 3d )
transfer the same stress as in the member at the dE.:--x Sw • bd
6
-'--j
connection. This stress can be determined using the
[1F~~,Y-
b
common formula for bending stress. t71 j S ( ). ~(4b + d)
w top 6
(8-9) d I d' (4b,. d' • ~l.6b2dl
_..J. ~;2(b+dl Sw(bott)· 6(2b+d) J w 12(b +d)
-_._---+._---------_
2[b+d)
... _......_._--_.._-
Ef
In the connection with the torsional load, the weld y'" (max forc:e at botl)
wants to rotate or twist about the center of gravity of
the weld group. The stress in the weld can be found
from: d x ---:t
.
I S
w
r. bd+ -d'
6
~
I w,.. .-- -
12
(:2b· d)' b'(b.d)'
- ---
2b + d
(8-10) .J x- 2L b+d --.- ...-----_..
~ S ( ) d(2b+d)
However, before using these formulas, it is d~y w top" 1
d2 (2b+d) J (b+2d)' _d'(b+d)l
_'d
D

necessary to determine the section modulus S or y

2 Sw(bott)- 3(b:d) w 12 b+ 2d
polar moment of inertia J of the weld without Y-t+"2tJ
knowing its width (size). A simple way to determine b - fmox force ot Dott)

the section modulus or polar moment of inertia of the r-1 d2 J .. (b +d)'

weld is to treat the weld as a line. The property,
such as section modulus S, of any thin area is equal
dEUx Sw - bd +-
3 w 6

to the property of the section when treated as a line s • 77d l

J _ 77d'
Sw times its thickness w. dE-6- x
w 4 w 4

(8-11 ) Revised and expanded outline properties given in Lincoln Electric pub·
lication 0810.17. Solutions to Design of Weldments. p. 3.
The common formula for bending stress can now
be used to find the bending force on the weld.

(8-12) Bending and shear forces on a welded connection

are combined vectorially after determining each force
independently from Eqs'. 8-12 and 8-6. Determine the
Properties of sections treated as lines for typical combined force Won the weld using Eq. 8-3. Make
weld outlines are shown in Table 8-2. The method sure you have found the position on the welded
for determining these properties is given later. connection where the combination of forces will be
When designing welds using the line method, maximum. See Fig. 8-10 for shear force distribution.
select the weld outline with care. Several Calculate the required weld size from Eq. 8-2.
combinations of line welds will produce the required
property Sw or J w ' However, select the weld outline
where the weld distribution is consistent with the
load distribution in the member at the connection.
For non-circular members (such as beams, channels,
etc.) resisting torsion loads, transverse forces on the
weld are present in addition to parallel forces
computed from Tc/Jw. These transverse forces are
the result of the non-circular cross section warping
and should not be neglected. Figure 8·12. Bending and Vertical Shear on Welds.

57
 Example: Find size of fillet weld on clip
loaded as shown in Fig. 8-13.
Use f t = 8.9 kips per lin. in.
4k and fp = 6.4 kips per lin. in.
from API 620. Assume length
of fillet = 10" (5" each side)

Sw from Table 8-2 = cJ2 = 52 = 8.33 sq. in.

3 3
Bending force Wb = M = 4 x 3
Sw 8.33
= 1.44 kips per lin. in. Figure 8-14. Torque and Shear on Welds.
Avg shear force Ws = Aw
X = ..i.
10 The horizontal torsional force component is
= .40 kips per lin. in.
Wh = If.Jt. (8-14)
Jw

The vertical torsional force component is

Figure 8-13. Loaded Clip. Wv = B2n (8-15)

Jw
ft = (.707) (12.6 ksi) (1 inch weld) = B.9 kips/inch/1 inch weld
Equation 8-3 can now be used to find the resultant
fp = (.707) (9.0 ksi) (1 inch weld) = 6.4 kips/inch/1 inch weld
force on the weld. Increase the forces parallel to the

Resultant force W = y' Wb 2 + [ Ws ( :; ) r weld at the point considered by ftlfp before

combining.
The required fillet size is calculated from Eq. 8-2.
Example: Find fillet size for connection
2 3" 3*" Sk shown in Fig. 8-15.
0/1.44 + [ 0.40 ( ::: ) ]'
Use ft = fp = 9.6 kips per
= 1.544 kips per I.in. in. lin. in.

Fillet size w = W = 1.544 = .173"

ft 8.9
Use 3,/16" fillet w

Note that the designer is still cautioned to check the C

h
shear capacity of the plate.

Torsional and shear forces on a welded connection

are combined vectorially after determining each force
~~u>l
cg
independently from Eq. 8-6 and the torsional force
formula -J ' "i
(b)
(8-13) . Figure 8-15. Loaded Bracket.

Maximum torsional force occurs at the most distant From Table 8-2,
weld fiber measured from the center of gravity of the x = b2 2 _ _ = 0.75"
= _ _3_
weld outline. This distance to the outer fiber is c in 2b + d 2 x 3 + 6
Eq. 8-13.
The direction of the ,torsional force Wt may be Jw = (2b + c/)3 _ b2 (b + d)2
other than horizontal or vertical. By resolving the
torsional force into vertical and horizontal 12 2b + d
components, the problem of combining forces is
simplified. Resolve the torsional force into = (2 x 3 + 6)3 _ 3 2 (3 + 6)2 = 83.25 in.3
components by using the horizontal and vertical 12 2 x 3 + 6
components of dimension c as indicated by Eqs.
8-14 and 8-15.

58·
 Find components of maximum torsional force at 1.

Cv =

Ch =3
3"

- x = 2.25" T
By Eq. 8-14, the horizontal component of torsional Figure 8-16. Examples of Built-up Members.
force is
Longitudinal shear force at any position along the
Wh = IQv. length of beam is calculated from
Jw
= 5{3.75 + 2.25) (3) Wq = VQ (8-16)
83.25 , ni

= 1.08 kips per lin. in. Longitudinal shear force may vary along the length
of the beam. The vertical shear diagram for the
NOTE: (3.75 + 2.25) is the distance from the point beam can be used as a picture of the amount and
load to the centroid of the weld. location of welds between flange and web.

By Eq. 8-15, the vertical component of torsional

force is

Wv = IQb.
t ~ , ~
1 L
~ til"" 11111\
Seom 3
Seam 1 Seam 2
Jw
= 5(3.75 + 2.25)(2.25)
83.25

= 0.810 kips per lin. in. Figure 8-17. Shear in Beams.

Find average vertical shear force: Notice there is no shear in the middle portion of
beams 1 and 2; therefore, little or no welding is
Ws = - V = - -5- - required in this portion. When there is a difference in
Aw 3 + 6 + 3 shear along the length of beam, as in beam 3, the
welding could vary in this same ratio along the
= 0.416 kips per lin. in. length of beam. This is why continuous welding is
sometimes used at the ends of beams and reduced
Combine forces using Eq.8-3. size or intermittent fillet welds used throughout the
rest of the beam;
W = y(00810 + 0.416)2 + [ 1.08 ( ~:: )] 2'
Built-up members subject to axial compression:
Welds joining the component parts of a built-up
= 1.635 kips per lin. in. compression member, such as a cone roof tank
column, are also stressed in longitudinal shear.
Calculate weld size using Eq. 8-2. Determine this longitudinal shear force Wq from Eq.
8-16 using the shear V at any position along the
W = W = 1.635 = 0.17" member as given by Eq. 8-17 or 8-18.
f 9.6
V = 0.02P for Ur> 60 (8-17)
Use 3/16" fillet.
V = 0.01P for Ur < 60 (8-18)
Check fillet size (see Fillet Weld Limitations).
Also at each end of a built-up compression
Welds in Built-up Members member, use a total length of continuous fillet weld
Built-up members subject to bending: equal to the maximum width or depth of the member
Welds attaching the flange to the web are stressed or 4", whichever is greater.
in longitudinal shear and must be adequate to Fillet weld size at any position along the beam or
transfer the calculated longitudinal shear force. column is determined from Eq. 8-2 with the
longitudinal shear force Wq at the same position.
"Note that if we had been using API 620 where ft = 8.9 kips per
lin. in. and fp = 6.4 kips per lin. in., this equation would be = W = ~ (8-19)

r
W
f fp
W = (.810 + .416)2 + [ 1.08 (::!)
59
Table 8-3. Length and Spacing of Intermittent Welds Maximum clear space between intermittent fillet
Continuous Length of Intermittent Welds and welds depends on the component parts of the built-up
Welds 0/0 Distance Between Centers, In. member. The clear space between welds must be close
enough to prevent local buckling of the component
60 3-5 parts when the loading develops the full strength of the
57 4-7 built-up member.
50 2-4 3-6 4-8
44 , 4-9 Example: Find size and spacing of fillet weld
43 3-7 joining plate and angle of built-up member shown in
Fig. 8-19. Use ft = 8.9 kips per lin. in., fp = 6.4 kips
40 2-5 4-10 per lin. in.
37 3-8
33 2-6 3-9 4-12

~
O'170 kips ~er ft ~...Ili:.
30 3-10 O.612"E~1 ..
25 2-8 3-12 1.575" .~
20 2-10 7.33' 2" x ,~ .. x 3/16"
16 2-12 ~ 0.17(7.33)
"<tltQjj] v • 2
shear diagram
Use intermittent fillet welds when the calculated • 0.623 kips
leg size is smaller than the minimum specified in Figure 8-19. Plate Girder.
Table 8-5. The calculated size divided by the actual
size used, expressed in percent, gives the length of Shear diagram for beam shows that welding for
weld to use per unit length: longitudinal shear could be reduced in center portion
0/0 = calculated leg size (continuous) x 100 (8-20) . of beam. Because the vertical shear is small, design
actual leg size (intermittent) the welds for maximum shear throughout the length
of beam.
Intermittent weld lengths and distances between The longitudinal shear force is
centers for given percentages of continuous welds

r
W = VQ = 0.623(0.1875)6(0.518)
are shown in Table 8~3. q nI 1(1.094)

