MODULE - 1

INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

• Taken together, these phases represent,the path a
1.1INTRODUCTION OF MANAGEMENT project takes from the beginning to its end and are
Managementin reality is both art as well as science.
generally referred to as the project life cycle.
It is oldest of art because it was practiced even in the
olden days and it is as old as human civilizationand 4 1
Project Project
humanhistory.It is youngest of science as it is still closure initiation

underthe stage of development. Post proJeci

implementation definition
Managementis considered as an oldest art because review
the success of management lies in application of its
principles and technologies to various aspects and
Monitoringand Detailed
problem in organisation. control planning

The basic definition of management proves it by Project

Projeå
planning
execution
saying that "Management is an Art of getting things
3 2
done from others".
Management -is a science because the subject of Fig. 1.2 (a) •. Project life cycle
management has become well organized and a
systematic body of knowledge just any other subject of
physical science. It can be learnt and taught in well
organized manner. Initiation
Management is an important element in every
: Planning : Execution : Closure
organization. It is the element that coordinates
currents organizational activities and plans for the 1 11
Time
Iv

future.
Fig. 1.2 (b) : Project life cycle phases with
intensity of activities
1. Project Initiation Phase or Conceptualization
It is the 1st phase in the Project Life Cycle, as it involves
starting up a new project.
A new project can be started by defining its objectives,
scope, purpose and deliverables to be produced.
We can also hire our project team, setup the Project
Office and review the project, to gain approval to
Fig. 1.1 begin the next phase.
[Nov.46,May/Feba A feasibility study can be conducted for investigation
PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
in this phase.
The project manager and project team have one
2. Project Planning Phase
shared goal: to carry out the work of the project for the
purposeof meeting the project's objectives. The all-important second step of any successful project
managementlife cycle is planning and should include
Every project has a beginning, a middle period during
a detailed breakdownand assignment of each task of
which activities move the project toward completion,
and an ending. your project from beginning to end.
• The Planning Phase will also include a risk assessment
A Standard Project Typically Has The Following
Four Major Planning, in addition to defining the criteria needed for the
Phases; Initiation,
successful completion of each task.
Implementation, And Closure.
(1.1)
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL)
3. Project Execution Phase
During the third phase, the implementation phase, the
project plan is put into motion and the work of the
project is performed.
It is important to maintain control and communicate as
needed during implementation.
Progress is continuously monitored and appropriate
adjustments are made and recorded as variances from
the Original plan. In any project, a project manager
spends most of the.time in this step.
During projett implementation, people are carrying
out. the tasks, and progress information .is being
reported •thtoUÉh regular.te.am.•meetirigs,
4. Project Closure Phase or Terminatiön
The Project Closure Phase is the fourth and last phase
in the project life cycle.
In this phase, projectis formally closed.
Project Closure involves handing over the deliverables
to your- customer, passing the documentation to the
business, cancelling supplier contracts, releasing staff
and equipment and . informing stakeholders of the
closure of the project.
1.2.1 Advantages of Project Life Cycle
This curve is used for progress review and control the
slippage.
On this curve, •the project performance is shown very
clearly and in a very simple manner.
Following is the Project •Life Cycle (PLC) for different
parameters on site.
Client interes!
Project stake
> The materials management covers all the aspects of
Resources
Creativity
Uncertainty
Conceptualization Planning ExecutionTermination
Fig. 1.3 : Project life cycle depending
upon various parameters
Project Life Cycle for Resources is discussed earlier.
From client's point of view, he is keen at the
conceptualization and termination stage.
(1.2) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
He is least bothered about how the execution is taking
place. Project stake goes on increasing as the project
approaches completion.
The creativity is required at conceptualization, planning
and execution stage for minimizing the cost,
maximizing quality and benefits.
Least creativity is required at termination stage. In the
initial phases of project, uncertainty level is high from
duration, expenses and resources point of view.
In the termination stage, as activities are also less, the
uncertainty is very low.
8
1.9 MATERIALS MANAGEMEN
Material Management is the process which involves all
the activities concerning materials right from the time
the need for the materials is established until they are
issued to the construction site.
Materialconstitutes40% to 60% of the total project
cost and hence the success of the project depends
upon the materials management.
It is very necessaryto have proper planning for the
materials management before and during the project
work.
If required materials,in quality and quantity, are •made
available at the proper time, there will be substantial
saving in cost, time and also there will be improvement
in quality of construction or the project.
It decides scientifically what to purchase, when to
purchase, how much to purchase, from where to
purchase, where and how to store and general flow of
materials for any project and therefore, forms an
important part of big projects.
materials costs, materials supply and materials
utilisation.
Fig. 14
PROJECTMANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.3) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1.3.1Importance Consistenc Economy i

of cost of
purchase of goods materials; for quality to be quality material Lowe/ •z
purchasedfrom reliable place. Steady flow,
of material
inventory
investment)
Timelypurchaseof materialsto fit in the construction
Objectives of Improved*ä
schedulein the required right quantity. SpéedY material
disposal 0/4 thrOughgoo
management
purchaseof materials at reasonable rate. Bulk purchase surplus buyerseller: ,
material f91atiqn9hipv
of materials may increase profit margin and may
contribute to saving in time. Improving litt)ination/ Goods
competitive eservatiOfi/ record
proper arrangements for storing of materials and strength
inimisatioå
of wastage
nservatioå
material'
proper inventory control. materials'

Avoiding wastage of materials. Fig. 1.5

Managing perfect and close co-ordination between the
various wings of construction from view point of
material supply.
To watch the market conditions and price fluctuations
with regards to the materials required for the project
and to take proper decisions regarding purchase.
1.3.2Objectives
The objectives of materials management can be
categorizedin two ways as follows:
1. Primary Objectives
2. Secondary Objectives
1. Primary Objectives:
Primaryobjectives can be classified as:
Efficient materials planning,
Buying or purchasing,
Procuring and receiving,
Storing and inventory control,
Supply and distribution of materials,
Quality assurance,
Good supplier and customer relationship,
Improved departmental efficiency.
2. Secondary Objectives:
Efficientproduction scheduling,
To take, make or buy decisions,
Preparespecifications and standardization of materials,
To assist in product design and development,
Forecasting demand and quantity of materials
Quality control of materials purchased,
Materialhandling,
Use of value analysis and value engineering,
Developing skills of workers in materials management,
Smooth flow of materials in and out of the
organization.
1.4 FUNCTIONS OF MATERIAL MANAGER
The functions of the MaterialsManager can be enlisted as
below:
Planning of required materials and its programming i.e.
phasing the supply of different materials required for
the project.
Procuring of materials required -for the construction
project.
Arranging •for storing: the materials •needed and
purchased.
To plan the economic useöf the materiats:.
To keep close watch on the supply and use of materials
at every stage of the project.
To see that unnecessary large supply of materials is not
made and un-required materials is not stored.
To keep careful watch and to see that proper material
is utilised at right place and bad workmanship is
eliminated.
To see that site space for storing material is properly
utilised.
To see that stores are so arranged that the materials
are easily accessible and can be easily removed for use
for actual construction.
To see that there is proper transportation
arrangements for receiving the material at the site and
proper passage for movements of trucks, carts,
machinery and the equipment for stocking, utilisation
and removalof the materialsto and from the storing
site.
To see that capital locking is avoided and unnecessarily
large quantity of material is not purchased and stored.
To have proper accounting of the materials.
To have proper inventory control of the material
stores.
 PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU cML) (1.4) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

• To have proper value analysis of the stores. Sometimes purchasing of different material is affected
through agencies. Such agencies should be reliable.
• To see that excess use of materials is avoided and bad
There should be a list of materialsnecessaryfor the
workmanship is prevented.
project with the specifications and the quantity.
• To see to the proper disposal of surplus(materialand
It is also necessary that a list of reliable suppliers and
also of the scrap and rejected material if any.
agencies supplying the various materials be
1.4.1 Qualities of a Material Manager [May171
maintainedand this list should be modified from time
Material manager should possess the following qualities or to time to accommodate new reliable suppliers and
skills : agencies.
Know the market trends. It is also responsibility of the purchase department that
Know newly introduced materials. payments are made within reasonable period after the
purchase is affected and found satisfactory.
Understand the system in the organisation thoroughly.
Purchasing is a service function that supports the
Possess ability in' analysis'. organisation, and
activitiesof other operations.There must be steady
communication.
and reliable flow of information between concerned
Possess ability to, use computer equipment and departments.
softwares.
The different concerned departments may be :
Familiarwiththe supply chain management systems.
Design
Should have training in project management to Accounts
support production schedule, to plan requirements for
Different suppliers in market
purchasing materials etc.
Stores for receiving the material
1.5 FUNCTIONS IN MATERIAL > Actual construction or production
MANAGEMENT
Legal department for disputes.
As stated above the functions involved in material The structure of purchase department and relationship
management are: with other departments is illustrated in Fig. 1.6.
1. Purchasing
Desigm
2. Material handling n

