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Food Research International 41 (2008) 404–410

www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres

An inverse lumped capacitance method for determination

of heat transfer coefficients for industrial air blast chillers
I.O. Mohamed *
Department of Food Science, College of Food and Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box 17555, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates

Received 20 September 2007; accepted 29 January 2008

Abstract

An inverse model using lump body was developed to calculate heat transfer coefficients as a dynamic function of time. The model used
sequential function specification algorithm to calculate surface heat flux from transient temperature measurements inside a lump body
system. Transient temperature measurements were collected during cooling inside an industrial chiller at two different positions with
different air velocities using four replicates for each position. The calculated surface heat flux was found to be very accurate as the
maximum value of the root mean squares error (RMSE) for temperature is 0.045 °C, lower than the expected error form thermocouple
measurements. The calculated heat flux was then used to calculate heat transfer coefficients as a dynamic function of cooling time
followed by calculation of time average heat transfer coefficient using numerical integration. The approach developed here could be a
pragmatic powerful dynamic method to model spatial variation of heat transfer coefficients for industrial chillers and freezers.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Food cooling; Industrial chillers; Refrigeration; Inverse heat transfer; Lump capacitance; Modelling

1. Introduction of meat products (Savell, Muller & Baird, 2005). In the

It was very well acknowledged that chilling and freezing
of foods effectively reduces the activity of microorganisms
and enzymes that are responsible for quality losses. In
addition, it minimizes the incidents of food borne illnesses
through retarding the growth of pathogenic and toxin pro-
ducing organisms. Food chilling and freezing operations
are becoming now an integral part of most food processing
industries. These operations enable food process industries
to take advantages of the seasonal availability of some
food commodities to continue operations during off sea-
sons. For the meat industry, refrigeration is critically
important as both product quality and safety are of major
concern to consumer, industry and regularity agency. The
speed of postmortem carcass chilling of poultry and meat
has great influences on the texture, appearance and safety
*
Tel.: +971 3 7134792; fax: +971 3 7675336.
E-mail address: ibrahimo@uaeu.ac.ae
United States, the speed of postmortem chilling of meat
was regulated in order to maintain quality and minimize
consumer health risks (Anonymous, 1992). This created
greater needs for better understanding of heat and mass
transfer in industrial chillers.
Design, operation and control of commercial air blast
chillers are not straight forward task due to the complexity
of the parameters involved. Until now, engineers have used
practical know-how and rules of thumb in chiller design
and operation, with all the inherent risks of making mis-
takes (Mirade & Picgirard, 2006). Non uniform air distri-
bution in blast refrigeration systems is one of the major
factors that result in significant spatial temperature vari-
ability (Becker & Fricke, 2004; Dincer, 1994; Kondjoyan
et al., 2006; Wooton, 1986). Lack of accounting for these
variations may have serious effects on food quality and
safety. Recently, due to the availability of high perfor-
mance affordable personnel computer, great attention was
directed towards using commercial software such as com-
putational fluid dynamic (CFD) to study air distribution

0963-9969/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2008.01.005
 I.O. Mohamed / Food Research International 41 (2008) 404–410 405

Nomenclature

A area (m) T temperature (°C)

Cp specific heat (J kg1 K1) T^ estimated temperature (°C)
h effective heat transfer coefficient (W m2 C1) T0 initial temperature (°C)

h average effective heat transfer coefficient T1 cooling medium temperature (°C)
(W m2 C1) Y measured temperature (°C)
i index
m time index Greek variables
r number of future time measurements k dummy variable
q heat flux at the boundary (W m2) Dt time interval (s)
^
q estimated heat flux at the boundary (W m2) q density (kg m3)
V volume (m3) h dimensionless temperature
t time (s) U sensitivity coefficient (°C m2 w1)