,6 6 ·b12" 12"
Vi 2-12 ~
6" 6"
I L
12"
_~ = 0.332 kips per lin. in.
~2"~&
~I .p... ~2"
~.I
2".J
&
l-2"
9 The continuous weld size required is
•• r W 012=W ..r .....
w = ~ = 0.332 = .052
Figure 8-18. Spacing of Intermittent Welds. fp 6.4

Minimum length of fillets for intermittent welds is 2" (Use fp because longitudinal shear force is parallel
or 4w, whichever is greater. Selecting the longest fillet to weld.)
possible is usually the most economical. However, do
not exceed the maximum clear space between fillets in Minimum size fillet from Table 8-5 is 3/16".
Table 8-4.
0/0 continuous weld = 0.052 x 100 = 27.70/ 0
0.1875
Table 8-4. Maximum Clear Space
Between Intermittent Fillet Welds Minimum length fillet permitted for intermittent
(Carbon Steel BUilt-up Members) welds is 2".
Maximum clear space between fillets is, from
plate flange 24t (12" 'max)* Table 8-4, 22 x 3/16 = 4.1".
Tension rolled shape 24" Maximum spacing with 2" fillet = 2" + 4.1" =
flange 6.1" .
Use 2" - 6" intermittent fillet on one side. This
provides 33 0/0 (Table 8-3) continuous weld which is
plate flange 22t (12" max)* more than adequate to transfer the calculated
Compression rolled shape 24" longitudinal shear.
flange
Fillet Weld Limitations
* Many of the built-up members we use have an assumed flange. This
Minimum size fillet: The calculated weld size may
flange, usually part of a roof, bottom or shell, may be partially
restrained from local buckling when the maximum load is applied.
be small. To eliminate cracks resulting from rapid
When the built-up member has restraint on the flange, the clear space cooling, it is best not to put too small a fillet on a
between fillet welds could be increased to about 32t maximum. thick plate. Follow Table 8-5 for minimum sizes.

60
 3
Table 8-5. Minimum Size Fillets From handbook, - w-
1y - d
12
When w is small, let Iy = 0
Thickness' Minimum Leg Size
Of Fillet2 J =~ + ~ = wcJ3
12
+ 0

~ 112" 3/16" Treated as a line, then

~ 3/4" 1/4"3
> 3/4" 114"3,4 Jw = ,{ = s!!.. (8-22)
w 12
1Thickness of thicker part to be joined,
From handbook, for a horizontal
2Leg size of fillet need not exceed thickness of thinner part to be 3
joined. weld, 10 = w b
3A minimum fillet of 3/16" is acceptable provided 200°F preheat b
12
b
or surface examination of the weld (PT,MT) is performed. '2 '2 Ix = 10 + Ay2 = 0 + wby2
4AWS 01.1-82 or AISC require a.minimum 5/6" fillet.
j
Maximum size fillet for strength welds:

~dg •• fPI.t.
o

-,-_x
E=~31-:1'~o Ix
I w
S
= wby2

= Ix -:- y = wby

~
dge of roll.d
lec:tion
y Figure 8-22. Horizontal Weld.
t

max fill.t - t max fillet· t Treated as a line, then

Figure 8-20. Weld Size Limited to Plate Thickness. Sw = ~ = by about x axis (8-23)
w
Minimum length of fillets for strength welds:
11/2" or 4w, whichever is greater From handbook
(Use 2" or 4w for intermittent welds)
3
- wb
IY - -
Spacing of Fillet Welds: 12
1. When bars or plates are connected only by a
3
set of parallel longitudinal fillets, the length of J = Ix + Iy = wby2 + wb
those welds should not be less than the 12
perpendicular distance between those two
welds. Treated as a line, then
2. When fillet welds are used for end connections,
the distance between them must not be greater J w = ,{ = by2 + l!!... (8-24)
than 8 inches unless transverse bending is w 12
otherwise prevented.
By adding the properties of the two basic lines in
Determining Weld Outline Properties Figs. 8-21 and 8-22, properties for other straight line
Properties Sw and J w of a weld outline when treated outlines may be determined. For example, find Sw
as a line are nearly equal to the section modulus or and J w for the outline in Fig. 8-23:
polar moment of inertia divided by the width w of the
weld. When w is small, say 100/0 of d, the error is
usually less than 10/0.
The properties Sw and J w in Table 8-2 are
determined as follows:
From handbook
1x"-- -wcJ3
12
S = Ix -:- Q = wcJ2
x 2 6
Treated as a line by dividing by w,
then

y
Sw = ~ = cJ2 about x axis
w 6
(8-21) II ]I
Figure 8-21. Vertical Weld. Figure 8-23. Combination of Welds.

61
Ix =2 wcJ3 + 2 (Wby2) = wcJ3 + 2wby2 Cautionary Note
12 6
Some designers and engineers are not aware of a
When y = Q, form of cracking called lamellar tearing, which can
2 occur beneath highly stressed T-joints in steel plate.
Plate forced to deform plastically in the thru-
Ix + wbcJ2 = wd2 (d + 3b)
= wcJ3 thickness direction by welds which are large, mUlti-
626 passed, and highly restrained can decohere at a
plane of microscopic inclusions. A crack may then
1y - wb3 -
- 0 + 2- _ wb
-
3
progress from plane-to-plane in a terrace-like fashion.
12 6 While lamellar tearing is not frequent, even one
incident has the potential of becoming a serious
Sw = (iL)
w d
1.. = 2wcJ2 (d + 3b)
6wd
problem. Since there are means to minimize the
hazard, it behooves the engineer to take every
precaution by optimizing joint design and welding
= cJ2 + bd about x axis (S-25) procedure selection. Where these factors cannot be
3
controlled, it may be necessary to use special steels.
Jw = .i.... = Ix + Iy = wcJ2 (d + 3b) + wb 3 The reader is referred to the following sources for
w w 6w guidance in designing against lamellar tearing:
1. Engineering Journal, Third Quarter, 1973, Vol.
= b3 + 3bd2 + cJ3 (S~26) 10, No. 3, pages 61-73. American Institute of
6 Steel Construction, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, New York 10020
2. Bibliography on Lamellar Tearing, Welding
Research Council Bulletin 232. Welding
Research Council, 345 East Forty-Seventh
Street, New York, New York 10017