3. Inventory.
1.5.1 Purchasing
• The purchasing function has to be efficientand there epispths &
legal, urchasi rK
should be effectivecontrol over the expenditurefund partm
and inventory flow of material.
Though purchasing has to be done at a reasonable
onstrü ateria
price, quality of the material has to be maintained and ction receiving
it is not necessarythat the purchase be made always store
from the lowest bidder as it may not maintain the
Fig. 1.6
needed quality.
1.5.2 Method of Purchasing
For maintaining the quality, the• specifications laid
down should be in details without any ambiguity. It is Various methods of purchasing are adopted depending
necessary that the right quality material should be upon the conditions,time and urgency. The two popular
purchased at right time at reliable right rate. methods adopted for market purchasing are :

The suppliers from whom the purchase is made should 1. Inviting tenders
be reliable. 2. Rate contract purchase.
PROJECTMANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.5) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

In the first method,.a list of reliable suppliers is A sample purchase order is as shown below :
prepared for different materials and tenders are invited xyz co. LTD.
from them. Construction Department
The information about the quality of the material Tel. : 12345678 fax : 87654321
requiredin the form of specifications and the quantity
Purchase Order
and the period of supply is given in the tender.The
Supplier's Name P.o. No. :
tenders are published in leading newspapers.
Address : Date :
• The suppliers desirous of accepting the offer for supply
of the material are required to quote their rates for the Site :
supply. Dear Sir,
After receiving the tenders, a comparative statement is We are pleased to place this order for the
prepared and order is placed with the firm normally following material, subject to the terms and conditions
quoting the lowest bid. printed overleaf.
However,in some cases lowest bid may be rejectedif
Sr,- Description* Branå Unit Qty. 'Unifi Am
there are reasons to do so depending upon factors like Maw
with sizes
past experience etc.
1.5.3Procurement of Materials
• Materials for construction are procured by direct
purchasing or obtained from the stores.
• For small works and small organisationsthe materials
are purchased directly as and when required keeping
particular purchase schedule.
• However, for big organisations the purchasing etc. is
done by the materials management department and is
procured for the construction from the stores. Supplier's Quotation No. : Guarantee / Warranty:

• Every organisation, small or big, must have separate Date :

purchase department. Sales Tax : Extra / Inclusive Payment Terms .