in industrial chillers (Kondjoyan et al., 2006; Mirade, Aga- coefficient for blast industrial chiller using lumped capaci-
briel, Brunet & Boulard, 2004; Mirade, Kondjoyan & Dau- tance method.
din 2002; Mirade & Picgirard, 2001).
For blast chilling and freezing operations heat transfer 2. Mathematical model
coefficient is a prerequisite for computation of transient
temperature distribution, cooling time and refrigeration Consider a circular disc made from aluminum, insulated
load. However, heat transfer coefficients and refrigeration from all sides except the upper face. Since the thermal con-
loads are often complex to be estimated in industrial pro- ductivity of aluminum is very high, the internal thermal
cessing conditions (Amarante & Lanoisell, 2005). This is resistance will be negligible allowing the aluminum to be
due to the greater variability of air distribution inside considered as lumped capacitance system. The heat trans-
industrial refrigeration systems. Uncertainty in heat trans- fer for this system can be expressed by:
fer coefficient of 10–30% was reported in the literature dT
(Becker & Fricke, 2003; Cleland & Ozilgen, 1998). Varia- qC p V ¼ hAðT 1  T Þ ð1Þ
dt
tions in air velocities of 2.0, 1.0 and 0.5 ms1 leads to vari-
ations in heat and mass transfer coefficients resulting in If we assume T 1 to be constant Eq. (1) can be expressed in
chilling time variations of about 15%, 21% and 30%, term of dimensionless temperature as:
respectively (Kuitche, Daudin & Létang, 1996). dh
Experimental setup consisting of specimens embedded qC p V ¼ hAh ð2Þ
dt
or placed on Styrofoam was used by several authors to
where h ¼ TT0T 1
T 1
determine heat transfer coefficients. Anderson, Sun,
Erdogdu, and Singh (2004) used aluminum block placed Initial condition: when t ¼ 0, h ¼ 1.
on Styrofoam, Amarante and Lanoisell (2005) used PVC
disc embedded in Styrofoam, Anderson and Singh (2006) 2.1. The direct solution
used Nylon disc embedded in Styrofoam and Amarantei,
Lanoiselle, and Ramirez (2003) used Tylose gel cylinder If the heat transfer coefficient is assumed to be constant
embedded in Styrofoam. The use of insulating material Eq. (2) can easily be integrated yielding:
with a given sample is to allow transfer of heat from a qChAp V t
h¼e ð3Þ
desired surface and often the best choice is Styrofoam
because it is one of the insulating material with the lowest Eq. (3) is usually used to estimate h from time–temperature
thermal conductivity in addition to ease of fabrication of data obtained during cooling, by either plotting log dimen-
the experimental setup. sionless temperature versus time and estimating h from the
Newton’s law of convection is the most compact and slope of the linear portion of the plot or by estimating h
simple mathematical model for calculating surface heat using nonlinear regression.
fluxes, because the effects of all the convection hydrody-
namic parameters were lumped in the heat transfer coeffi- 2.2. The inverse solution
cient. Therefore, estimation of surface heat fluxes will
facilitate determination of surface heat transfer coefficients For the inverse problem the focus is on estimating
that takes into account the complexity of air flow aerody- boundary conditions using internal transient temperature
namics. The objective of this study is to use an inverse measurements, while the direct problem involves solution
heat conduction method to estimate surface heat transfer for internal temperature distribution from known boundary
406 I.O. Mohamed / Food Research International 41 (2008) 404–410

conditions. If the surface boundary condition is unknown DtA X M

Eq. (1) can be expressed in term of unknown surface heat Tm ¼ T0 þ q ð12Þ

qC p V n¼1 n
flux q(t) as:
Eq. (12) was used to estimate T^ mþi1 in Eq. (6) and for cal-
dT culating predicted temperature using the estimated heat
qC p V ¼ AqðtÞ ð4Þ
dt flux. The accuracy of the calculated heat flux was evaluated
The heat flux at time m (qm) can be estimated by minimiz- using the root mean squares error (RMSE) for all the mea-
ing the following sum of squares function using measured sured temperatures using the following equation:
temperature Ym, Ym+1, ..., Ym+r1. " #1=2
1 XN
^ 2
X
r RMSE ¼ ðY i  T i Þ ð13Þ
2 N i¼1
Sm ¼ ðY mþi1  T mþi1 Þ ð5Þ
i¼1
From the calculated heat flux, the heat transfer coefficient
where r is the number of future time steps. The estimation was calculated by the following equation:
of qm involves temperature measurements at time 2qm
tm, tm+1, . . ., tm+r1. The heat flux for time tm to tm+r1 hm ¼ ð14Þ
ðT m þ T m1 Þ  ðT 1jm þ T 1jm1 Þ
can assume different functional form such as constant, lin-
ear, cubic, parabolic or other forms. Based on a temporary The average heat transfer coefficient by:
assumption of constant heat flux for time tm to tm+r1. Z tm
h ¼ 1 hm dt ð15Þ
Beck, Blackwell, and St. Clair (1985) minimized Eq. (5) tm 0
with respect to qm using Taylor series expansion and devel-
oped the following algorithm for calculating heat flux A FORTRAN computer program was written incorporat-
Pr ing the previous equations for calculating surface heat flux
ðY mþi1  T^ mþi1 jqm ¼    ¼ qmþr1 ¼ 0ÞUi and the heat transfer coefficients as a function of cooling
qm ¼ i¼1
^ Pn 2 ð6Þ
i¼1 Ui
time.