62
Part IX
Inspection and Testing
of Welded Vessels
treatise on the subject of defects in welded
A vessels and their detection is beyond the
scope of this work. But an acquaintance with
some of the available inspection and testing tools
may serve to dispel the mystery of unfamiliar terms.
In the interest of economy, the refinement of
inspection and testing must be in tune with the
degree of perfection necessary for various classes of
work. For example, a pressure vessel storing a lethal
substance, or one constructed of a special material
known to be crack sensitive, may require as a
minimum that 1000/0 of all main joints be
radiographed. On the other hand, simple structures
such as oil and water tanks, constructed of readily
weldable materials, usually require only spot
examination. In general, it is safe and wise to follow
the inspection requirements of the applicable codes.
First, let us distinguish between hydrostatic or
overload testing to demonstrate strength or liquid
tightness, and inspection to determine weld quality.
Testing for Strength and Tightness
Required overload tests are clearly outlined in the
various governing codes. Whenever the structure
itself, its supports, and foundation conditions will
permit, the overload test is usually hydrostatic, i.e.,
the structure is full of water when the overload,if
any, is applied.
For the water and oil tanks of Volume 1, no
overload can be applied other than that inherent in
any difference between the specific gravity of water
and that of the product to be stored in service. The
normal cone roof will withstand pressures only
slightly greater than the weight of the roof plates. It
will not withstand hydrostatic pressure due to
overfilling. Hence, the water test level is limited to
the top capacity line.
The testing of the flat bottom, however, may
warrant brief comment. The liquid tightness of a flat
bottom is usually demonstrated by means of a soap
bubble test. A soapy liquid is brushed on the weld
and a small differential positive pressure created on
the opposite side of the plate. Leaks in the weld will
be indicated by bubbles as the air passes through
the leak. Since the bottom of a tank is inaccessible
from the underside, the differential pressure
63
necessary for the test is accomplished by means of
a vacuum box placed on the top side. This box has
a glass top and is open on the bottom. The portion
of the weld to be inspected is brushed with a soapy
solution, the box is fitted over it, and a vacuum
created in the box. The weld is inspected through
the glass top for leak-indicating bubbles.
Inspection for Weld Quality
Prior to the beginning of any welding, weld qualification
and welder certification tests should be performed.
These tests insure that the type of welds proposed
are adequate for the application and that the workers
proposed to be used are capable of applying the
required welds.
VISUAL INSPECTION is usually the first stage in
the inspection of a finished weld, regardless of any
other tool that may be employed. Visual inspection
can determine conformity with specifications as to
dimensional accuracy, extent, etc. It can also reveal
noticeable surface flaws, such as obvious cracks, .
surface porosity, undercutting of parent metal, etc. In
some types of work, visual inspection is the only
inspection performed; e.g., welds subjected only to
compression as in a tubular column, or low-stressed
fillet welds. But for most important structures, further
inspection is usually required for the main joints, on
which the strength of the structure depends. Some of
the more commonly used methods are described below.
RADIOGRAPHY is an inspection method that
shows the presence and nature of macroscopic
defects or other discontinuities in the interior of
welds. Just as in the case of medical X-rays with
which we are all familiar, radiography utilizes the
ability of X-rays or gamma rays to penetrate objects
opaque to ordinary light. Radiograph films can reveal
slag (non-metallic) inclusions, porosity or gas
pockets, cracks, lack of fusion, inadequate
penetration, and even surface defects, such as
undercut. However, welds are rarely perfectly free of
all minor defects nor do they need to be. As a result,
the inspector must have a good background of
experience in reading films, and a knowledge of
standards. The various construction codes, such as
AWS and ASME, define limits of acceptability.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION is an aid to
visual inspection for surface defects too fine to be
detected by the naked eye, plus those that lie slightly
below the surface. With special equipment, more
deeply seated discontinuities can be detected. The
method is applicable only to magnetic materials. It
will not function on non-magnetic materials such as
the austenitic stainless steels.
The basic principle involved is as follows: When a
magnet,ic field is established in a ferro magnetic
materiai containing one or more discontinuities in the
path of the magnetic flux, minute poles are set up at
the discontinuities. These poles have a stronger
attraction for magnetic particles than the surrounding
surface of material.
Normally the area to be inspected ' is magnetized
between two "prods" by introducing high amperage
current or some other convenient means. Then the
area is covered with a powder of finely divided
magnetic particles " These form a visible pattern of
any discontinuity due to the stronger attraction at
those points.
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION is another
method for detecting surface discontinuities too small
to be readily seen by the naked eye. It is particularly
useful on non-magnetic materials where the
magnetic particle method is ineffective.
The method utilizes liquids with unusual
penetrating qualities, which, when applied to a
previously cleaned surface, will penetrate all surface
discontinuities. The surface is then cleaned of all
excess penetrant and a developer applied. Penetrant
that has entered a crack or other discontinuity will
seep out, make contact with the developer and
indicate the outline of the defect.
There are two principal types of penetrant used;
64
When a FLUORESCENT PENETRANT is used, the
indications will fluoresce when exposed to near ultra
violet or black light. DYE PENETRANT utilizes visible
instead of fluorescent dyes. As the dye penetrant
rises from the flaw by capillary action, it stains the
developer (usually a chalky substance) and clearly
marks the flaw.
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION requires a. great deal
of explanation for even a rudimentary understanding
of how it works. Briefly, ultrasonic testing makes use
of an electrically timed wave of the same nature as a
sound wave, but of. a higher frequency, hence the
name ultrasonic. The sound wave or vibrations are
propagated in the metal being inspected and are
reflected back by any discontinuity or density
change. The search unit contains a quartz or similar
crystal, which can be moved over the surface much
like a doctor's stethoscope. The search unit applies
energy to the metal surface in short bursts of sound
waves for a very short, controlled period of time. The
crystal then ceases to vibrate for a sufficient period
of time to receive the returning echoes. The reflected
signals are indicated on a cathode ray tube or
oscilloscope. From the reflection or oscilloscope
pattern, a trained operator can determine the
distance to the discontinuity and some measure of its
magnitude.
Ultrasonic testing is a valuable tool for certain
applications. But it must be used only by an operator
skilled in the interpretation of the reflection patterns.
In addition to the above methods the following can
be used: Eddy Currents, Acoustic Emission, Video
Enhancement, Ultrasonic Holography, and Neutron
Radiography. Only technically qualified personnel
should use these methods.
 Part X
Appendices

A. Trigonometry A-1
B. Elements of Sections A-2
C. Properties of Circles and Ellipses A-7
D. Surface Areas and Volumes A-8
E. Miscellaneous Formulas A-10
F. Properties of Roof and Bottom Shapes A-12
G. Columns for Cone Roof Framing - Flat
Bottom Storage Tanks A-13
H. Conversion Factors A-15
Specific Gravity and Weights of Various Liquids A-17
A.P.1. and Baume Gravity and Weight Factors A-18
Pressure Equivalents A-18
Wire and Sheet Metal Gages A-19

65
 Appendix A. Trigonometry

TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS

Radiul AF -1
TRIGONOMETRIC - aln l A + COil A - lin A cOlec A
FUNCTIONS - COl A lec A - tan A cot A

~/{a
H Sine A COl A - c;c;s;cA
- COtA 1 - COl A tan A - " 1-COI I A - BC

Coaine A _ ain A _ _1_. _ lin A cot A _" 1-1lnl A _ AC

,t an A lee A

"/~F
Tangent A _~_-1--linAaecA - FO
COl A cot A
COl A 1
Cotangent A - lin A - iiriA - COl A cOlee A -HG

tan A 1
Secant A -AD
- 8i'n'A - CciI"A
cot A 1
COlecant A -AG
- COl A - i'i'nA
.~~~

RIGHT ANGLED
TRIANGLES
al - CI - b l

~
l
b - el - al
c a
CI - al + b2
Abe

Required
Known
A
I
B • b c Are.
a
a, b tan A - b tan B - ~
a ""'ii'+'b'i
ab
T
a, C aln A-!. COl B -..!. "ca=;;. .,,~
C C
2
a a l cot A
A, • 900-A a cot A --2-
ii"nA
b bltan A
A, b 900-A b tan A --2-
COl A
CI lin 2 A
A, e 900 -A cain A C COl A
4
OBLIQUE ANGLED
TRIANGLES" a+b+c
1- 8 1 - bl + cl - 2 be COl A
2

~
bl - a l + c. - 2 ac COl B
C •
K _ ~ (I - a) (1:- b) (I - c) cl - a l + bl - 2 ab COl C
Abe
- "._...
Required
Known
A B C b C Are.
--I
1 1 1
'A, b,e tan 2' A - tan "2 B. tan 2' C- " I (I-a) (I-b) (I-C)
K K K
I-a I-b .-=c
a lin B atin C
a, A, B 1SOO-(A+B)
Iin'A ai'ftA
a, b, A alnB-~
a
btln C
lin B
ab aln C
.,b.C tan A .' a lin C " a l +b2-2ab COl C --2-
b-aeol C

A-1
 PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

A d2
SQUARE ftECTANGLE
Axl, of moments through cent.~ c " If AJd. of mom.nta on ..... It bel
2
d
I" ~
c 12 bel'
_J..
5 =~
-,-
6 bell
I -,-
r" d
..Iff = .288875 d d
lUj .[f - .lnSiOd
z =~
"
l>
SQUARE RECTANGLE ~
A bel ~
Axl, of moments on base A = d2 11..1. of momenta on elleton.' en
bel :J
c " d a.
01 b l + d'
I" ~
3 bid'
x·
I (b i .+ dl ) CD
5" ~ bldl
3 m
l>
, • ,01 b l + d l
N
11 IJ r =..L .577350 d
en
Vi bel 3
01 e (b l +dl) en
::J
r+
en
0
A = d2
SQUARE RECTANGLE
c =i .707107 d A... of mom.nta any line A bel
en
en
-
Axis of moments on diagonal Vz throu.h center of gravity n
b aln • + d COl • r-t
I =~ 2 O·
12
bd (b' a'n'. + d' COl'.) ::J
'" .117851 dl
en
5 "'~ 12
IIVz
bel (b l aln l • + d l cOla.)
r",i 8
= .288675 d I (b lin. + d coe a)
v'12
~ b l ain'. +dl COl'.
Z = 2c3 '" ...!!!. = .235702 dl 12
3 3\12

A = bel It bd- bid.

RECTANGLE
HOLLOW RECTANGLE
d
Axis of moments through center e = 2~ A"la of momenta through center - 2"
I '" !l!!! bel' - bld l l
12 c 12

S =~ _J.. bd l - bldl'
d - ~ II S
-----ed
r "i .288675 d ~- .bldll
v'12 12A
Z = bell W' b,eI,'
Z -4-
" .-
 PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

EQUAL RECTANGLES A b (d - dtl TRAPEZOID

Axi, of moment, through A dlb + b,1
Axil of moment. through _ ~ center of grnitv -2--
center 01 gravity 2
dl2b fbI)
ll f b(d';;d,,) 3Ib+b,)
1 i cP 1b2 + 4 bb, + b,Z)
d
i d, _ _ _ _ _ _ _*.. S b (d' -;; d,l) 3111b + b,)
S
dZlb2+4bb,+b,21
J d' - d,s 12(2b + b,)
1 12(d - dl) d _
It IIlb + b,) V 2 1b2 + 4 bb, + b 121
LB b Z "4 lel 2 - eI.')