• The purchase department has the following Octroi : Extra / Inclusive Requisition No. :
responsibilities and functions :
Freight: Extra/ Inclusive
1. To get the right quantity of materialsof the
Delivery Schedule :
required specifications, at the minimum overall
cost including transportation etc.
Director
2. To adopt the proper procedure for the purchase.
1.5.4 Material Handling and Control
n purchases made by Government and Semi-Govt. bodies,
ublic undertakings, proper procedures has to be
adopted It is the movement of material from receiving to
nd rules and regulations have to be followed. finished goods storage through manufacturing or in
process storing.
hereare following methods of purchases.
locally In Civil engineering project, it is the movement of
Market Purchasing : Method adopted (for
materialsto its use as it is a raw materialor after
available materials by private concerns.
by processing if any in actual construction.
Centralised Purchasing : Method adopted Timber may be purchased as a raw materialand then
Governmentbodies and also when the construction may be processed at sight for preparationof doors
organisation has several projects undertaken
and window frames, shutters or trusses which are used
simultaneously.
in construction.
Rate Contract Purchasing : This is for specific items Material handling, therefore, is the movement from
which are required regularly in large quantities. raw material to finished goods ready for dispatch.
Normally rate contract is for aperiod of one year.
 PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.6) INTRODUCTIONTO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Material handling also includes the supply of, material should always be kept clean. The surplus material and
at the place of use from the stores or the market and the scrap should be disposed bff and the value should
involves transportation. be recovered.
• The transportation cost of the materials in India is The materials used for auxiliary services (e.g. materials
quite high and at times good time is also required for used for scaffolding, centering etc.) should be properly
transportation. and economically used and wastage and wasteful use
Material handling system has to be efficient with good of such indirect materials (Bamboo, corrugated iron
control over the same. sheets, roaps etc.) are avoided on large constructions.
Materialjssue sli is used for issuin material. The small tools and plants such as ghamelas, pawadas,
XYZ CO. LTD. pickaxes etc. are properly used and they are not
Construction Site misused so that their life is not reduced.
Material Issue Slip 1.7 INDENT, STORING OF MATERIAL AND
No. : ISSUE
Site : 1. Indent
Date : cement,
For Governmentworks some materials such as
To Store : are
steel, G.I. Sheets, asbestos sheets or some tools
Issue to Contractor :
supplied by the Government to the contractor, as per
Throu h His Re resentative
the conditions of contract.
Item with Building No. / Location the
Quantity The materials to be supplied are specified in
Size contract. For receiving such materials from the
Government stores the contractor has to put up a
requisition in writing in prescribed form which is called
Issued by indent.
a
Storekeeper : The indent is in prescribed Form No. 7 and is in
Recd. b booklet form, each page in triplicate. This indent book
, is machine numbered and consists of indent,
General Purchase R ister For r ates counterfoil and invoice.
sr. DateCPR Challan Truck Bill Bill Rate Amt. Sign Remark With each subdivision of Government Engineering
No. Q , Date Department, there is an indent book and for the
required materials the indent is prepared by the Sub-
divisional Officer or the Deputy Engineer or the
Assistant Engineer incharge of the subdivision and sent
1.6 ECONOMICAL USES OF MATERIALS to the officer incharge of the stores.
Economic use of the materials is of prime importanceand The indenting officer will fill the details on the indent
is one of the most important responsibilitiesof Materials and the counterfoil and the officer incharge of the
Manager. The economic use of materialsleads to economy stock will issue the materials as per the availability in
in general and reduction in time of completion of the the stock and will correct the indent according to the
project. To achieve this, the materials manager has to look actual material issued and accordingly will make the
carefully to the following points. entries in the invoice and will send the indent book
Costly material like cement, steel, timber etc. is stored back to the indenting officer.
in closed space with lock and key arrangement and After receiving the materials, the indenting officer will
they are properly stacked and stored and only the return the invoice to the stores officer after signing the
required material is issued. invoice as acknowledgment of having received the
Scattering of other materials like sand, coarse material as per the invoice.
aggregate is avoided and they are stocked properly so The invoice is the voucher for the issue of the materials
that loss is avoided. from the central stores.
If excess material is supplied from the stores, this If the material is issued to the contractor, the signature
excess material is recovered and redeposited in the
of the contractor is taken on the invoice and the cost
stores.
of such materials issued to the contractor is recovered
All the surplus materials and the scrap should be s
constantly collected from the worksite and the stores from his running bills at the issue rate.
 PROJECTMANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.7) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
For such materials unstamped receipt in triplicate is 2. Storing
obtained from the contractor, where in allfthe details
On any civil engineering works different types of
of the materials issued are incorporated. A form of
indent is given below.
materials are required simultaneously and hence the
storing of materials has to be done systematically so
System of indents may be followed by very big
constructioncompanies which may have central stores that the materialscan be received, stored and issued
and where some works are in progress in nearby areas. for use without any difficulty.
FORM OF INDENT For such storing a proper layout of the stores is very
No. :
essential. Proper arrangements are also necessary for
Site : security of the materials from theft, and from
Requisition Slip Date : manhandling.
Materialslike petrol, diesel etc. have to be stored very
r. Descrip New Deli' Total Store Remark/ For Purchase carefully and absolute care has to be taken for them.
o. .tionof Qty. very Recei- Regd. Material Dept. Remark • In general, materials are stored as per the nature of the
Material Reqd. Reqd. ved up Page for Bldg.
upto to Date
materials and their cost. The stores may consist of
No.
Date sheds and open area with compound wall or barbed
wire fencing.
red Order•
Construction Materials are Generally Stored as Below:
to ed no.
& Date
• Materials like cement, timber, doors and windows,
grills, paints, fuels, small tools are störed in sheds.
Proper arrangement is made for stocking cement bags,
timber etc. Fuels and any materials which can catch-fire
easily should be stored separately. Such stores must
Scrolling have locking arrangement.
D & D / Project Coordinator Materials like sand, rubble, coarse, aggregate, bricks
can be stored in open area without any enclosure.
Site Name : Group GRN No. :
Materialslike steel, bituman drums, pipes, C.I. and A.C%
SupplierName : Date : and their fillings may be stored in open space with
enclosures.
PurchaseOrder No, : Goods Truck No. : Materialslike small parts, pipe fitting, door fittings etc.
Receipt to •be stored in sheds and are properly stored in
ChallanNo, & Date : Note Time : containers, properly labelled.
Perishablematerialsrequiring careful handling may
be
stored in open sheds.
Sr. Description Received Accepted Rejected Remarks Security Measures for the Stores May Include
o. Qty. QW. Qty.
the
Following :
Providing chaukidar and/or other security
staff.
Adopting gate pass system.
Providing locking arrangement for sheds.
Providing double lock systems for the
materials
issued by Government to the
contractor on
Government works.
Proper maintenance of the stores,
and also stores
account is very important. Annual
stock verification,
inventory etc. are the routine
part of stores
management but surprise checks are
StorageIncharge QA also carried out.
Incharge Project Manger Proper account of receipt, and
issue of the materials is
maintained and total value of
the stock in stores
 PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.8)
should be known. The stock verification is carried to
verify if there are any excesses or shortages and then
the responsibility of such has to be fixed.
Also some times losses are written off and surplus
materials are disposed off after taking due permission
with proper procedures. Proper registers are
maintained for the stores.
3. Issue of Materials
Any issue of materials from the stores should be
against the authorised indent only. If the central store
is very big one, the issue can be systematized by fixing
the days/dates of issue of different materials or
days/dates for different subdivisions or sections.
However, on every day the stock books must be
updated and balance of every item and value of stocks
must be worked out everyday.
Duties of Store-Keeper:
To receive material on site. Check its specification and
quality.
• timely at low cost.
Make , necessary , entries in the general, purchase
register.
Keep separate registers for important items such as
cement, steel, etc.
Keep the material manager informedabout the stock
of materials especially fast consuming materials.
Keep the material in clean, dry and well-ventilated
place. Special arrangement is required for different
materials. Hence, all the materials received will be
stored according to that. The pattern of LIFO or FIFO
should be maintained as per the type of material
1.7.1 Organisation of Purchase Department
[Nov. 151
• Primarily it is connected with material planning.
• It should be headed by a man of high integritywith
wide market knowledge.
• The purchase statistics and usual purchase
organisation chart is given below :
Purchase Statistics Consists of the Following Steps :
1. Analysis
2. Interpretation
3. Vendor programmes
4. Safety levels
5. Purchase efficiency
In large industrial organisations the amount of
purchasing involved is so big that each and every work
is assigned to different persons i.e. arrangementfor
INTRODUCTIONTO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
transportation of the different incoming materials and
outgoing materials has to be assigned to separate
person or separate department.
must have many
As such the purchase department
subdivisions specialising in different lines depending
upon the requirements.
In case the money involved in purchasing is very high
there may be a purchase research department
involving continuing research regarding availability of
various materials, their costs trend and their substitutes
record of
if any. This department may keep a thorough
market fluctuations and try to make use of it by
purchasing inventories at the lowest cost.
An additional subdivision may keep all record such as
invoice checking, order-writing, record keeping etc.
Such systematic up-to-date record keeping will be
useful in bringing out any information needed at any
time which will be useful to the purchase department
in procuring quality materials in required quantity
A sample of the purchase organisation working under
Materials Manager may be as under.
Materials Manager or Purchase Manager
Traffic Purchase Purchase Material Ofice Inspection
Section Section Research Disposal Management
• Each section may be headed by Deputy Manager or
Assistant Manager.
In general in purchases the types of organisations are :
1. Centralised Purchase Department.
2. Decentralised Purchase Department.
• Centralisation is very common in single plant industry
while decentralisation is useful where the plants are in
different geographical areas. However, the modern
trend is that the firms want to switch over
decentralisation.
Each of the above methods have their own strength and
weakness.
Reasons for Centralisation are
The firms gain advantage of standardization.
Paper work is reduced.
Better control and greater flexibility and thus high
economy can be achieved.
The organisation can purchase large volume of
materials for the entire plant resulting in economy.
PROJECTMANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL)
Reasonsfor Decentralisation are
Servicesand efficiency of purchasing is improved if the
enterprise is organised into separate sections.
There will be better control in purchasing of dissimilar
materials required at different plants or at different
projectsof dissimilar nature.
It may provide greater flexibility in procurement.
There will be better direct vendor control.
Operations of purchase may become easier and in
some cases even economical.
.8 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT'S/
MACHINERY MANAGEMENT
Construction equipment are the most crucial and
critical resource for a construction company.
Construction equipment are a prerequisite for timely
completion of all construction projects.
As a matter of fact, the equipmentsare one of the
most capital-intensive long terms investmentsthat a
construction company makes.
Expenses related to construction. equipment have a
major impact on whether the company's balance sheet
shows profits or losses and in what quantity.
Keeping the economic viability of the company in mind
managing the construction equipment and the related
expenses becomes top priority at construction
equipmentcompanies.
Construction equipment managementrefers to
continuous evaluation of the construction equipment
fleet and its cost while at the same time considering
the projects at hand.
• The process of balancing the expense and use of the
construction equipment against the timelines and
income from the projects can be called construction
equipment management.
A construction equipment manager needs to be able
to take practical decisions with regards to
management of the construction equipment to ensure
maximum benefits with minimal expenses for the
company.
Construction equipment should ideally pay for
themselves by helping the owner earn more than it
costs to own, operate, maintain, store and use the
machine.
Operation costs are a recurring expense based on
frequencyof use while idle sitting machines are a drain
to the income.
(1.9) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
continuously
Construction fleets should be evaluated
to determine whether
New equipment need to be added to the fleet.
Equipment or any of its parts need to be replaced.
If and when underutilised or damaged machines
need to be discarded and at what cost.
a
The choice of construction equipment for a job site is
key factor to be considered for timely completion of
the project within the stipulated budget.
managers
It is crucial that the construction equipment
thoroughly understand the tasks that need •to be
completed/the machinesthat need to be used, the
budget and time constraints for the same for flawless
execution of the construction project.
Construction equipment management can either be
taken up project wise or for the company as a whole.
Cost-effectivenessis a major criteria of construction
equipment management.
Following are the Things to be Considered for Effective
Construction Equipment Management
The choice of construction equipment and the number
in which each of the equipmentsis required for a
certain project or projects.
Whether it makes more sense to own, lease or rent the
equipment and its effect on the bottom line of the
balance sheet.
Planning which equipment will be working on which
job site at what time and for how long.
Considering the transportation and operating costs
when dealing with multiple projects and their time
lines.
How to make the most of the construction equipment
at hand.
Another major aspect of effective construction
equipment management is preventive maintenance of
the construction equipment which can help save a lot
of down time, money and reduce delays in the project.
All in all, effective construction equipment is•the answer to
making construction projects more cost effective while
ensuring timely completion of projects.
Types of Construction Equipment
Different types of equipment commonly used in the
construction are as follows:
1. Excavators 2. Backhoe
3. Dragline Excavator 4. Bulldozers
5. Graders 6. Wheel Tractor Scraper
7. Trenchers 8: Loaders
9. Tower Cranes 10. Pavers
11. Compactors 12. Telehandlers
13. Feller Bunchers 14. Dump Trucks
15. Pile Boring Machine 16. Pile Driving Machine
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.10)
1.9 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
(MANPOWER PLANNING)
• Human resource is the most valuable asset in
construction indüstry.
Human resource practices are mostly concerned with
gaining value through increased skills, Productivity,
autonomy, contribution, and cost consciousness.
Productivity is one of the most important factors
affecting the overall performance of any construction
company.
Construction industry involves in its vicinity a diverse
labour force, contributing towards the long and
enduring "Process of Creation". In India, construction
ihdustry employs over millions of people and provides
millions of additional support jobs in related fields.
Yet, it is least lucrative profession for many as it
involves peripatetic work schedule, along' with-it job
insecurity associated with poor working conditions,
health and safety records and employee welfare
provisions within the industry.
The main reason behind the construction industry to
be poorly regarded is generally thought to stem from
the nature of the work •andthe terms on which the
labour is recruited.
The construction industry in number of countries has
also been characterizedby the outsourcingof labour
through sub-contractors and other intermediariesthat
prohibits them from taking the advantage of
employment schemes.
Over and above, it has been portrayed as the image of
discriminatory "Macho culture". Moreover, in number
of developing nations there are no safety measuresfor
labourers.
The managers in this industry are often heard saying
our people are our most important asset'. However,
Human Resource Management (HRM) in the
construction industry is severely underdeveloped as
compared to the other industrial sectors.
This we may owe to the fragmented structureof the
construction sector. However, industrial leaders have
started realizing •the importance of the 'human
resource' in this competitive environment.
As stated by Paul Teicholz (1994), there was decline in
the construction industry, Over the past 40 years the
industry increased at an average compound rate Of
0.59%/year.
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
There had been a requirement of more field work
hours per dollar of contract.
The construction industry lagged behind other
industries in development and in the application of
labour saving ideas and in finding several measuresto
substitute equipment for labour.
The casual nature of the employment in the
construction industry makes planning a vague exercise.
The construction industry is one of the largest sectors
employing large number of people, providing work to
significant proportion of the labour market and
providing significant share of the world Gross
Domestic Product (GDP).
Any construction project involves skilled manual labour
which gets support from management.
It is a duty of the managementto co-ordinatemany
professional, construction and supplier organizations
whose involvement can change through the course of
the project.
The dynamism that involves in the process and the
need to integrate a wide range of occupational
cultures, gives the construction one of the most
complex project related industry in which there is a
need to apply good HRM practices.
The process of manpower planning involves
Determining the objectives of man power
planning,
Preparation of current man power inventoryn
Demand forecasting,
Supply forecasting,
Estimationof the man power requirements,
Making an action plan for redeployment and
redundancy,
Determiningjobs,
Requirements of the jobs to be filled,
Employment plan,
Trainin and develo ment Ian.
1.10 CHALLENGES OF HUMAN RESOURCE
IN CONSTRUCTION SECTOR
• Matching skilled labour supply and demand.
• Creating a responsive apprenticeship system.
• Establishing an innovative training system.
• Facilitating worker mobility.
Matching the projected demand for qualified trade people
with the future supply of skilled labour :
Initiatives :
Career Awareness :
• Improve the image of construction occupations.
• Promote career as a viable option for youth.
• Share generic aspects of program with the
construction industry.
PROJECTMANAGEMENT(BATU CIVIL) (1.11)
Labour Market Information System :
• Design and develop a supply-side labour market
information system.
Develop forecasting capability. Monitor labour market
issues on an ongoing basis.
Preparea current profile of the constructionindustry's
workforce.
1.10.1 Issues of Manpower in Construction Sector
While many of the human resource challenges and
issues facing the construction industry are the same,
the degree of impact varies by sector, trade and
region. Some of the key issues facing the construction
industry are the need to :
Replace the loss of skilled trade's people due to an
aging workforce.
Recruit sufficient numbers to meet demands for
skilled labour.
Improve the image of the constructionindustryas
a viable career option.
Manage the labour supply in a volatile industry.
Make construction management and supervisor
training available.
Expand the apprenticeship training system.
Meet the increasing demand for strong basic skills.
Manage the de-skilling and re-skilling of the
labour force due to the introductionof new
technology.
Respond to increasing health and safety
requirements.
These human resource issues can be translated into
four challenges facing the construction industry, both
now and in the future :
Matching the projected demand for qualified
trade's people with the future supply of skilled
labour.
Creating and supporting a flexible, consistent,
responsive apprenticeship system.
Creating an innovative, responsive training delivery
system to maintain skill accuracy.
Facilitating worker mobility -in response to skilled
labour demands across the country.
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
1.10.2 Recommendations to Overcome Challenges
of Construction Industry
Greater collaboration between industry and education;
Establishing energy and infrastructure as a national
strategic priority in a manner similar to other historic
federal programs;
Improve the immigration process;
Support global mobility;
Retain older workers;
• Capitalize on diversity;
.lmprove the overall image of the industry and
profession; and
Training and development.
1.11 BAR CHART/GANTT CHART 16,Feb.1
A Bar Chart / Gantt chart is one of the most popular
and useful ways of showing activities (tasks or events)
displayed against time.
On the left of the chart list of the activities is displayed
and along the top or bottom suitable time scale is
shown.
Each activity is representedby a bar; the position and
length of the bar reflects the start date, duration and
end date of the activity.
This format is excellentfor tracking progress or activity
for tasks once they have been scheduled.
The Gantt chart was inventedin the early 1900's by
Henry L. Gantt, an American engineer and social
scientist.
The differentactivities of any project or the horizontal
bars were representedon Y-axis against the duration
of respective activities on X-axis.
Horizontal lines of duration on X-axis are plotted to
scales whereas on the Y-axis the activities are
representedas to suit the representationof pictorial
view and are arbitrary.
Each bar represents one specific unit job or activity to
be performedand the beginning and the end of each
bar represent the time of commencement and
completion of the activity on the horizontål time scale.
Hence,the length of the bar representsthe time of
completion of that activity as indicated earlier.
These bar charts can be explained with the help of
following examples :
Example
A Gantt chart is shown in Fig. 1.7. A projectconsisting of 8
different activitiesA, B, C, D, E, F, G, H is represented in the
Fig. 1.7. The duration of the activities are 10, 12, 6, 6, 16, 8,
16, 12 days respectively.
PROJECT (1.12) tNTRODUCTtON TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Advantage of Bar Chart

