Nigel English-Longman Science For AQA (AQA GCSE Science) Teacher's Guide-Longman (2007)

Longman Science
for AQA
GCSE Science Extension Units
Series Editor: Nigel English

Muriel Claybrook
Richard Grime
Penny Johnson
Sue Kearsey
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow, Essex Penny Marshall
Pearson Education
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex
CM20 2JE
UK
www.longman.co.uk
© Pearson Education Limited 2007
The right of Nigel English, Muriel Claybrook, Richard Grime, Penny Johnson, Sue Kearsey and Penny
Marshall to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
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Road, London, W1P 9HE.
First published 2007
ISBN 978 1 405 86187 8
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The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.
Acknowledgments
The publishers are grateful to the following for their collaboration in reviewing this book:
Dr Peter Borrows, Director, CLEAPSS
John Tranter, Senior Adviser, CLEAPSS
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we apologise for any unintentional
omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any subsequent
edition of this publication.
ii AQA GCSE Extension Units Teacher’s Guide © Pearson Education Limited 2007
Contents
Biology Chemistry
B3.0 Exchange and balance C3.0 Water

B3.0 Context page C3.0 Context page
B3.1 Diffusion and active transport C3.1 The water cycle
B3.2 Gas exchange in the lungs C3.2 Purifying water
B3.3 Absorbing food C3.3 Solubility
B3.4 Absorption in plants C3.4 Saturated solutions
B3.5 Movement of water through plants C3.5 Hard water
B3.6 Human blood circulation C3.6 Types of hard water
B3.7 Travelling in the blood C3.7 Should we remove hardness from water?
B3.8 Exercise and the body C3.8 Flame tests
B3.9 Exercise fatigue and anaerobic respiration C3.9 Detecting ions using sodium hydroxide
solution
B3.10 Healthy kidneys
C3.10 Looking at carbonates
B3.11 Dialysis treatment
C3.11 Testing for other non-metal ions
B3.12 Kidney transplants
C3.12 Testing for acidity
B3.00 Exploiting microorganisms
C3.13 Detecting organic chemicals
B3.00 Context page
C3.14 Detecting tiny amounts of chemicals
B3.13 Growing microorganisms
C3.15 Instrumental analysis
B3.14 Aseptic technique
C3.00 Driving chemistry further
B3.15 Biogenesis
C3.00 Context page
B3.16 Yoghurt and cheese
C3.16 The Periodic Table
B3.17 Yeast
C3.17 Group 1 – the alkali metals
B3.18 The role of yeast in making alcoholic drinks
C3.18 Transition metals
B3.19 Fermenters and penicillin production
C3.19 Group 7 – the halogens
B3.20 Mycoprotein by fungal fermentation
C3.20 The development of the Periodic Table
B3.21 Biogas
C3.21 Solution calculations
B3.22 Ethanol-based biofuels
C3.22 Titrations
C3.23 Choosing indicators for titrations
C3.24 Energy transfers in reactions
C3.25 Bond energies
C3.26 Burning fuels
C3.27 Using fuels
C3.28 Energy in food
C3.29 Reactions in solution
© Pearson Education Limited 2007 AQA GCSE Extension Units Teacher’s Guide iii
Physics
P3.0 Forces and energy in space

P3.0 Context page
P3.1 Moments
P3.2 Centre of mass
P3.3 Stability
P3.4 Circular motion
P3.5 Gravity and the Solar System
P3.6 Changing ideas
P3.7 Satellites
P3.8 Stars and planets
P3.9 Life cycles of stars
P3.00 Investigating space