UNEQUAL RECTANGLES A bt + bat, CIRCLE A '" "': '" "R2 '" .785l98dZ '" 3.141593R2

Axil :!~:,.r::~~~!n;OUgh C ~ bt' + b, ta Cd - ~ ta) Axi. 01 moments d

b~ t A through center 2" '" R
!"2 bt' I bat,- I
t--+-------+·-"T<.::......
.. ~ !- - ----r2 + bty + ~ + bataYa [6I -: : ,,:4 '" .049081d4 = .785l98R4 »
Y t s I Sa - _ "Rl _ _ "0
i2"-7-·098115d3-.785398R3
1.. I
d,----~-t- C _ CaI d -- ~-- -1 S -_"CP 16
» I " c, _II d R :J
W 1"A .- :: 2
~
1 !i+--3:-J..!
z 1-("-(~)] ~CO
TRIANGLE A .,
~-~ - .785398(d2 - d 12)
n
0
HOllOW CIRCLE • :J
AIlII 01 mom.nta through A ~ Axl. of moments d r-+
center of gravity 2 through cent" T ci
2d
C T ..(d4 - d,.' - .0490811d4 _ d,4)
14
bd'
""38* S ..1d4 - d,.) _.ota,75 d4 - d,.'
32d d
bd'
• - 24" v dZ + d,2
d ---.-
YTi - ;231102 II z z ~ _ d,2
I I

TRIANGLE HALF CIRCLE A :: ~ 1.570791R2

Alii, of momlnta on b... A ~ Axis of moments through 2
2 center of gravity ( )
.. R 1 -~ '" .515517R

~. _of _?j-l ... (: ~)".,.,",

• ~'" S % Rl Ih2 - 141 '" .190681 R3
.. 2. 13,,' - 4)
II ---
_r:- -.4OI:MI II ,. R ~. % .2M338 R
~. h
 PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

..ARABOl..A
• HALF ELLIPSE
I A - fa .. I A = ..!.2 "ab
2
m ,a 4a
J,;""
l
I, - 175 a
..!!.. "
"TI 't .3b
.... -,-' (-i--:')
I .1.... I. ,4, .b' "'
~-----L____LI_-L3
~ ".hZ
'2 •
Ia - I':•• a ..
13 "alb
•~
HALF PARABOl..A A f·b
I 4
- t
m a
rJAP•• -T
n fb
- • QUARTER ELLIPSE A »
-0
= 4~ "Ib
I, I 4 -0
·~l
- 17'5
• • ab 4a CD
...!!. abl rn~ J,;"" ::::s
Ia 410 0-
.-S---_---11~-1. 4b
» -.!!.. .Ib J,;"" X
I .. - 105
~ to
...!.. alb
I .. - 15 .b a -.,-- 't (:6 - ~)
no ()
-
·--~----r-~-~3 lz .hZ (:6 - ~) 0
COMPLEMENT OF HALF ::::s
PARABOLA I r-+
1 '3 _"alb
A 0:
I ·b 4 16
2.... I.
1
_"ahl
m - 10 16
n .!.b
4
A = ab ( 1
I, ~alb • ELLIPTIC COMPLEMENT
- 2100 +)
I. ...!.... ab a
- 10
8 (1 - + )
..ARABOLIC "'ILLET IN t
RIGHT ANGLE • 2YZ
6 (1 -: )
I
t
J-- It " "'(2--~
3 16 -
- -./-;: H(:~»)
A 1. tl
- 8 'Z .M (T -~, - "(', --n)
m - n it
11 tot
It - II - 2100
• To obtain p,operti.. 01 ha" cI,cle. quarte, ei,el. and ci,eular complement substituta a = b = R.
 PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS
AND STRUCTURAL SHAPES

REGULAR POLYGON Number of sides

... xI. of momenta 180"

through center
ZVR2 - R,2 IRREGULAR PLANE SURFACE
R = a
2 sin.

R, a
2 tan.

A !n82cot. = ~nR2Sin:z. =nR,Ztan. S

.a
" =~ AI6R2 - 821 AU2R,! + 821
Z4 48

" = '2 = /6R2 - a2 yUR 12 + 82

24 48

Divide the plane surface into an even number of parallel strips of equal width .
ANGLE
tan Z& ,. ZK »
A.i, of moment. throuoh The given figure has been divided into ten strips of width, d; the ordinates are ho to h lO . 1:)
center of ,ravit)' Iy-:-I,. 1:)
When the ends are curved. ho and hlO are zero and cancel out of fonnulas. Cl)
A = tlb + c). '" ~ Y ., d2 + at
21b + cl Zib + c) ::J
» Simpson's Rule: a..
K = Product of 1nertf8 about X-X lit y-y X·
0,
abcdt Area =!! ["" + hlo + 4 (hi + h) + h, + h7 + ~l + 2 (h2 + hi + ~ + hll]. OJ
~ 3

.. :(i tld-YI3+bY3-aIY-tI3) Durand's Rule: ()

o
Area = d [0.4 (110 + h lO) + 1.1 (hi + ~) + h2 + h) + h. + h~ + ~ + h1 + ha]. ::J
x . , =(i tlb-XI.l+dxl-clx-tP) ....
'a ,. .. sln2& + 'y cos28 + K lin 28
Trapezoidal Rule:
a::
lw .. I. cos29 + Iv slnZ8 - K lin29 Area = d [\.1 (110 + hlo> + hi + h2 + h3 + ~ + h, + ~ + h7 + h. + 11,].
y ~:!1:r:.:..'='.:'Iv!"!':~::!"Z=::,:.t!'::' When the ends arc nol curved. but are the straight lines hi and ~ then.
z-z la axl. of minimum I
Area = d [ \.1 (hi + 11,) + hz + h3 + h. + h, + h6 + h1 + hI].

BEAMS AND CHANNELS

Tran.v.rse force oblique
through center of oravity

~ ,. ...ln2. + 1y cosZ.
14 ,. I,. cos2. + Iy sln2a

!.sI.... +.!-.. )
.. M ( I,. Iy

wh«e M I. banding moment due to forcs F.

:.t
4
Appendix B. (Cont'd) Thin Wall Sections (Dimensions are to Center of Wall)

A = rrdt
I = rrd 3 t
8
S = rrd 2 t
4
r = O.355d

b =d
- -- t A = 4dt
d
3
b I = 2d t
3
r = 0.408d
-

- -.-t
d>b

A = 2(b + d)t
- ~ d r-- 2
I 1-1 = d 6 t (3b + d)

b SI_l = d; (3b + d)

r
I-I
= O.289d ~~
... rJF+(T

Sector of thin
annulus
2
A = 2a.Rt

Il~j::
R· , y1 = R (1 - Si~ a)
~ I
2
Y2 = R (-Si: a - cos a)

A-6
 AREA OF CIRCULAR SECTIONS
PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE
P
Circular Sector, m 0 n p
Area = ~'l (length of arc, m p n )( radius, r)
_ f . 1 arc, n:' p n, in degrees
- area 0 ClrC e x 360 Ci,eumf ..,ence 6.283111' = 3.14159 d
,
0, -A- .r-- Oiamete, 0.31831 clrcumfe,ence
mBn = 0.0087266 x square of radius, rl. x angle of arc, m
in degrees.
p n. A,ea

A,c ~
3.14159,2

= 0.017483 r A'
180"
Angle A' = ~ = 57.2957I a
' Circular Segment, m p n, less than half circle
Pb
Radius, 4b2 + c2
m . n Area = area of sector. m 0 n p-area of triangle. m 0 n --I-b-
;'" ------1:, c- >-, (IenRth of arc. m p n. x radius. r)-(radius. r.-rise. b)x chord . r l>
Cho,d C 2v'2br - b2 = 2,sln~
2 2
"0
"0
Rise b = , - ~v'4,2 - c2 = .!.tan~ ct>
Circular Segment, m q n, greater than half circle 2 4 ::J
q a..
Area = area of circle-area of segment. m n p 2raln2~ = ' +.,-~ X
e Circular Segment, from Table I, pages 282 and 283
., = b-r+~
4

v',2 - Ir + y - bl2
()

-0
....,
Given: rise. b. and diameter. d = 2r. Diameter of circle of equal pe'lphery as squa,e 1.27324 side of square o
0.78540 diamate, of circle "0
Area = square of diameter. d 2• multiplied by the coefficient d\'en ~;~~~:~~:~j~l~e~~~~=~:;a:':~~~ua,e 1.41421 slda of squa,e
ct>
. • fb Side of square in.."ibed in circle 0.70711 diameter of circle ....,
oPPOsite the quotient 0 d ' .-+

l> ct>
, M
, '~ en
-.....J Intermediate coefficients for values of ~ not ~i\'ell in tahles CIRCULAR SECTOR o-+.
are obtained by interpolation. , = ,adius of ci,cle ., = angle ncp in deg,e.s
()
Example-Given : ric;e = 2; 16 and diameter = 5~y'!. A,ea 0' Secto, ncpo = rt Uength of arc nop x rl
V b ....,
(")
d =27 J6 +5~~ =0.178528. = Area of Circle x Jlo ct>
Coefficient by interpolation = 0 .371233. en
= 0.0017268 x rZ x ., Q,)
Area = d 2 x coeff. = 25.9-1629 x 0.371233 = 9.6321.
::J
a..
Circular Segment, from Table II page 284
Given: rise. b. and chord. c.
®
CIRCULAR SEGMENT , = ,adlus of elrcle x = chord b = rise
m
-6'
Area = product of ril'C and chord. h x c. multiplied h~' the coenirimt Are. of Segment nop = A,e. of Sector ncpo - A,e. of tri.ngle ncp en
ct>
~iv('n opposite the quotient of ~:
C
o
ng c b P
= llength of .rc nop x rl - x (, - bl
2
en

Intermediate coefficients for values of?