It simple and easy method of scheduling.
Each is shown separately. Actual progress of
work be easily compared with the proposed
scheduhx Hence modifications can be carried out
easily required.
i, • Interdepeodence of the different activities can be
representedto a limited extent.
Achievements on a particular date in progress can be
easity represented.
Cumulatt&eprogress can be representedon bar chart.
• It can represent possible delays.
Limitatiom ot bar Chart
42 • Of the various activities cannot be
shown absolute clearly and sequence of activities is not

These sequence Of the activities

By it does not indicate the progress of the project
are decided structure,The analysis
and eonnot be used for effective controlling.
is given below
It cannot represent and reflect tolerance and
urre•rtahms in time estimation for various activities.
• It does give optimum duration of the project.
The above can be
Different attematves cannot be evaluated from bar
tabulated as
Rema
It is not poOle to locate critical activities.
12 N CHÄkt [MAY
• It's a over bar chart.
2
mkstone chart is drawn on a project time line,
whkh &setays only the key project milestones.
8 days after
AandB
Milestones mat'k significant events in the life of a
4
usualSe activities which must be achieved on
time to avoid delay in the project are shown on
5 milestone chart.
6 Each is represented by a diamond or
7
These normally become major reporting
8 points to eoior management.
• After ffis chart prepared as Large convlex projects may have hundreds or even
thousands of tasks
preceding activity, the Senor usually does not want to receive
For any
st&t at the same instant. status repotts at that level of detail, yet they want
succeeding
so that the project more than just a detail review at the end of
the preceding is
a phÄe The müestones provide interim reporting
is completed in
points
However, if the activity, such Also, planning a complex project, task leaders
activities can but the resources can become ovmvhelmed with all the tasks they must
should be taken into
PROJECTMANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.13) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Having a focused sub-project for each milestone gives Fundamentally,the CPM and PERT networksare the
those task leaders a framework for planning and two techniques of project management which are used
tracking project activities. in planning, scheduling and controlling the different
The MilestoneChart is the schedulereportingformat operations involved in the project.
that can be used on full-scale and complex projects. The basic theory and the method of graphical
Project Reqt's
start definition
Design
freeze
representation of the network in both the above
methods are same.
.15 CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM)
Feb Mar Apr May Feb.
Fig. 1.8 Critical path method is based on mathematical
1.13 DEVELOPMENT OF NETWORK FROM calculations and it is used for scheduling project
BAR CHART activities.
Ton overcome the limitation of bar chart for not This methodwas first introducedin 1950s as a joint
showing the interdependence of activities clearly, a venture between Remington Rand Corporation and
modification is done in which arrows are used. DuPont Corporation.
Consider an example in which activity. In the critical path method, the critical activities of a
(1) is the starting activity, (2) and (3) Starts only after program or a project are identified.
completion of activity (1), Activity (4) cannot start Critical activities are the activities which have a direct
before completion of activities (2) and (3). impact on the completion date of the project.
This can be shown with the help of arrows as below CPM network are usually used for repetitive type of
projects, where fairly accurate estimates of time can be
made for the activities of the project.
The activities of these projects are characteristically
2 subject to relatively small amount of variation. Hence
CPM is not suitable for research and development type
3 of projects.
In research or innovative development projects, the
4 stress is on events and in such projects which are event
oriented 'Project Evaluation and Review Technique'
Fig. 1.9 (PERT) is used.
If the bars are representedas a node, the same bar Examplesfrom fairly diverse field where application of
chart can be shown as a network using arrows and CPM can be made:
circles as below:
Building a new bridge across river ganga,
2
Constructing a multi-storeyed building, extension
of a factory building etc.
3 4
1.16 TYPES OF CPM NETWORK
Fig. 1.10
1.16.1 CPM Method of Project Planning
.14 TYPES OF NETWORK
CPM Method of Project Planning involves identification
Networks are basically two types :
of specific activities, their time of completion i.e.
1. Critical Path Method (CPM)
duration and their interrelationship.
2. Programme Evaluation and Review Technique
In general, there are two types of networks used.
(PERT)
The CPM network is activity oriented whereas the PERT 1. Activity On Arrow (A-O-A) type of arrow
network is event oriented depending upon the diagramming.
importance of the activities and events in those 2. Activity On Node (A-O-N) type of precedence
methods. diagramming.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL)
1. Activity on Arrow Type Network
• As said earlier the events are shown by numbers in
geometrical.figure like circle or square and the
activity shown and by an arrow.
The head and the tail of an arrow represent event.
The event is a point and it does not,consume any
time. The event is also called as Node or
connector.
The activity is representedby letters like A or B or
C or D ... etc. They are also representedby pair of
numbers as 1-2, 2— 3, 3—4 etc.
In activityi —2, the points 1 and 2 are the two
nodes of •theactivity. Out of the two nodes, 1 is a
'From' node and-2 is a 'Tot node and the From
node must be a lower number than To node.
In this way, the direction of activity arrow is clearly
established.
The project is <ivided into different activities, inter-
relationship between the activities and the
sequence is decided and the CPM diagram is
prepared.
Fig. 1.11 shows construction of network by Activity
On Arrow method (AOA).
Activity Activity Description Inter Duration in
Symbol endency
Study of plan layout Start Acüvity
B Clearance of site Follows A
C Earthwork in Follows B
Excavation
D Laying of foundation FollowsC
Concrete Constant after B
F of Bricks Follows D and E
Procurement
Brick work.
(1.14) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
c D
1 2 3 4
5
Fig. 1.11
2. Activity On Node Type Network
The problem in Activity On Arrow type or AOA network
is necessity of Dummy activities for maintaining the
logic and the right sequence in the network.
This increasesthe length of the tables, enlarges the
network graph and takes time for calculation work and
increasethe complexityof the networkfor large and
complex projects.
Another type of network is the Activity On Node
diagram or precidence diagram which overcomes the
problem of AOA network.
In AON network diagram, the activities are represented
by boxes and arrows, and are used for designating the
inter-relationship between the activities. The AON
diagram is simpler to prepare and is easier to explain.
It presents a clearer picture of the project as compared
to AOA diagram.
The AON diagram for the same problem (used for
AOA) is represented in Fig. 1.12.
Days Both methods have their own advocates. The principal
under both the methods should' be understood. But
the A —O —A method was first developed and is very
widely used.
6
Further,the use of numbersfor events in A —O —A
method has made it amenable to programming on
5 computer and the Dummy activities used make the
3
logic more clear. Hence A —O —A or Activity on Arrow
method is more popularly used in CPM.
10