where ^qm is the estimated heat flux, T^ mþi1 is the estimated 3. Materials and methods
future temperature using known heat fluxes at time t < tm
with heat fluxes at tm and future times set equal to zero 3.1. Test setup and data acquisition
and U is the sensitivity coefficient defined by:
oT Fig. 1 shows the experimental setup used for collecting
U¼ ð7Þ transient temperature measurements. The setup consists of
oq
two identical aluminum discs with diameter 90 mm and
Incorporating Eq. (7) in Eq. (1) yields the following equa- depth 10 mm with a hole drilled at the centre of the depth
tion for the sensitivity coefficients: to hold a T-type hypodermic thermocouple. Two bores with
dU A depth 10 mm and diameter 90 mm was made on a polysty-
¼ ð8Þ rene foam slab with thickness of 50 mm. The aluminum
dt qC p V
discs were fitted on the bores and the thermocouples were
Initial condition: when t ¼ 0; U ¼ 0.
Integrating Eq. (8) yield:
ADt
Ui ¼ i ð9Þ
qC p V
Duhamel’s theorem for a body with uniform initial temper-
ature given below was used to estimate future temperature
for a given heat flux:
Z t
dUðt  kÞ
T ðtÞ ¼ T 0 þ qðkÞ dk ð10Þ
0 dt
The approximate numerical solution of Eq. (10) is given by:
X
m
Tm ¼ T0 þ qn DUmn ð11Þ
n¼1

where DUi ¼ Uiþ1  Ui

Combining Eq. (9) and Eq. (11) we obtain the following Fig. 1. Aluminium discs used for recording transient temperature mea-
for the lumped capacitance system surements during chilling.
 I.O. Mohamed / Food Research International 41 (2008) 404–410 407

inserted in the drilled holes of the aluminum discs and the
other end was connected to a data logger (SQ2040 Grant
Instruments, Cambridge, UK). An additional hypodermic
T-type thermocouple was inserted inside polystyrene foam
slab in the vicinity of the aluminum discs to measure
ambient temperature (Fig. 1). The data logger was set to
measure temperatures at time interval of 15 s. A hand held
rotating vane anemometer model LCA 6000 (Airflow
Developments Ltd., Buckingham-shrine, UK) was used
to measure air speed at about 15 cm upstream from the test
rig at approximately 15 min interval with about three
readings at each measurement interval.
3.2. Transient temperature measurements
The dimension of the chiller used in this study is
(23  24 9 m) with several operating modes including
automatic and manual mode. The manual mode was
selected to allow for continuous operation of the air
blower. The test setup was placed in a room in vicinity of
the chiller, covered with a cotton blanket and then the
attached data logger was activated to start measuring the
temperature of the aluminum discs and the ambient tem-
perature. Sufficient time was allowed to attain constant
temperature before the test setup was transferred quickly
to a predetermined position inside the chiller. Then, the
blanket was removed triggering the beginning of the cool-
ing cycle which will be indicated by the thermocouple mea-
suring ambient temperature. Transient temperature
measurements data were collected with measurement errors
of ±0.1 °C at two different positions with different air
velocity for about 45–60 min using two runs for each posi-
tion to give a total of four replicates for each position.
solution. The inverse problem stability solution improves
with increases in temperature measurements time intervals
as this results in an increase in heat flux sensitivity coeffi-
cients because of the increase of the temperatures in the
measurement time intervals. If shorter time interval is used
the number of future time interval (r) that result in stable
solution should be increased. The accuracy of the inverse
numerical solution is not like the direct solution improves
with decrease in time interval. The program calculates in
sequential manner heat flux, heat transfer coefficients and
predicted temperature using the estimated heat flux. The
accuracy of the estimated heat fluxes was examined by
the calculated value of RMSE. The maximum value of
the calculated RMSE for all experimental runs is
0.045 °C which is lower than the expected error from ther-
mocouple measurements. Fig. 2 shows calculated and mea-
sured temperature as a function of cooling time for the run
with highest RMSE (0.045 °C and air velocity of 1.2 ms1).
It is clear that the errors in the calculated temperatures are
negligible indicating the accuracy of the calculated heat
flux and hence the heat transfer coefficient. Figs. 3 and 4
show the calculated heat flux as a function of time for
the position with an average air velocity of 0.75 ms1 with
range (0.64–0.84 ms1) and average air velocity of 1.2 ms1
and range (1.0–1.32 ms1), respectively, values of heat flux
at time earlier that 1.75 min were excluded as they were
influenced by inertial effects of the air temperature. It is
clear that the model responded to any variation in the
30
Predicted
25 Exp.
Temperature (ºC)