C
not .civen in tahl('S
.
Area of Segment nsp = A,e. of Circle - Are. of Segment nop
are obtained by interpolation .
Example-Gin"n: rise = 1.-19 and chord = 3.52.
•
·.,'J'J .'
rb"",U9_
3.52 - 0 .... ~ .... ,. C ()(' fljalrnt . /J-_.
-- 0-"1')
e Area = b x ex coeff. = U9 x :1.52 x 0,5.12 = 3.%56.
VALUES FOR FUNCTIONS nF 1T
" = 3.14159265359. log = 0.4971499
... 2 = 9 .1169604-4. log = 0.9942997 ~ 0.3183099. log ~ 1.50211501 0.SM11H. log = 1.7514251
Circular Zone, t u w V .Jf =
Area = area of cirde-(area of se~ent. t pu + art'a of !:t'~ent . ... 3 = 31.0062767. log = 1.4914496 ~ 0.1013212. log = 1.0057003 0.0174533.1011 = 2.2418774
,,2 "
180
t u v Q w).
v;- = 1.7724539. log = 0.2485749 1 0 .0322515, log = 2.5085500 110 = 57.2957795. log = 1.7511226
v w -;3
Circular Lune, m p n s
Area = segment. m p n-segment. m s n. Not,, : logs of f,actlons such a.1 :5028501 .nd 2.5085500 ma., .Iso be w,itten 9.5028501 - 10 .nd 1.501550 - 10,espectlvely.
me" q
 Appendix D. Surface Areas and Volumes

SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

CI RCULAR RI NG (TORUS)
D and R = Mean Diameter and Mean Radius, respectively,
of Ring
d and r = Mean Diameter and Mean Radius, respectively.
of Section
Surface = ,/!,2 Dd = 4,/!,2Rr
I
4·R?l ,/!,2
I I
Volume = 2,/!,2Rr2 = "4 Dd 2
1 - - - - - - - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
PRISMOID
End faces are in parallel planes.
l
Volume = 6 (A + A' + 4M), where
l = perpendicular distance between ends
A.A' = areas of ends
M = area of mid section, parallel to ends

UNGULAS FROM RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER

(As formed by cutting plane oblique to base)
I. Base, abc, less than semicircle;
Convex Surface
= h[2re- (d X length arc abc)] + (r-d)

Volume = h [~eL-(d X area base abe)] + (r - d)

II. Base, abc, = semicircle;
Convex Surface = 2rh Volume = J r 2h
Ill. Base, abc, greater than semicircle (figure);
Convex Surface
= h [2re + Cd X length arc abc)] + ~ + d)
Volume = h [~e3 + (d X area base abc) + (r + d)
J
,
I

~
I IV. Base, abc, = circle, oblique plane touching circumference.
,,I Convex Surface = '/!'rh Volume = Y2'/!'r2h
_L V. Base. abc. = circle, oblique pl~ne entirely above (figure)
Convex Surface = 2'/!'r
X Y2 (h, minimum + H, maximum)
Volume = '/!'r2 X Y2 (h, minimum + H, maximum)

ANY SOLID OF REVOLUTION

Let abcd represent the generating section about axis A·A of
solid abef.
Let g at distance h from A-A be the center of gravity of abed.
Let aO be the angular amount of generating revolution.
Then
Total Surface of solid abef
= (2'/!'ha + 360) X perimeter abed
Volume of solid abef = (2'/!'ha + 360) X area abed
For complete revolution (2'/!'ha + 360) = 2'/!'h

A-a
 SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS
Convex Surface = lI'dh
Ii<-d-->lr 1I'd' CYLINDER
Total Surrace = rdh + '"2 l+---d---;:.l SPHERE
Volume = .11' d'h I
h :-
II
Surface = rd 2 = 4rr2
4 rd J 4
h
I
I
Volume Cylinder. right or oblique = area of section at right angles
to sides X length of side. b
:-
I ____ ' t Volume = Ir = j 1I'r'
_'L Side of an equal cube = diameter of sphere X 0.806
Center of Gravity above Base - 2 Length of an equal cylinder = diameter of sphere X 0.6667
Center of Gravity of Half Sphere = ~r above spherical center
U PRISM
G
Lateral Surface = h X Base Perimeter
r I I SPHERICAL SECTOR
t) Total Surface = Lateral Surface + (2 X Base Area) 1<-----<:----+1
I lI'r
~L Volume = h X Base Area : ----:-S Total Surface = i (4h+c)
::L
@ Center of Gravity above Base - ~
, r'
.,;., Volum'C"= ~ 1I'r2h= 1rr2( (r- ~r'L..~2)
----J,.- PYRAMID ~ 'J!/ Center of Gravity _ ~(r h)
, I above center of sphere - , - 2
I I
Lateral Surface = ~ X Base Perimeter
I 1
$ Total Surface = Lateral Surface + Base Area
,.
tli
A. , I h I , l>
:f_ Volume = 3" X Base Area ~- - - C- - -->1 SPHERICAL SEGMENT "0
I I "0
Center of Gravity = ~. above base Spherical Surface=2rrh=r(c2 +4h 2 ) + 4 CD
Total Surface = Spherical Surface + (rc 2 + 4) ::J
L=SJ[ Volume = ,.-h 2(3r - h)+ 3= ,..h(3c 2 + -lh2) + 2.1 a.
...-'....... ~,'f'
FRUSTUM OF PYRAMID Center of gravity above base of segment = h (4r- h) +4(3r- h) X
»
I
--!-
: I Lateral Surface = s (Top + Base Perimeters) + 2 o
(0 , I
S If a = top area and A = base area,
,
tiI Total Surface = Lateral Surface + (a + A) SPHERICAL ZONE
~--eL-->i ---,r (')
, --- -- y- Volume = h (a + A + viA) +3 Convex Surface = 2rrh o
::J
Center of Gravity = h (~~_-t-_A + 2 iii!) Ii /2 ......
a above base 4 a + A + "aA Q
~----c----->t
.--r / _-t_ Total Surface ... 2yrh + (c 2 + C
lI'h
Volume = 24 (Jet + 3c'1 + 4h2)
i )
a:
t' -----~- CONE
I I
,5 t\ Convex Surface = ~2 ds = ~ "ar:t4tii
4 yd! ELLIPSOID (I. Revolution about transverse axis)
-f' L Total Surface = Convex Surface + ·4-
Sin-'e=Angle. in radians.
(i
I
r«---d--->1
I Volume = ~ d 2h = .~ d 2 "4s~
12 24 h
~----D----->{
Surface - 211'r [ r --e-
+. R (!lin·Ie)] whose sine ... e
Center of Gravity above base = "4. 4
-+-1--- ---1X Volume - 3" Rr'
_td ______ i_ ':d
FRUSTUM OF CONE I I ELLIPSOID (II. Revolution about conjugate axis)
I ,
1f ~d~ ---r Convex = !~ (d + d') = .~ (d + d') "4h' + (d=<f')1 __--'_~___ :1_
Surface 2 11'5 4 r 2.303r2 +e)]
(1
5 Ii Surface = 11' [ 2R' + - -e- Iog. 1~
~t' /~-----~~ i_ Total Surface = 2 (d + d') + 4" (d! + d'!)
{g 4 "Rt - -if
I I Volume = ~h (dt + dd' + d'2) Volume-311'R 1r Wheree= R ·-
1<---"11---->: 12 . h(d! 2dd' + 3d'!)
+
Center of GraVlty above base "" 4 Cdt + dd' + d;i)- Use common or base 10. log.

PARABOLOID
WEDGE
Surface = Sum of surfaces of bounding planes Convex Surface- ;~2[ (rl + 4h,>~~-r']
wh Total Surface - Convex Surface + rrl
Volume ~ ""6 (I + m + n)
~~--+--->i
G[ ~-- ... ~
Volume - T
,..r'h . h
Center of GraVlty = 3 above bage
 Appendix E.
M·ISCELLANEOIJS FORIUULAS
1. Area of Roofs. 7. Heads for Horizontal Cylindrical Tanks:
UmbrelJa Roofs: Hemi·ellipsoidal /leads have an ellipsoidal rross section, usually
o= ciiamf"trr or tank in feet. with minor axis equal to one half the major axis-that is. depth
Surface area . in 1. { =0.842 D' (when radius = diameter)
= 1,4 D, or more.
square feet f =0.882 D' (when radius = 0.8 diameter) Dished or Basket Heads consist of a spherical segment nor·
mally dished to a radius equal to the inside diameter' of the
Conical Roof.: tank cylinder (or within a range of 6 inches plus or minus)
Surface area in} {
square feet
= 0.787 D' (when pitch is % in 12)
= 0.792 D' (when pitch is Ilh in 12)
and connected to. the straight cylindrical flange by a "knuckle"
whose inside radius is usually not less than 6 per cent of the
inside diatneter of the cylinder nor less than 3 times the thick·
2. Average weights. ness of the head plale. Basket heads closely approximate hemi·
ellipsoidal heads.
Steel -490 pounds per cubic foot-specific gra\'ity 7.85
Wrought iron -485 pounds per cubic fOOl-specific gravity 7.7i
Dumped Heads consilit of a spherical segment joining the
tank cylinder directlY without the transition "knuckle." The
Cut iron -450 pounds per cubic foot-specific gravity 7.21 radius = D. or less. This type or head is used only for pressures
1 cubic foot air or gu at 32- F., 760 m.m. barometer = mole· of 10 pounds per square inch or less, ex{'eptin~ where a com·
pression ring is placed at the junction of head and shell.
cular weight x 0.0027855 pounds.
Surlace Area 0111 eads:
3. Expansion in steel pipe =
0.78 inch per 100 lineal
(7a) Hemi.ellipsoidal Heads:
feet per }OO degrees Fahrenheit chan~e in temperature
= 0.412 inch per mile per de~ree Fahrenheit tempera· S = 'Ii' R' [l + KI(2-K))
S = surface area in square feet
ture chan~e.
R = radius of cylinder in feet
4. Linear coefficients of expansion per degree increase
K = ratio of the depth o( the head I not including the
straight fIanj:e) to the radius of the cylinder
in temperature:
The above formula isnol exact but is within limits of
Per Degree Per Degree practical accuracy_
Fahrenheit Centigrade
STRUCTURAL STEEL-A-7 (7b) Dished or Basket Heads:
70 to 200 ° F .............. 0.0000065
0 Formula (7a) gives surface area within practical limits.
21.1 0 to 93°C ............. . 0.0000117 (7d Bumped Heads:
STAINLESS STEEL-TYPE 304 5 = .. Rr (1 K') +
32 ° to 932 OF ...•........... 0.0000099 S, R, and K as in formula (7a)
0° to 500°C .............. . 0.0000178
ALUMINUM Yolume 0/ Head$:
-76° to 68°F .............. 0.0000128
-60° to 20°C ............. . 0.0000231 (7d) Hemi-ellipsoidal Heads:
\' = %,.. K R"
5. To determine the net thickness of shells for horizontal R = radius of cylinder in feet
cylindrical pressure tanks: K = ratio of the depth of the head (not including the
~lraight
Onnj:e) to the ' radius of the cylinder
T= 6PD
S (7e) Dished or Basket Heads:
Formula (7d) gives volume within practical limits.
P = working preuure in pounds per square inch
D = diameter of cylinder in feet (70 Bumped Heads:
V = Y2 .. K RI (1 + % K'l
S = allowable unit working stress in pounds per square inch V, K and R as in formula (7dl
T = Net thickness in inches Note: K in aLove formulas may ue determined as follows:
Resulting net thickness must be corrected to gross or actual Hemi·ellipsoidal heads-K is known
thickness uy dh'iding by joint efficiency. Dished Heads-K = M- V (M-l) (M + 1 - 2m)