A Study Of B Site arthwor D Laying o F Brick

O, in foundatio
%layout clearan work
6 5 ncret 10

E Procureme
of bricks

Fig. 112
1.17 TERMINOLOGIES IN NETWORK It is, therefore,the commencementor completion of
1. Event and Activity an activity. It does not consume time or resources.
Event is well-defined point or stage or accomplishment Activity is a specificjob or unit task in any project and
of the project. event is start or end of the activity.
An event is that particularinstant of time at which In construction project, excavation for foundation is an
some specific part of a plan has been or is to be activity whereas starting of excavation for foundation is
achieved. an event.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.15) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Activity Event However, the length of the arrow neither represents

Sr.
No.
the magnitude of the work completed in the activity
nor time required for completion of that activity.
Location of site. (a) Site located.
The length of the arrow 'is chosen to suit the
1.

convenience of drafting and proper representation of

2. Excavation for foundation. (b) Commencement of excavation
for
the complete network in the available space
3. Installation of new machinery. for foundation.

4. Laying of sewer pipeline. (c) Completion of excavation for

drawing.
foundation.
Representation of activity
(d) New machinery installed. Activity is not a vector quantity
4
Sewer pipeline laid. Activity4-5
Representation of Event Activity 4 - 5 is activity which connects events and

An event is a well-defined point in a project and hence
is represented by a node.
The shape used to represent the node may be (i)
circular, (ii) square, (iii) rectangle, (iv) oval shape or (v)
any other regular geometrical figure such as triangles
(see Fig. 1.13).
However, vgenerally a circle has been chosen to
represent the nodes.
*Eventsare numbered for their identification and these
numbers are written inside the geometrical figure
representing the node.
Circular Square Rectangular
Triangular Oval shape
Fig. 1.13
2. Activity
It is the actual performance of a task or a unit job. It is
a recognisable part or item or operation of the project.
It, therefore, consumes time and resources in the form
of manpower, material, use of machinery or any other
facility.
It is a positive specific tangible and meaningful effort
having a proper description understandable by all
•concerned with the project.
Representationof Activity
Activities are represented by simple arrows in network
diagram.
The arrow runs from left to right generally so that the
tail is towards left and the arrow head is towards right.
The tail of the arrow represents the start of the activity
and arrow head represents the end of the activity.
i.e. tail event is 5 and head event is
Fig. 1.14
Activities can be identified with the use of English
alphabets•suchas above activity is A.
Activity A —Excavationof earth work
Activity B —Foundationconcrete
ActivityC —Constructionof brick work in foundation
and plinth
Activity D —Layingof D P C
Activity E —Brickworkin superstructure
1.17.1 Different Types of Activities and Their
Inter-Relationship
A project is broken into different types of unit tasks or
activities.
Depending upon their interdependency, some
activities are to be taken serially whereas some of the
activities can be undertaken simultaneously which are
subsequently called as predecessor Activities and
Successor Activities.
Depending upon their way of occurrence, the different
activities can be termed as below :
1. Parallel Activities
Activities which can be undertaken and completed
simultaneouslyand independently to each other are
called parallel activities.
2. Serial Activities
Those activities which are performed immediately one
after the another are called serial activities. They are
dependent on each other and cannot be performed
independently.
3. Predecessor Activities
Activity or number of activities which are necessary to
be performed before a particular activity is undertaken,
they are called predecessor activities. Unless these
predecessor activities are completed, the next activity
cannot commence.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.16) INTRODUCt10N TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

4. Successor Activities To avoid the said confusion, Dummy activity is

• Any activity or activities which immediately begin after introduced as shown below
the performance of predecessor activities are termed 2
as successor activities to those predecessor activities. p

In Fig. 1.15.
3
C and E are parallel activities, D and E are also parallel
activities. Fig. 1.16
A and B are serial activities.
Event (1) —Leave A
A is predecessor activity of activity B.
B is predecessor activity of activities C and E. Events (2) and (3) —Reach B

B is successor activity of activity A. The two activities P and Q are represented as below.
C and E are successor activities of activity B. Activity P —representedas 1 —2
F is successor activity of activities D and E. Activity Q -represented as 1 —3
5. Dummy Activity or Dummy [Feb. 161
Since Activity 2 —3 is a dummy activity practically event (2)
A Dummy activity is an imaginary activity which does
and event (3) are same i.e. reach B. But to represent that
not exist in the Project activities.
activitiesA and B are different, a dummy activity 2 —3 is
It is used in the netwotk diagram to show dependency
introduced so that activity P or 1 —2 represents activity
relationship or connectivity between two or more
that person with scooter is moving from A to B and activity
activities.
3 representsactivity that person with car is
It does not consume any time and resource
moving from A to B.
It is representedby a dotted arrow.
With the help of dummy activity, logical sequence is
Activity2 — 3 is dummy activity for first person with
scooter. The same can also be represented meaningfully as
maintained and confusion is avoided.
below.
Dummy serves the grammatical purpose as well as
logical purpose. 2
Grammatical Purpose of Dummy
It will be illustrated with following example. Two 1 3
persons are to leave place A and to go to place B,
The first person uses a scooter and second uses a car. Fig. 1.17
Event (1) is leave A whereas event (2) is reaches B. Events (1) and (2) —Leave A
This cannot be properly representedfor the two
Event (3) —Reach B
persons as the diagram would be as shown below.
p Activity 1 —2 is Dummy activity.
1
Activity P is 2 —3 activity for person with scooter.
Activity Q is 1 —3 activity for person with car.
Fig. 1.15
Activity 1 —2 is Dummy activity for first person.
Activity P —Personwith scooter going from A to B.
(Activity 1 - 2) However, it should be noted that dummy activities
Activity Q —Personwith car going from A to B. should be provided only if it is necessary.
(Activity 1 —2) Provision of redundant dummy in the network may
With this type of representation,uniquenessof the lead to confusion.
identification is lost as Activity P and Activity Q though
Hence in initial stages, dummy activities may be
different, are representedand treated like one single
introduced liberally which can further be removed by
activity. (1-2) this inconvenience leads to mistake and
has to be solved suitably for which dummy activity is careful inspection of the network wherever such
used. dummy activities are unnecessary.
 PROJECTMANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.17) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 1.2 : Draw a networkfor a house construction

project. The sequence of activities with their predecessors iS
Example 1.1 : Convert the following Activity On Node given in the following table, below.
(AON) Network into Activity On Arrow (AOA) Network. Sequence of Activities for House Construction Project
B Éixing electri
conduictsfor;$ Nameof Starting and Description Predecessor Time
Wiring
the Finishing of ActiVity Duration
Activity Event Days)

ConstruCtioå
C. Putting Prepare the 4
pipes for water Wall plasterin
3c connection house plan
Construct 58

Completing«
the house
woodworki2
c Fix the door 2
/ windows
Fig. 1.18
D Wiring the 2
Solution : house
Activity 1 —2 Construction of Brickwork. Paint the c 1