Ambient
20

4. Results and discussion 15

The time–temperature data collected during the cooling 10

process described previously was provided as an input to 5

the computer program along with the density and specific
heat of the aluminum. The density and specific heat of 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
the aluminum used in this study are 2702 kg m3 and Time (min)
903 J kg1 K1, respectively (Incropera & DeWitt, 2002).
The function specification algorithm used in the program Fig. 2. Predicted, measured and ambient air temperature versus cooling
time (air velocity 1.2 ms1).
requires as an additional input the number of future time
measurements (r) as the stability of the solution for inverse
problem is some time very sensitive to the selection of this 0
parameter. Several values of r were used, but r = 3 was 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-50
found to be more appropriate because it resulted in a min-
Heat flux (Wm–2)

-100
imum value for RMSE for the entire cooling time. There-
-150
fore, optimization of the inverse solution is based on
-200
selection of (r) that yields minimum value of RMSE. The
-250
temperature measurement interval used in this study is
-300
15 s which is quite appropriate for relatively slow cooling
process. If the temperature measurements time interval is -350

reduced to shorter time interval the temperature change -400

Time (min)
in the interval will be very small yielding very small sensi-
tivity coefficients and this may result in unstable numerical Fig. 3. Heat flux versus cooling time (air velocity 0.75 ms1).
408 I.O. Mohamed / Food Research International 41 (2008) 404–410

0 40
0 10 20 30 40 50
35
-50

h (Wm–2C–1)
30
Heat flux (Wm–2)

-100 25
20
-150 15
10
-200
5
-250 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
-300 Time (min)
Time (min)
Fig. 7. Heat transfer coefficient versus cooling time (air velocity 1.2 ms1).
Fig. 4. Heat flux versus cooling time (air velocity 1.2 ms1).

measured temperature quiet well during the cooling pro-
cess. The increased fluctuation in heat flux as time pro-
gresses is due to spontaneous responses of the heat flux
to the small changes in the measured temperature of the
aluminum discs specially, close to the end of the cooling
cycle and the fluctuations of the air temperature as cooling
progresses (Fig. 5). It is important to note that these fluctu-
ations in heat fluxes is not due to instability problem as
such situation will result in higher values of the RMSE con-
trary to what was obtained in this research. This clearly
indicates the capability of the present method in handling
complex boundary situation such as encountered in indus-
trial chillers. Figs. 6 and 7 show the calculated heat transfer
coefficients as a function of cooling time using the calcu-
lated heat flux histories shown previously (Figs. 3 and 4).
For both air velocities, the heat transfer coefficients seem
11.4
11.2
Temperature (ºC)
to fluctuate around a constant value. The fluctuation in
the heat transfer coefficients is due to spatial and positional
variation of air velocity resulting in variations of both the
aluminum discs temperatures and the ambient tempera-
tures as noted earlier. The heat flux at the onset of cooling
is also influenced by the inertial effects from the air temper-
ature measurements. Therefore, these values were also
excluded in the calculation of the heat transfer coefficients.
Eq. (15) was integrated numerically using Simpson’s rule to
obtain an average value for the heat transfer coefficient.
For the air velocity of 0.75 ms1 the average value of the
heat transfer coefficient for the four replicates is 16.3 ±
0.4 W m2 °C1 and for the air velocity of 1.2 ms1 the
average value is 18.6 ± 0.3 W m2 °C1. The maximum rel-
ative error in the estimated average heat transfer coefficient
is 1.6% and 2.4% for air velocity of 1.2 ms1 and 0.7 ms1,
respectively which are below 10–20% commonly encoun-
tered in heat transfer coefficients measurements (Cleland,
1990). Ghisalberti and Kondjoyan (1999) reported data
for heat transfer coefficient for cylindrical aluminum block
with height (H) over diameter (D), H/D = 0.25 exposed to