6. To determine the net thickness of heads for cylindrical

Bumped Heads- K = [M- V W-IJ
pressure tanks: '
MR = principal radius of head in feet
mR = radius of knuckle in feet
(6a) Ellipsoidal or Bumped Heads: R = radius of cylinder in feet
T= 6PD - MR _ mR
S .\1 - I f m-lf
T, P and" D as in formula 5 For IlIlmpf>d hf'ao". m = 0

(6b) Dished,or Basket Heads:

T = 1O.6P(MR) 8. Total Volume of a Sphere:
s V = total volume
T, S lind P as in formula 5
D = diameter of sphere in feet
MR = principal radiuo:; of head in feet V = - 0.523599 D3 Cubic Feet
Resulting net thickness of heads i~ both net and gross thick. V = -0.093257 D3 Barrels of 42 U.S. Gallons
nen if one piece seamless heads are used, otherwise net thick·
ness must be corrected to Jrro'lS thickness as above. Number of barrels of 42 U.S. Gallons at any inch in a true sphere =
(3d-2h) h2 X .0000539681 where d is diameter of sphere and h is
Formula~ 5 and {, mu!"t often he modified to comply with depth of liquid both in inches.
various en~ineerin~ codes, and state and municipal reftUlalions.
Calculated ~O8!l plate thickneuet are sometime. arbitrarily The desired volume must include appropriate ullage for the stored
increased to provide an additional anowance (or corrosion.' liquid.

A-10
 Appendix E. (Cont'd)
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS
(CONTINUED)

9. Total volume or length of shell in cylindrical tank with ellipsio- (l0e) Dished or Basket Heads:
dal or hemispherical heads: Formula (1 Ob) gives partially filled volume within practical
limits, and formula (7d) gives V within practical limits.
V Total volume
L Length of cylindrical OOd) Bumped Heads:
shell Formula (lOb) gives partially filled volume within practical
limits, and formula (7f) gives V.
KD Depth of head

= '7iD2 (L + 1'/3 KD) Note: To obtain the volume or quantity of liquid in partially filled tanks, add
V
4 the volume per formula (lOa) for the cylinder or straight portion to twice

L = (V 7i~2) - 1'/3 KD
(for 2 heads) the volume per formula (lOb), (I0e) or (lOd) for the type of
head concerned.

10. Volume or contents of partially filled horizontal cylindrical

tanks: 11. Volume or contents of partially fined herni-ellipsoidal heads
(lOa) Tank cylinder or shell (straight portion only) with major axis vertical:

Q R2L[(;8~O) - sin e cos e ] Q = Partially filled volume

or contents in cubic
Q partially filled volume or feet
contents in cubic feet v Total volume of one
R radius of cylinder in feet head per formula
(7d)
L length of straight portion of cylinder in feet
R Radius of cylinder
The straight portion or flange of the heads must be considered a part of in feet
the cylinder. The length of flange depends upon the diameter of tank
and thickness of head but ranges usually between 2 and 4 inches.
a = ~ R = depth of liquid in feet 01a) Upper Head:
A a .
~ = R= a ratio Q 1Y2 V A (l - Y.l ~2)

Cos e = 1 - ~. or R-a a .
R ~ KR = a ratio
e = degrees
a ~ KR = depth
(lOb) Hemi-ellipsoidal Heads: of liquid in feet "<
Q 3;4 V ~2 (l - 1f3~)
'"><
Q partially filled volume or
contents in cubic feet '"
>0:
(lIb) Lower Head:
V total volume of one head
per formula (7d) Q 1'h V A2 (1 - Y.l~)