Activity 2 —3 Fixing Electrical Conduits. house

Polish the D
Activity 2 —4 Fixing GI pipes for water connections.
doors /
Activity 2—5 . Completing woodwork in doors and windows
windows.
Solution:
Activity 5 —6 Plastering the brickwork, Fix the doors (2 days) Paint the house
4 (1 day)
3 Prepare the Constructthe C
house plan house
c 3
2 6
(4 days) (58 days) D
5 Polish the doors
4 Wiring the (1 day)
house (2 days)
Fig. 1.19 Fig. 1.20
1.17.2 Fulkerson's Rule Example 1.3 : UsingFulkerson'smethod,number the events
in the network shown below.
• An event represents the accomplishment of task.
• In a network diagram, beginning and ending of an
activity are represented as events.
Step 1: Number the start or initial event as 1.
Step 2: From event 1, strike off all outgoing activities. This (a)

would have made one or more events as initial Solution :

events (event which do not have incoming
activities).
0 9
Number that event as 2.
Step 3: Repeat step 2 for event 2, event 3 ahd till the end 7
event. The end event must have the highest (b)
number. Fig. 1 21
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.18) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Example 1.4 : Draw a networkdiagram forprojectlaying a Example 1.5 : Draw the network for the activities and
drainage pipeline. events shown in the table given below
Solution : The project can be , broken. into different Activity Events / Duration Activity Inter-Rélationship
activities events as shown below Nodes in Days
Activities : Layout (10 —20) Preceeding Succeeding Parallel
B Excavation .fqr_trenches(20 -- 40) Node Node
Procurement of pipes (10 —30) 10 20 3
Pipe laying in excavated trenches B 20 30 3 C
(40 —50) 40 4
C 20
E- Pipe testing (50 —60) D 30 40 0
Refilling of trenches (60 —70) E 30 50 6 D
Events : A Start of the project F 40 50 2
Starting layout G 50 60 4
2- Layout completed, excavation started
Solution :
3- Procurementof pipe started
Pipes procuied 6
3
Excavation completed, Pipe laying DIO 50 4 60
1
3 20
started
c
2
Pipe laying ended testing of pipes 4
30
started
Pipe testing started earth filling started Fig. 1.23
8 Earth filling completed Activities are denoted by Letters A, B, C ... and also by the
Predecessoi Even Sugcessor ven tail node and head node. The tail nodes and head nodes
are in general denoted by I nodes and J nodes. The
Start of layout Layout completed
duration of the activity is shown below the activity arrow
Start of Excavation Layoutgompleted Excavation and identification of the activity above the arrow. Duration
completed
of an activity is the estimated time required to complete
Procurement of pipe Procurement of pipe the activity.
started completed
Pipe laying started Excavation Pipe laying
1.18 TIME ESTIMATES
completed, pipe completed. The time duration used for different activities is any
procured convenient unit consistent throughout the network.
Pipe testing started Pipe laying Pipe testing The unit is usually either days or weeks.
completed completed. For estimating time duration, a normal work crew
Refilling started Pipe testing Refilling of trench depending upon the type of the work and experience
completed ends. is assumed.
Pipe Pipe Refilling of
laying
Generally in CPM the duration of the different activities
Layout Excavation testin tranche
2 4 6 in the project are deterministic and can be estimated
fairly precisely.
remeot
3
Depending upon the duration of different activities,
Pipe the project duration will be decided.
2 5 6 7 1.18.1 Event Times
Layout Layout cavation Pipelaying Testing Earth
For each event two type of times are expressed
A start completed completed completed completed filling depending upon occurrence of that event.
Excavation Pipe laying Testing Earth completed
Pro ect Starts starts starts Filling Earliest Occurrence Time (EOT) of any event is the time
starts
3
stars wherein al] the activities emerging to the event are
4
ProcurementOf Procurement
of completed in the least period possible. This is
pipestarts pipecompleted computed by adding the duration of all the activities
Fig. 1.22 along an activity path leading to that event.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL)
If more than one activity path is leading to that eventi
then the maximum of earliest occurrence time of the
different activity paths is taken as Earliest Event
Occurrence time and is denoted by TE.
EOT for an event = EOT of preceding event + Duration
of activity
EOTj = EOTi + tij
or
E E ij
Similarly, Latest Occurrence Time (LOT) for any event is
the maximum time for completion of any event
without causing any delay in completion of the project.
This time is computed by subtractingthe durationof
all activities along the activity path from the
concluding event to the event in question.
If more than one event is emerging out, then the latest
occurrence time is least of the time calculated from
different activity paths.
LOTi = LOTj-tij
I
i.e. TL - FL tij
EOT for an event = EOT of preceding event +
Duration of leading activity.
LOT for an event = LOT of following event —Duration
of leaving activity.
In case more than one activities are leading to an
event, EOT is taken maximum of all leading paths,
while LOT is taken minimüm of all activity paths
leaving the node.
EOT is calculated by forward pass method and.LOT is
calculated by backward pass method.
1.18.2 Forward Pass
The minimum or expected duration of any project is
the earliest occurrence time of the last event. Hence, to
find out the duration of the project, one has to find out
EOT of last event in the network of the project.
This is done by calculating thé EOT for each event of
the network by forward pass method till the last event
is reached.
In case of merge events, EOT is calculatedby all the
possible paths and the maximum of values of EOT
calculated from different paths is considered EOT for
that event. This will give the duration of the project.
EOT(j) = EOT(i)+ t j
Where, • -- Earliest occurrence time of jth event
EOT(J),
i.e. succeeding event
EOT(i) = Earliest occurrence time of ith event
i.e. preceding event.
(1.19) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
t (ij) = duration of activity i •j i.e. intervening
activity
The first event in the- network occurs at zero time and
with this basis the EOT of 41 •the 'ubsequent events
and project duration can be calculated.
This is the minimum-period in which the project can be
completed.
1.18.3 Backward Pass
Normally, the earliest event occurrence time of last
event is the project duration and the same is taken as
the latest event occurrence time of the last event.
However, if there is any •imposed duration for the
project that is taken as the _latest_event occurrence
time for the last event.
Assuming this latest event .occurrence time of the last
event, sequentially the latest event occurrence time for
successive predecessor events can be calculated.
The latest event occurrence time for any event in the
network is the latest allowable event occurrence time
for the succeeding event minus the duration of
intervening activity.
LOT(i) = LOT(j) - tij i.e:TLl -tij
where, LOT(i) = Latest _event occurrence time of ith
event i.e. preceding event
•
LOT(J) = latest event Occurrence -time of jth
event i.e. succeeding event
t(lJ) duration of activity (i j) i.e.
intervening activity.
In case there are more than one bursting activities
originating from event), the LOT(i) is calculated by all
possible paths and whichever is minimum is taken as
the LOT for that event.
Thus, starting from the last event, LOT of all the events
can be calculated and this will lead to finding LOT of
first event as zero. This will help in finding the
allowable delay in occurrence of different events
without affecting the overall duration of the project.
The allowable delay in occurrence of any event is the
difference between the LOT and EOT for the-event.This
allowable delay is the slack period of the event.
1.18.4 Activity Times
• For the different activities there is a time of start and
time of finish.
For forward pass,
Activity finish time = Activity start time + Duration
and for backward pass,
Activity start time = Activity finish time —duration
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.20) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Represents
For the different activities, following times are Represents name of activity Represents
calculated : EST of D EST of F

EST - Earliest Start Time D

3 5
EFT —ÆarliestFinish Time (6) (8) (5)
LST Latest Start Time
Represents Represents
LFT — Latest Finish Time LET of B LFT of D
Represents
EST and EFT are the time of earliest start and earliest nodes
Represents
duration
finish respectivelyof any activity without changing the
Fig. 1.25
sequence of the activities in the network.
Similarly, LST and LFT are the time of latest start and Forward Pass
-latest finish respectively without delaying the project In this, we will move from left to right.
duration without changing the sequence of the (1) The project starts at 0thtime i.e. starting time on first
activities in the network. day.
An ' activity can start only after the tail event has
occurred. (4)
2
Hence, Earliest Start Time of any activity 'is the Earliest
-OccurrenceTime of Tail Event of the activity. Fig. 1.26
3. EST of an activity =EOT of tail event Activity will start earliest at 0thday.
EFT of an activity -EST of that activity + Duration ESTofA = O
• Similarly, •anactivity must conclude before the time of As activityA has EST = 0, it will finish earliest at O + 4 = 4
occurrence of head event. days.
Hence the Latestfinish time of any activity is the Latest i.e. EST of A+ duration of A. This is called as Earliest Finish
Event Occurrence time of head event of the activity. Time (EFT) of A.
LFT of an activity = LOT of head event (2)
10
LST of an activity = LFT of the activity —Duration B 3
The above terminologies can be very well explaine<
with the help of following network. (4)
2
3 D
(6) (8)
2 5 6
(4) 5)
c 4
(5) (6)
Fig. 1,27
Fig. 1.24 th
As 'A' finiShes at 4thday, activities B and C will start •on4
Explanation of this network is day. Hence EST for B and C both is '4'.
Activity A is the starting activity. (EFT)B = (EST)B + duration of
Activities D and E ends the project. = 4 + 6 = 10
Activities B and C emerges from A. Similarly, (EFT)c = (EST)c + duration of C
Activity D will start only •after completion at
activity B. (3)
Activity E is the succeeding activity of C.
B 3
Activity F starts only after completion of activity D (6) (8)
and E.
2 5
(4)
The duration of each activity is shown below the arrow (5)

and the activity name. (5)