11 air from all sides and obtained values for heat transfer
10.8 coefficients that varied from 13 to 17 W m2 C1 for air
10.6 velocity of 0.75 ms1 and turbulent intensity (1–22%) and
10.4
values of heat transfer coefficients vary from 15 to
24 W m2 C1 for air velocity of 1.2 ms1 and turbulent
10.2
intensity (1–32%). The values of the heat transfer coeffi-
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 cients obtained in this research are within the range of
Time (min) the reported literature values for both air velocities, given
the fact that turbulent intensity vary from 22% to 60%
Fig. 5. Air temperature versus time (air velocity 1.2 ms1).
for chillers (Kondjoyan, 2006). The values of the heat
transfer coefficient reported by Ghisalberti and Kondjoyan
(1999) were determined using the direct solution of the
35
30
lumped capacitance method (Eq. (3)). One of the main
25
assumptions associated with this equation is that, air tem-
h (Wm–2C–1)

20
perature is constant. No information was given by the
15
authors about the air temperature; however, the experi-
10
ment was carried out in air tunnel where it is possible to
5
control air temperature to desired value, unlike industrial
0
chillers when it is rather difficult to maintain uniform air
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 temperature as mentioned earlier. The variability of the
Time (min) heat transfer coefficients with position inside a refrigerated
Fig. 6. Heat transfer coefficient versus cooling time (air velocity room should be taken seriously in consideration as this will
0.75 ms1). have direct effect on cooling time prediction. Cleland and
 I.O. Mohamed / Food Research International 41 (2008) 404–410
Ozilgen (1998) indicated that it is more important to know
heat transfer coefficient accurately when it is value is low,
this situation normally arises when cooling medium flow
velocity is low and/or the product is insulated by packaging
materials. The approach pursued in this research provides
simple and pragmatic technique to deal with the problem
of variability of the heat transfer coefficient for industrial
chiller and freezer. Furthermore, all the complexity of the
aerodynamics at the boundary should be addressed when
solving the heat transfer equation using the direct
approach. Powerful software such as CFD will not be effec-
tive in solving the momentum and heat transport equation
without accurate description of the conditions at the
boundary which is rather difficult for industrial blast chil-
ler. In industrial plants, air flow are highly turbulent due
to fans movement and to wakes issued from upstream
obstacles. Thus, wind tunnel experiments can not be used
directly to determine transfer values (Kondjoyan, 2006).
Classical boundary layer approach may not be applicable
to industrial chillers as the boundary layer for an object
in the chiller is influenced by direct flow from different fans,
wall, floor, ceiling and other objects in the chillers creating
complex boundary layer profile on a given object. For a
product of given size, potential variation of transfer coeffi-
cient value is mainly dependent on airflow properties
(velocity and to a lesser extent turbulence) and less affected
by product shape, and direction into the flow. Moreover in
practical situations, flow direction and turbulence intensity
are generally not accurately known (Kondjoyan, 2006).
However, the complexity of such system will not be a major
problem using the inverse approach as all the boundary
variables will be combined in the boundary heat flux
including thermal radiation and subsequently the calcu-
lated effective heat transfer coefficient. Furthermore, there
is no assumption related to the surface heat flux estimation
algorithm related to the surface boundary nor an assump-
tion related to air speed, this make the inverse approach
more appropriate when there is complex flow situation
such as in industrial chillers. The inverse approach can also
be used to handle mixed convection situation (free and
force convection) such as in cold stores. The use of Eq.
(3) to calculate heat transfer coefficient from cooling tran-
sient temperature data may yield less accurate estimate of
the heat transfer coefficient specially, if the inherent model
assumptions were not satisfied. This is rather difficult to
achieve for industrial air blast chiller.
5. Conclusion
A computer program was developed to calculate surface
heat flux and heat transfer coefficient using transient tem-
perature measurements inside a lump body during cooling.
The accuracy of the calculated heat flux was verified by cal-
culating the root mean squares of errors of the predicted
temperatures using the calculated heat flux and the mea-
sured temperatures. Unlike the direct approach for calcu-
lating heat transfer coefficient from transient temperature
409
measurements cooling data, the inverse approach is not
based on the assumption of constant heat transfer coeffi-
cient nor constant ambient temperature. This gives the
inverse approach superiority to model complex dynamic
systems such as industrial chillers and freezers with spatial
air velocity variability.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to my colleague Mr.
Jobe Baboucarr from the department of Food Science,
United Arab Emirates University for his great assistance
in this research and to the management of the Emirates
Dates Factory in Alsaad, UAE for allowing me to use their
chillers and for their technical assistance.
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