a . a
R= a ratio A 1m = a ratio

a ~ R = depth of liquid in feet a ~ KR = depth

of liquid in feet
R radius of cylinder in feet

A-11
 Appendix F. Properties of Roof and Bottom Shapes

SEGMENTAL STD. UMBRELLA SHAPES 90° CONISPH. 60° CQNISPH F & 0 HEAD
H 0 ~y ~y
I, 0 , O.R.=O
K.R. = .060
r ~E~~l r¢j~x ~~I~. . . ,
r • h r -0 T ~ f·
~~~~Yr\xrl
o o o
~~T~ ~~m
Depth or RI Ie h h 0.1340 0.17550 0.7070 o 0.1690
2" 3" "4
Volume, cu.ft. 0.26180' 0.17450' 0.13090' 0.26180 2 h 1.0472h 2(3r"':h) 0.05390' 0.071750' 0.27770' 0.32720' 0.08100 J

Volume, gals. 1.95840' 1.30560' 0.97920' 1.95840'h 7.833h 2 (3r-h) 0.40310 ' 0.53670' 2.07720 1 2.44810' 0.60590'

1.5710' 1.240' 1.0840 2 "Do 0.84180 2 0.88220 2 1.66610' 1.96350· 0.92860 2

Surface, sq. ft. -2- 2"rh

Length of Arc 1.57080 1.3220 1.2110 calculate angle 1.04720 1.0800 1.10430

Dh calculate
Projected Area 0.39270 2 0.26180 2 0.19640 2 -2- 0.09060 2 ('.11950 2 0.44640 2 0.56390 2 0.12550 2
sector - V

V to Centroid 0.28780 0.19190 0.14390 2h 5 0.0560 0.07550 0.45430 0.66020

±gh (roughly) 0.10000
» I
Prol. Ar. T
.....a.
N 2
V to Centroid 3h 8rh - 3h
0.31250 0.20830 0.15630 0.04510 0.05960
of Mass -.- 12r - 4h

+1.950 0+~) +2.60 0+~)

Stress (water) 2.6 H Do
1.3 (H +f) 0 2.6r (H + h)
Ibs. per inch h
~;.60 (~ +f) -2.60 0+~)
Stress due to + 4.5pO
Gas pressure 3p O or + 6p O ~ 6p r
"p" Ibs per 3p O -6 p O or h
Inch --4-

Partial Volume calculate new

within depth X
(0 2 )
l02 _ 3X 2 (0 2 4X2) calculate I vol. on basis
trX\~ -3 T
X2)1,trX\T
"X\:4 - T vol. V - vol.V (h _ x) & subtract
(cu. ft.)

Belt line Stres s 0.0796WO O.3183W~r2 -~

o o o O.276W 0.198W o o o
(pound s) h
o
Angle at edge 90 0 90 0 90 0 calculate colculafe 30 0 38.67 0 90 0 90 0 90 0

NOTE: All dimensions expressed in feet; H =water elev. above belt line (Shell Height).
W =total load carried, including dead load.
 , Appendix G. Columns for Cone Roof Framing - Flat Bottom' Storage Tanks
Pipe Columns

Column Length and

Pipe Properties
Allowable Load
Max Load
Sch Max
@ lIr
Weight Area I S r
Dia lIr in.4
Thickness Length Ih/ft sq. in. in. 3 in.
kips
40 180 33/-8 36.8
6 19.0 5.58 28.1 8.5 2.25
.280 175 32/-9 37.6
20 180 44/-3 43.3 22.4 6.58 57.7 13.4 2.96
.250 175 43/-3 44.4
8 44/-2
40 180 55.3 28.6 8.40 72.5 16.8 2:94
.322 175 42/-10 56.6
20 180 55/-8 54.3 28.0 8.25 113.7 21.2 3.71
.250 175 54/-1 55.5
10
40 180 55/-0 78.5 40.5 11.91 160.8 29.9 3.67
.365 175 53/-6 80.2
20 180 66/-4 64.6 33.4 9.82 191.9 30.1 4.42
.250 175 64/-6 66.1
12
40 180 65/-9 96.0 49.6 14.58 279 43.8 4.38
.375 175 64/-0 98.0
10 180 83/-6 81.4
16 42.1 12.37 384 48.0 5.57
.250 175 81/-4 83.2

A WWA DIOO-84 Column Formulas Maximum permissible slenderness ratios Llr shall be
175 for columns carrying roof loads only. ,'
The maximum permissible unit stress for structural col-
The maximum permissible compressive stress for
umns shall be determined by the formula
tubular columns and struts shall be determined by the
formula
p
A '
=[
1
18 000
+ L2
1 P = Xy
18000r2 A

or 15,000 psi, whichever is less. in which X is the smaller of

Where:
P = the total axial load, in pounds. 18000
A = the cross-sectional area, in square inches. L2
L = the effective length of the column, in inches. +---
18 000,2
, = the least radius of gyration, in inches.
or 15 000 psi and

for values of tlR less than 0.015, and unity (1.00) for
values of tlR equal to or exceeding 0.015.
Where:
P = the total axial load, in pounds.
A = the cross-sectional area, in square inches.
L = the effective length, in inches.
, = the least radius of gyration, in inches.
R = the radius of the tubular member to the
exterior surface, in inches.
t = the thickness of the tubular member, in
inches (minimum allowable thickness is IA in.).

A-13
API Standard 650 where:
Crna = maximum allowable compression , in pounds per
The maximum allowable compression shall not exceed
square inch.
the following limits:
L = unbraced length of column, in inches.
r = least radius of gyration of column, in inches.
For columns on cross-sectional area, when Llr $
120 (See Note 1),
Y = 1.0 for structural or tubular sections having tlR
values greater than or equal to 0.015
2
Crna = [ 1 - (Llr) 33,000Y )
2~ ( 2~0 (
] (
34,700 FS [ ; )] [ 2 _ ;)]
for tubular sections having t/R values less than
When 120 < Llr $ 131.7 (see Note 2),
0.015.
1 _ (Llr) 2
33,OOOY )
] ( = thickness of the tubular section, in inches, less any
[ 34,700 FS specified corrosion allowance. (The minimum
Crna = ------~~~~~--~--~ thickness, including any currosion allowance on
1.6 - (L;200r)
the exposed side or sides ., shall not be less than 114
inch for main compression members or %6 inch
When Llr> 131.7
for bracing or other secondary members.)
R = outside radius of tubular section, in inches.
crna = 149,000,000Y
FS = safety factor
(Llr)2[1.6 - (L;200r)] = ~ + Llr _ _ -l,;;(L;;..;.I:..t.r)_3_
3 350 18,300,000
Note 1: The allowable stresses, not including Y, are
tabulated in AISC S 310-311. Specifications for the For main compression members, Llr shall not exceed 180.
Design, Fabrication, and Erection of Structural Steel for
Buildings (1969), Table 1-33, column headed "Main and
Secondary Members."
Note 2: The allowable stresses, not including Y, are
tabulated in AISC S 310-11, Table 1-33, column headed
, 'Secondary Members."

A-t4
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
International System of Units (SI)a
United States System
(Metric practice)

BASE UNITS SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS

Quantity Unit Symbol Quantity Unit Symbol
LINEAR MEASURE
length metre m plane angle radian rad
Inches Feet Yards Rods Furlongs Miles
mass kilogram kg solid angle steradian sr
time second s 1.0 = .08333 = .02778 = .0050505 .00012626 = .00001578
=
12.0 = 1.0 .33333 = .0606061 .00151515
= .00018939=
electric current ampere A 36.0 = 3.0 1.0 .1818182 = .00454545 = .00056818
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K 198.0 = 16.5 5.5 1.0 .025 .003125
amount of substance mole mol 7920.0 = 660.0 220.0 40.0 1.0 .125
luminous intensity candela cd 63360.0 = 5280.0 1760.0 = 320.0 8.0 = = 1.0

DERIVED UNITS (WITH SPECIAL NAMES)

Sym- SQUARE AND LAND MEASURE
Quantity Unit bol Formula SQ. Inches Square feet Square Yards Sq. Rods Acres Sq. Miles
force newton N kg·m/s 2 1.0 = .006944 .000772 »
N/m2 "0
pressure, stress pascal Pa 144.0 = 1.0 .111111 "0
1296.0 = 9.0 1.0 .03306 .000207 (1)
energy, work, =
39204.0 = 272.25 30.25 1.0 .00625 .0000098 :J
quantity of heat joule J N·m 0..
power watt W J/s 43560.0 4840.0 160.0 1.0 .0015625 X
3097600.0 102400.0
= = 640.0 = 1.0
:r:
DERIVED UNITS (WITHOUT SPECIAL NAMES)
()
»
I
~
Quantity Unit Formula
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHTS
o
square metre m2 :J
(]1 area <
Grains Drams Ounces Pounds Tons Cb
volume cubic metre m3 -,
velocity metre per second m/5 1.0 .03657 .002286 .000143 = .0000000714 en
27.34375 = 1.0 .0625 .003906 .00000195 = o·
acceleration metre per second squared m/5 2 :J
437.5 16.0 1.0 .0625 .00003125
specific volume cubic metre per kilogram m 3 /kg 7000.0 256.0 16.0 1.0 .0005 11
density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m 3 Q)
14000000.0 512000.0 32000.0 2000.0 = 1.0 = n
.-+
SI PREFIXES
o-,
en
Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol DRY MEASURE
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 10 18 exa E Cubic
1 000 000 000 000 000 10 15 peta P Pints Quarts Pecks Feet Bushels
1 000 000 000 000 10 12 tera T 1.0 .5 .0625 .01945 .01563
1 000000000 109 giga G 2.0 1.0 .125 .03891 .03125
1000000 106 mega M 16.0 8.0 1.0 .31112 .25
1000 103 kilo k 51.42627 25.71314
= = 3.21414 1.0 .80354
hecto b h 64.0 = 32.0 4.0 1.2445 , = 1.0
100 102
10 10 1 deka b da
0.1 10- 1 decib d
0.01 10- 2 centib c LIQUID MEASURE
0.001 10- 3 milli m U.S. Cubic
0.000001 10- 6 micro ~ Gills Pints Quarts Gallons Feet
0.000 000 001 10- 9 nano n 1.0 = .25 .125 .03125 = .00418
0.000000000001 10- 12 pico P 4.0 = 1.0 .5 .125 .01671
0.000 000 000 000 001 10- 15 femto f 8.0 = 2.0 1.0 .250 .03342
0.000 000000 000 000 001 10- 18 atto a 32.0 = 8.0 4.0 1.0 .1337
7.48052 = 1.0

a Refer to A5TM E380-79 for more complete information on 51.

b Use is not recommended.
 SI C'ONVERSION FACTORSa SI CONVERSION FACTORSa
Quantity Multiply by to obtain Quantity Multiply by to obtain
Length inch b25.400 millimetre mm Force ounce-force 0.278014 newton N
foot b 0.304800 metre m pound-force 4.448222 newton N
yard b 0.914400 metre m