Now, let us calculate EST, EFT, LST and LFT using
forward and backward pass. The nomenclature which
Fig. 1.28
we will be using is as follows
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL)
Activity D will start after completion of activity B which is
EFT of B. Similarly, activity E will start after completion of
activity C which is EFT of C.
ESTofD = 10
EST 9 •
EFTofD = (10+ 8) = 18
And EFT of E = (9 + 6) = 15
Now, as per the logic of the network,activity F will start
only after completion of both the preceding activities D
and E i.e. 18 days which is the "highest" of both the EFTS.
EST of F is 18 which gives EFT of F as (18 + 5) = 23
days. This is the total project duration.
Backward Pass
In backward pass, we will calculate the time estimates from
rightto left. Duration of project is 23 days which means the
activity F should be finished latest by 23 days.
. LFT of F is 23 days, hence it has to start latest by (23 —5)
= 18 days, which is LST of F.
(6) (8)
(4)
2 (5)
c of any activity may be delayed without any effect or
Fig. 1.29
LST of F as 18 indicates that, activities D and E should be
finished latest by 18.
LST of D = IFT of E = 18 as these are parallelactivities
LST of D = (18-8) = 10 and LST of E = (18-6) = 12.
Similarly, LST's and LFT's of all' rernaining activities are
calculated as under
LFT of B = 10 LST of B = (10 6) = 4
LFTofC = 12.•.LSTofC = (12-5) = 7
In the backward pass, we have to consider the minimum
time of all for calculating LFT of A.
i.e. 4..% LFT of A LST of (4-4) = O
1.18.5 Floats [May, Feb. 171
There can be some allowable delay in completion of
any activity and measure of such delay is called Float.
It is a measureof time by which an activity may be
delayed without affecting the logic of the project or
the total duration of the project.
• Free float is that portion of positive total float that can
There are 4 types of floats with different identification.
1. Total Float (TF),
2. Free Float (FF),
3. Interfering Float (IF) and
4. Independent Float (Find).
(1.21) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
1. Total Float
'It is the time by which a particular activity can be
delayed without causing any effect on the duration of
the project'.
It is, therefore, the difference between the maximum
time available for any activity and its duration.
The maximumtime available.for any activity without
causing delay to the project is difference of its Latest
Finish Time and the Earliest Start Time.
Hence,Total Float = (LFT —EST) —Duration
-EST
TF = (LFT-
= LST- EST
= (LST + Duration)—(EST + Duration)
= LFT-EFT
TF = LST-EST
= LFT-EFT
Itcan also be pointed out,
Total Float = (LOT of head event —EOT of tail
event) —Duration of activity.
2. Free Float
'It is the amount of time by which the commencement
interferenceon the start of the next activity'.
• If there has to be no effect on the subsequent activity,
the time of earliest occurrence of the head event of the
activity must be maintained.
Hence,free float is the differencebetween EOT of the
head event and EFT of the activity so that if the start of
the activity is delayed by this duration, it will get just
completed before EOT of the head event.
FF = EOT of head event— EFT of the activity
= EST of the following activity
—EFT of the activity
Hence, free float of any activity i —j is the difference
between its earliest finish time and the earliest start time of
the succeeding activity.
FF = EOT of Head Event—EOT of Tail Event
—Duration of Activity
= EOT of Head Event - (EOT of Tail
+ Duration of Activity)
Hence FF = EOT of Head Event—EFT of Activity
be used by an activity without affecting the earliest
start time of succeeding activity.
The concept of free float is based on the possibility
that all activitiesstart at their EST and all the events
occur at their earliest time.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.22) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

3. Interfering Float Total Float of an activity is the excess of maximum

available time for activity over activity duration
It is the slack of head event.It is equal to differenceof
LOT and EOT of the head event and is also difference L¯ E ¯t ij
Of Total Float and Free Float.
= LFT - EFT of the activity = LST - EST of
IF = TF_ the activity
Interfering float is the potential downstream Free Float of an activityis the excess of availabletime
interference of any activity. over the activity duration when all the activities start at
If the full interfering float -is made, subsequent their earliest start line.
activities become critical and if it is exceeded the total
duration of the project will increase and the project will
be delayed. = EST of following activity —EFT of the
activity
4. Independent Float
= EOT of head event EFT of the activity
It is the excess time that is availableif the preceeding
Independent Float of an activity is the excess of
activity ends. as late as possible and the succeeding minimum available time over the activity duration.
activity starts as early as possible.
Find —tij
The independent•float is defined as the excess of (T{-TI)
minimum available time over the, required activity —tij
duration. E E E-TIL)

Minimum available time for any activity

= EOT of Head Event —LOT of Tail Event = Free Float —Slack of tail event
Find = EOT of Head Event —LOT of Tail Event Interfering Float of an activity is the difference
—Duration of the Activity between the Total Float and Free Float. It is equal to
slack of head event.
= EOT of Head Event —EST of Activity +
EST of Activity —LOT of tail event — IF = TF-FF -HE = Headeventslack
Duration of Activity The above floats are represented diagrammatically in
= EOT of Head Event —(EST of Activity +
Fig. 1.30.
TIE TjE
Duration of Activity) —(LOT of tail Maximum Available Time
event —EST of Activity)
MinimumAvailable Time—.-
= (EOT of Head Event - EFT of Activity) Total Float
- (LOT of Tail Event - EOT of Tail
Free Float Interfering
Event) Float
Activity
= Free float —Slack of Tail Event Total Float
Activity Duration
. Independent Float = Free Float —Slack of Tail Event
• If tail event is it event and head event is Jth event and Free Float Head Even
Tail Slack
the activity is denoted by i —j, Event Activity Duration
Slack II Independent
= LOT ofj thevent Float

= EOTofj event Fig. 1.30

• Floats are used in scheduling to show where flexibility
T l = LOT of ithevent
exists. This flexibility is meaningful and can be made
use for large one time projects such as construction Of
= EOT of ithevent
a highway or dam or developing a new missile or
tij = Duration of Activity launching a satellite.
PROJECTMANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL)
Out of the four floats, only two of them namely, total
float and free float are of practical use.
Total float is most useful since it is difference of
maximum available time for any activity and its
duration.
There may be three possibilities regarding total float.
I. It may have a negative value if the maximum
available time is less than activity duration.
2. It may have zero value if the maximum available
time is equal to activity duration.
3. It may have positive value if the maximum
available time is greater than activity duration.
When the float is negative, such activities are most
important and they demand special attention and
special action. Such activities are termed •as "Super
Critical Activities."
The activities where float is zero, they are called
"Critical Activities." They demand good attention and
no freedom of action can be taken with such activities
as it may result in delay of the project.
The activities with positive float are "subcritical
Activities"and hence some freedom in terms of delay
may be possible with such activities. They demand
normal action.
Negative float indicates that the, activity duration is
more than maximum available time in the project
which is little abnormal situation and attempt may be
made for compressing the duration by rearranging the
resources or arranging additional resources to bring
the negative float to positive or at least to zero.
Critical path is one which joins the critical activities for
which float is zero.
These critical activities control the project duration.
Any delay in the execution of critical activity than the
scheduled duration will extent the project duration by
the same time slab.
Critical path starts from the initial event and passes
through all such events where there is no slack and
ends in the last event. In order to identify the critical
path, float concept provides the necessary and
sufficientconditions for activities to be critical.
It may be possible that some activitiesjoining event
with zero slack may not be found critical with float
concept.
It should also be noted that there can be more than
one critical path in the network.
(1.23) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
The activity times and floats for the previous example
are tabulated as under.
Activity DurationEST EFT LST LFT TF FF .1ntF IndF
4 0 4 .0
The activities which are having Total Float (TF) 0 are
termed as critical activities. Hence, as. per -the above
table, activities A, B, D and F are critical activities.
If we join these activities, we get a continuous path
which is termed as critical'path and total duration 'of
-the project is 23' days: ,The network with critical path
will be shown as below
B 3 D
(6) (8)
10
2 5 6
(4) (5)
4 23
12
Fig. 1.31
1.18.6 Precedence Network [Nov. 161
• PrecedenceNetwork is an Activity —on —Node type of
network in which all activities are represented on node
and are related to each other by arrows.
Unlike CPM, it resembles the actual site conditions in
which there are lags between start and finish of
preceding and succeeding activities. T
The time lag can be zero, negative or positive.
The Four Lag Conditions used are as Follows:
1. Start to Start: if activity B starts 2 days after start of
activity A, it is represented as A (2SS) B.
2. Finish to Start : It representsstart of succeeding
activity after finishing of earlier activity. E.g. if activity B
Starts after finish of activity A and there is a lag of 3
days, it can be represented as A (3FS) B
3. Finish to Finish: if finishing of two activities are related
with a lag, this condition is used. E.g. activity A finishes
2 days before finish of activity B can be represented as
A (-2FF) B
4. Start to Finish: It meansactivity B cannot be finished
before start of previous activity. This is a rarely used
condition. E.g. first shift can finish only after start of
second shift.
 (1.24) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL)
4
Example 1.6 : Draw an AOA networkdiagram and find
critical path, total duration of project and all floats. 6

Activity Duration in Preceding Succeeding 8

Days Activities Activities
2
3
6
10
8
c 4
8
D 6
Solution : The networkis drawn as given below

(6) (8)

7 (8)
(3) (6) (6)

c
(4 3
(10) (2)

Fig. 1.32

ActivityDurationEST EFT LST LFT TF FF IntF IndF The details of preparing the network and calculation of
3 6 3 o 3
floats will comprise of the following steps
3 0 3
Step 1 : Table of inter-relation between different activities.
of networkwith the help of above
Step 2 : Preparation.
c 4 3 7 6 10 3
table.
5
D 6 3 9 8 14
Step 3 : Calculationof EST and EFT of differentactivities
by Forward Pass Method.
Step 4 : Calculationof LFT and LST of differentactivities
by BackwardPass Method.
Step 5 : Marking the Critical Path.
Step 6 : Calculation of Project Duration.
step7: Calculation of Total Float and Free Float.
All the above are worked out in tabular form
Srs Descriptiono Job orthe* i VActivity„ Estimat
Example 1.7 : Analysethe workof constructionof a Steel Activity symboÉ Duration in
Rolling Mill and construct a CPM Network for the same.
Calculate the project duration after marking the critical Prelimina Investi ation 5
path. Also calculate the Total Float and Free Float. 2. Desi n of Buildin 10
Solution : The work of erectionof a steel mill on analysis 3. Preparation of specifications of c 4
can be divided into different independentjobs as shown machine ande ui ment
4. Procuring Machinery and D
below. The estimated duration of completion of these 32
E ui ment
activities is also indicated in table below. The duration of
5. Construction of Building 12
each activity has been estimated by proper analysis and Foundation
with experience of duration of similar activities undertaken 6. Construction of Machinery 7
in earlier projects. The correlation and sequence of Foundation
different activities is properly studied and if necessary 7. Construction of Building 14
dummy activities are introduced to maintain proper flow Su erstructure
and sequence of work. Conti...
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.25) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
8. Layingunderground
pipes, Example 1.8 : Work out the project duration and indicate
conduits and other anciliary
the critical path. Also calculate the interfering float.
utili
Installation of Machinery and 18 05
E ui ment 06
10. Installation of Electrical Driving 07
12 08 15
Unit 12
Installation of Wiring and 10 15 27
01
Control E ui ment 05 02 29 03
12. Final Checkin and Testin
13. Clearin ite
10 37
Solution : 08 02
Sr. Åcüvity Duration Preceding Succeeding Remarks 35
Activ Activi
Fig. 1.34
Starting
10 Activity
Critical path = 1-2-4-5-8-9 & 1-2-8-9
Project Duration = 40 days
32 Activity Duration EST EFT LST
12
1-2

14 1-3 05

08
18
01
10. 12
10 2-8 05 12 21. 26 14 14
12. 3-6 08 13 19 27 14
End
12 19 19
Activi
07 19 26 19 26
(12) (14
5-7 02 19 21 27 29

(4)
10 13 15 27 29 14
(10) (10) (9) (2)

18)
(5
03 21 24 29 32
Example 1.9 : For construction of a small residential block,
(4) (32) (12)
prepare the network and calculate the duration of the
Fig. 1.33 project by CPM.
Total duration of ro•ect : 80 da s. Solution : The project is broken into differentunit jobs or
Du o ES EFT ST L Remarks' activities and depending upon the resources available, the
Critical activity duration is decided.
Table is prepared for the different activities with the
Critical
predecessor and successor activity as shown below
32 41 41 Critical
Sre Activity Description Duration Preceding ucceeding
41
in Activity Activity
15 22 34 19 19
Weeks
A Excavation,
15 19 55 59 40 40 Foundation, Plinth,
18 41 59 41 59 Critical Mason and DPC
12 41 57 69 16 16 BB work in
59 69 59 69 Critical superstructure
Critical including fixing door
69
and window frames,
78 80 80 80 Critical
castin lintels,shelves
Critical path : A-C-D-I-K-L-M
Conti...
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.26) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

C R.C.C. work in beams Distempering inside

and slab and outside & oil
painting to doors &
Preparation of door, windows
window frames and
Fixing doors and
panels
window anels
Inside Plaster in CM 1 10. Providing water supply
and sanita fittin s
F MarbleMosaic tile K Providing electrical
flooring wiring and fittings
concealed
G Outside Plaster in CM
L, M, N and P are dummy activities.
The network diagram is as shown below in Fig. 1.35.
Solution :
The critical path and duration of the project is determined as shown in Table below.
(4)

3) (4) (3 (3) (2) (2) (2)

(2) (3)

Fig. 1.35
Activity Duration EST EFT LST LFT Activi DurationEST EFT LST LFT IndF Intf
eeks 1-2
1-3

14 14
14 17 14 Example 1.11 : Find out EST,EFT,LST,LFT, TF, FF, IDE and
17 19 17 19 IF for the following network diagram. Also draw critical path.
14 16 19
21 23
[Nov. 15, 8 Ml
21 23
19 21 19 21
14 11 14
15 19 23
Total duration of project = 23 weeks.
Critical
pathA-C- B-J -E- F-I-H 11

12
Example 1.10 : Calculate EST,EFT,1ST,LFT,IDF and IF for
the following activities. Tabulate the result with sample
calculation. [Ma 15, 6M] Fig. 1.37
Activi 1-2 1-3 Solution : Calculation of various arameters :
Duration in 'Da Activi Duratio ST EFT LST LFT Ind.F
Solution : The network is drawn as given below 14 19 14 14

14
12 19 26 14 -14 12
19 26 15 14
12 12
14

12 20 26 34 14 14
12 23 12 23
10
Fig. 1.36 12
Critical path = 1-3-4-5 12 21 23
Project Duration = 14 days 23 34 23 34 0
Now Draw the network.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU CIVIL) (1.27) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Example 1.13 : The table below gives activities and their

(7)
duration.
(5) (8)
Activ Duration (Days)
(7)
1-2
(4
(8) (11) 1-3
(11)
23
(5) 11
(12)

Fig. 1.38 3-5

Example 1.12 : Draw AOA Network and Calculate total 4-5

project Duration. Show critical path. Calculate EST,EFT,LST, 4-6
[Ma 16, 8M] 5-6
Ac ity ion• Activ Duratioå
(i) Draw network. Calculate project duration ' and
1-2 Dumm highlight critical path.
2-3 5-10 10 (ii) Calculate EST,EFT,LST,and LFTfor the activities.
6-8 Solution
18 18
3-10 15 12
4-6 9-10 10 11
Solution : Drawn the network
15
34 34
18

5 14 25 25
24 36 46
12 10 Fig. 1.40
11 24 36 46 Total project duration 34 days
Critical path = —4—5 —6
17
10 Durajoo. EST EFT LSI LFT Remark
1-2

36 1-3 14
Fig. 1.39 11 18 18
Critical path = 1-2-4-6-8-9-10 14 18
Pro•ectduration = 46 da s
10 20 25
uratiom
4-5 18 25 18 25
1-2 18 20 32 34
2-3 26 31 5-6 25 24 25 34

2-5 32 36 EXERCISE
3-10 15 24 15 46 1. Explain the two important methods of project
11 18 11 18 planning in brief and bring out the difference
Dumm between the two.
5-10 10 18 36 46
2. What do you understand by Bar chart ? With suitable
example, describe the process of construction of
18 17
Gantt's chart.
12 24 36 24 36
9-10 46 36 46 3. What are different strong points and shortcomings
10 36
Critical path = 1-2-4-6-8-9-10 of a Gantt's chart ?
 PROJECT MANAGEMENT (BATU av1L) (1.28) INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT

4. How the different shortcomings of bar chart can be 16 Inter-relationship between the different activities in a
removed ? project is as shown below. Draw the network and
5. How milestone chart differ from a bar chart ? How it find the critical ath.
overcomes some of the short-comings Of bar chart ? Activity Predecessor Successor. Duration
6. Give out the advantages and limitations of milestone ctiv
chart. 6
7. Draw the bar chart for a project with 8 different 8
activities as shown below and calculate the total time c D 9
of com letion. c 4
B 3
E 6
3 B 10
2 5 *Cannot 8
c 1
3 start unless
4 D 5 60% work of 2
5 C* Cis 4
6 5 D completed. 6
7 6 c 5
8 5 Last Acti 17. Define Free Float and bring out its importance. How
If there is increase of 3 days in the time of is it determined ?
completion of agtivity A, calculate the corresponding 18. What are logical errors in case of CPM ? Draw
delay in completion of the project. sketches to illustrateyour answer.
8. What is AOA networkand AON network? Explain 19. Define
with suitable examples. (i) Interfering floats (ii) Independent float
9. Differentiate between CPM and PERT network. 20. Compare Gantt chart with CPM network.
Explain where each is used. 21. Explain with sketches, the various relationships in a
10. What are different types of events ? Explain with PrecedenceNetwork.
examples. 22. Give definitions of following with suitable example of
11. Describe the different types of activities in a network
each
and explain the use of dummy activity.
(i) Dummy activity, (ii) Critical activity, (lii) Critical
12. What are difficulties in logic in the network ? Explain
looping and dangling. path, (iv) Concurrent activity, (v) Preceding activity,
13. What åre the different rules to be observed in (vi) Succeeding activity.
framing of netWork? 23. Bring out importance of materials. management in
14. A project consists of 6 events ind inter-relationship construction industry.
between them is as shown below. Draw the network. 24. Write in details about the functions of the Materials
.Event Predecesso Event Manager.
25. How economic use of materials can be effected ?
26. What are various methods of purchasing ? Explain
them briefly.
27. What are the qualities required for Material
6 5 Manager ?
15 Differentiate between the following terms 28. State and explain any four functions of a Project
(i) Activity and Event (ii) Dummy activity and Critical Manager on a construction site.
activity Clii)Total float and Free float (iv) Looping and 29. Explain fleet management.
Dangling. 30. Explain aspect of fleet management.