mile (U.S. Statute) 1.609347 kilometre km newton 3.596942 ounce-force
newton 0.224809 pound-force Ibf
millimetre 39.370079 x 10-3 inch in
metre 3.280840 foot ft Bending pound-force-inch 0.112985 newton-metre N.m
metre 1.093613 yard yd Moment pound-force-foot 1.355818 newton-metre N.m
kilometre 0.621370 mile mi
newton-metre 8.850748 pound-force- Ibf.in
Area square inch b 0.645160 x 103 square mm 2 inch
millimetre newton-metre 0.737562 pound-force- Ibf.ft
square foot b 0.092903 square metre m2 foot
square yard 0.836127 squ.are metre m2
square mile 2.589998 square km2 Pressure, pound-force per 6.894757 kilopascal kPa
(U.S. Statute) kilometre Stress square inch
acre 4.046873 x 103 square metre m2 foot of water (39.2 F) 2.98898 kilopascal kPa
acre 0.404687 hectare inch of mercury (32 F) 3.38638 kilopascal kPa
square millimetre 1.550003 x 10-3 square inch in2 kilopascal 0.145038 pound-force Ibflin2
square metre 10.763910 square foot ft2 per square »
square metre 1.195990 square yard yd 2 Inch '0
square kilometre 0.386101 square mile mi2 kilopascal 0.334562 foot of water '0
Cl)
square metre 0.247 104 x 10-3 acre (39.2 F) :J
hectare 2.471044 acre kilopascal 0.295301 inch of mercury 0..
(32 F)
»
I Volume cubic inch b16.387 06 x 103 cubic miRimetre mm3 ·x
~
cubic foot 28.31685 x 10-3 cubic metre m3 Energy, foot-pound-force 1.355818 joule J I
m cubic yard 0.764555 cubic metre m3 Work, eBritish thermal unit 1.055056 x 103 joule J
gallon (U.S. liquid) 3.785412 litre I Heat ecalorie b 4.186800 joule J
I (")
quart (U.S. liquid) 0.946353 litre kilowatt hour b 3.600 000 x 106 joule J o
:J
cubic-millimetre 61.023759 x 10-6 cubic inch in3 joule 0.737562 foot-pound- ft.lbf .-+
cubic metre 35.314662 cubic foot ft3 force a:
cubic. metre 1.307951 cubic yard yd 3 joule 0.947817 x 10-3 eBritish termal Btu
litre 0.264172 gallon (U.S. gal unit
liquid) joule 0.238846 ecalorie
litre 1.056688 quart (U.S. qt joule 0.277 778 x 10-6 kilowatt hour kW.h
liquid)
Power foot-pound-force/ 1.355818 watt W
Mass ounce (avoirdupois) 28.34952 gram 9 second
pound (avoirdupois) 0.453592 kilogram kg eBritish thermal unit per 0.293071 watt W
short ton 0.907 185 x 103 kilogram kg hour
horsepower (550 ft. 0.745700 kilowatt kW
gram 35.273966 x 10-3 ounce oz av Ibfls)
(avoirdupois)
kilogram 2.204622 pound Ib av watt 0.737562 foot-pound- ft.lbfls
(avoirdupois) force/second
kilogram 1.102 311 x 10- 3 short ton watt 3.412141 eBritish thermal Btu/h
unit per hour
kilowatt 1.341022 horsepower hp
a Refer to ASTM E380-79 for more complete information on SI. (550 ft .• lbl/s)
b Indicates exact value. Angle ree 17.45329 x 10.3
ddl radian rad
ra Ian 57.295788 degree
Tempera- degree Fahrenheit t"C = (tOF x 32)/1 .8 degree Celsuis
ture degree Celsius t~ = 1.8 x to C + degree
32 Fahrenheit
a Refer to ASTM E380-79 for more complete information on SI.
b Indicates exact value.
e International Table
 Appendix H. (Cont'd)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS OF

VARIOUS LIQUIDS
Weight in Weight in
Liquid At Tei!' 7f,ecific Lbs. per Lbs. ~er
of 0 ral:lly u.s. Cal. Cu. t.

Acetaldehyde 64.4 0.783 6.52 49

Acetic Acid 68.0 1.049 8.74 65
Acetic Anhydride 68.0 1.083 9.0: 68
Acetone 68.0 0.792 6.60 49 The parameters given are
Aniline 68.0 1.022 8.51 64
approximate for estimating purposes
Asphaltum 68.0 1.1-1.5 9.2-1i5 69-94
Bromine 68.0 3.119 25.98 195 only. The properties of the stored
Carbon DisulfIde 68.0 1.263 10.52 79 liquid should be determined
Carbon Tetrachloride 68.0 1.595 13.28 100 analytically and used in the final
Castor Oil 59.0 0.969 8.07 60 design.
Caustic Soda, 66% Solution 68.0 1.70 14.16 106
Chloroform 68.0 1.489 12.40 93
Citric Acid 68.0 1.542 12.84 96
Cocoanut Oil 59.0 0.926 7.71 58 .
Colza Oil (Rape Seed Oil) 68.0 0.915 7.62 57
Corn Oil 59.0 0.921-0.928 7.67-7.73 57-58
Cottonseed Oil 60.8 0.926 7.71 58
Creosote 59.0 1.040-1.100 8.66-9.2 65-69
Dimethyl Aniline 68.0 0.956 7.96 60
Ether 77.0 0.708 5.90 44
Ethyl Acetate 68.0 0.901 7.50 56
Ethyl Chloride 42.8 0.917 7.64 57
Ethyl Ether 77.0 0.712-0.714 5.93-5.95 44-45
FOr"maldehyde 68.0 1.139 9.49 71
HI Fuel Oil 60.0 0.80-0.85 6.7-7.1 50-53
1/2 Fuel Oil 60.0 0.81-0.91 6.7-7.6 51-57
1/4 Fuel Oil 60.0 0.84-1.00 7.0-8.3 52-62
1/5 Fuel Oil 60.0 0.91-1.06 7.6-8.8 57-66
1/6 Fuel Oil 60.0 0.92-1.08 7.7-9.0 57-67
Furfural 68.0 1.159 9.65 72
Gasoline (Motor Fuel) 60.0 0.70-0.76 5.8-6.3 44-47
Glucose 77.0 1.544 12.86 96
Glycerin 32.0 1.260 10.49 79
Hydrochloric Acid, 43.4% Sol. 60 . 0 1.213 10.10 76
Kerosene 68.0 0.82 6.83 51
Lal~tic Acid 59.0 1.249 10.40 78
Lard Oil 59.0 0.913-{).915 7.60-7.62 57
Linseed Oil-Raw 68.0 0.93 7.8 58
Linseed Oil-Boiled 59.0 0:942 7.84 59
Mercury 68.0 13.595 113.23 849
Molasses 68.0 1.47 12.2 92
Naphthalene 68.0 1.145 9.54 71
Neallfoot Oil 59.0 0.913-0.918 7.60-7.65 57
Nitric Acid. 91 % Solution 68.0 1.502 12.51 9.4
Olive Oil 59.0 0.915-0.920 7.62-7.66 57
Peanut Oil 59.0 0.917-0.926 7.64-7.71 57
Phenol 77.0 1.071 8.92 73
Pitch 68.0 1.07-1.15 8.91-9.58 67-72
Rosin Oil 68.0 0.98 8.61 61
Soy Bean Oil 59.0 0.924-0.927 7.70-7.72 58
Sperm Oil 59.0 0.878-0.884 7.31-7.36 55
Sulfer Dioxide 80.0 1.363 11.35 85
Sulfuric Acid. 87% Solution 64.4 1.834 15.27 114
Tar 68.0 1.2 10.0 75
Tetrachloroethane 68.0 1.596 13.29 100
Trichloroethylene 68.0 1.464 12.19 91
Tung Oil 59.0 0.939-0.949 7.82-7.90 59
Turpentine 68.0 0.87 7.25 54
Water (Sea) 59.0 1.025 8.54 64
Water (0 0 C) 39.2 1.00 8.34 62.4
Water (20 0 C) 68.0 0.998 8.32 62.3
Whale Oil 59.0 0.917-0.924 7.64-7.70 57

A-17
 Appendix H. (Cont/d)

A.P.I. AND BAUME GRAVITY AND WEIGHT FACTORS

The relation of Degrees Baume or A.P.I. to Specific Gravity is expressed by Formulas are based on the weight of 1 gallon (U.S.) of oil with a volume of
the following formuJas: 231 cubic inches at 60 degrees Fahrenheit in air at 760 m.m. pressure and 50 %
For liquids lighter than willer: humidity. Assumed weight of 1 gallon of water at 60° Fahrenheit in air is
8.32828 pounds.
Degrees Baume = 140 - 130, G = ~::-:--:::-_140_-:::-_-:-
130 + Degrees Baume To determine the resulting gravity by mixing oils of different gravities:
G
Degrees A.P.I. =~ - 131.5, G = -===:-:-~1~4_1._5~-:::-':""
131.5 + Degrees A.P.I.
D = md.m++ndn l
G
For liquids heavier tluJn water:
Degrees Baume = 145 _ 145, G =...."....,.,,,...-..,,,,-._14_5-,,,...--..,. D = Density or Specific Gravity of mixture
m~ Proportion of oil of d density
l
145 - Degrees Baume
G
n = Proportion of oil of d density
1
G = Specific Gravity = ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil at 60° d1 = Specific Gravity of moil
Fabrehelt to the weight of the same volume of water at 6()0 Fahrenheit. d2 ='Specific Gravity of n oil

PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS

PRESSURE
lib. per sq. in. = 2.31 ft. water at 60°F
= 2.04 in. hg at 60 F
0

1 ft. water at 600f = 0.433 lb. per sq. in.

= 0.884 in. hg at 60 F D

1 in. Hg at 6()OF = 0.49 lb. per sq. in.

= 1.13 ft. water at ~F
lb. per sq. in. = lb. per sq. in. gauge (psig) + 14.7
Absolute (psia)

A-18
 Appendix H. (Cont'd)

WIRE AND SHEET METAL GAGES

Equivalent thickness in decimals of an inch
u.s. SUncWd GalvaniUd u.s. SWidard Galvanized
GaOl tor Sheet Gaoe USA Gaoo tor Sheet Gaoe USA
GaOl Uncoated lor Hot-Dlpped Stut Gage Uncoated for Hot·Dipped Steel
No. Hot & Cold Zinc Coated Wire Gaoe , No. Hot & Cold Zinc: Coated Wire Gaoe
Rolled Sheets' Sheets' Rolled Sheets' Shoets'

7/0 - - A90 13 .0897 .0934 .09~

610 - - .46~ 14 .0747 .0785 .060
510 - - .430- 15 .0673 .0710 .072
4/0 - - .394- 16 .0598 .0635 .06~
310 - - .362" 17 .0538 .0575 .054
-
---
2)0 .331 16 .0478 .0516 .048-
1/0
, - .306 19 .0418 .0456 .041
-- .283 20 .0359 .0396 .035-
I·
2
3
-
.2391
' ,'

-,
.2S~
.244-
" 21
22
.0329
.0299
.0366
.0336
-
-
4 .2242 - .225& 23 .0269 .0306 -
5 .2092 - .207 24 .0239 .0276 -
6 .1943 - .192 25 .0209 .0247 -
7
8
.1793
.1644
-
.1661
.1n
.162
26
27
.0179
.0164
.0217
.0202
--
9
10
.1495
.1345
.1532
."382
.148-
,135
28
29
.0149
-
.0167
.0172
--
l'
12
,1196
,1046
.1233
,1084
.120-
:106-
30 - .0157 -
&Rounded value. The steel wire gage has been taken from ASTM AS10 "General Require.
ments for Wire Rods and Coarse Round Wire, Cartxm Steel", Sizes originally quoted to 4
decimal equivalent places have been rounded to 3 decimal places in accordance with
rounding procedures of ASTM "Recommended Practice" E29.
b The equivalent thicknesses are for intonnation only. The product is commonly specified to
decimal thickness, not to gage number.

A-19
~
IJ
n
IJ