P3.00 Context page
P3.10 Plane mirrors
P3.11 Curved mirrors
P3.12 Refraction
P3.13 Lenses
P3.14 Cameras
P3.15 Sound waves
P3.16 Ultrasound
P3.17 Electric motors
P3.18 Making electricity
P3.19 Generators
P3.20 Transformers
iv AQA GCSE Extension Units Teacher’s Guide © Pearson Education Limited 2007
Introduction
Longman Science for AQA GCSE Science is the perfect accompaniment to the AQA
Science GCSE specifications. The components work seamlessly together to offer you a fully
supported and differentiated solution to help you deliver AQA Science GCSE specifications
successfully from your first day of teaching.
Series Editor Nigel English has led a team of experienced teachers to ensure that these
materials are the perfect match to the AQA Science GCSE specifications.
This is the Teacher’s Guide that accompanies the course. It contains Schemes of Work and
lesson plans to get you started. The lesson plans include all the detail you would expect
including ideas for starters and plenaries, practicals and ways to integrate How Science
Works into your teaching. We have also included all the answers to the questions from both
the Student’s Book and Copymaster File. In addition we have given you notes on how to
integrate our exciting new ActiveTeach into your lessons.
The course comprises:
Component
Student’s Book An exact match to the AQA Science GCSE specifications. Supports student engagement
with stimulating contexts.
Student’s ActiveBook An electronic copy of the Student’s Book, which contains features such as target sheets
and audio glossaries.
Ideal for homework and revision.
Copymaster File Photocopiable worksheets, practical activities and practice assessment materials.
Completely differentiated to fully support the full range of student ability, materials are
clearly marked to be suitable for Foundation or Higher tier students.
Teacher’s Guide A source of lesson plans, teacher’s and technician’s notes, coursework help and of
course full answers!
ActiveTeach A unique electronic resource that contains the Student’s Book in electronic format with
features such as zoom, audio glossary, video and Microsoft® PowerPoint presentations
as well as interactive whiteboard animations.
Additional resources are also available to support your department. Please contact your
local sales representative or email: problemsolved@pearson.com for further details.
We hope that you enjoy using this course and that you will feel able to share your opinions,
comments and suggestions with us. This will help us to ensure that this course continues to
meet the needs of as many teaching professionals as possible.
You can write to us at this address:
The AQA Science team
Longman Schools Division
Pearson Education
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow CM20 2JE
Or you can email us at problemsolved@pearson.com
© Pearson Education Limited 2007 AQA GCSE Extension Units Teacher’s Guide
Course Structure
The materials follow the pattern laid
down in the AQA Biology, Chemistry
and Physics GCSE specifications. The
content is divided into three units.
Student’s Books
Each unit has two context pages. These single pages help to
introduce the unit, explain the context and set the objectives for
the work ahead. Each subsequent topic is covered by one double
page spread in the Student’s Book. These double pages contain the
following features:
• Title
• Learning Objectives These

clearly explain what students
should be able to do by the end
of the topic. They are matched
to the target sheets found in
the Copymaster File (see below)
and are directly related to the
statements in the AQA Biology,
Chemistry and Physics GCSE
specifications.
• Key scientific words have been

highlighted in the text. They can
also be found in a glossary at
the end of each unit.
AQA GCSE Extension Units Teacher’s Guide © Pearson Education Limited 2007
At the end of each unit you will find a double page spread of sample questions. Sample
questions provided are short answer questions reflecting the type of assessment that
students will be given throughout the course.
There are also two sample Individual Student Assessments (ISA) for each unit. ISAs
require students to analyse data from a practical they have carried out in class and then
answer questions on a related experiment. You will find that the ISAs provided in the
Student’s Book provide students with the opportunity to answer some practice questions
written in the style of an ISA. The full ISA can be found in the Copymaster File.
For completeness we have included practicals not mentioned as potential ISA material
by the AQA Biology, Chemistry and Physics GCSE specifications. This has been done to
ensure that students have something relevant to work on in each unit.
A glossary is provided at the end of each unit listing key words for the unit.
• Higher tier Content directly

related to higher tier
specification statements are
indicated by a small H icon
next to the Learning objective
and content.
• ActiveTeach icon Any links in

the ActiveBook or ActiveTeach
are indicated in the print version
by these icons. The links provide
a wealth of activities, which will
help to enrich your teaching. For
more details on the ActiveTeach
see pages 4–5.
• How Science Works Material on

How Science Works is included
throughout the text. This icon
indicates major links to such
material. Where the whole topic is
related to How Science Works there
is a small HSW icon next to the
Learning Objectives at the start.
• Questions can be found

throughout the text. They
become increasingly difficult.
• Summary exercise The answer

to the last question in the topic
summarises the whole of the
topic. The exercise will also be
useful for revision.
ActiveBook and ActiveTeach
Each Student’s Book in this series is accompanied by an ActiveBook. The ActiveBook is at
the centre of the ActiveTeach that is a unique product enabling you to focus students’
attention on the content of the lesson and integrate multimedia into your teaching. The
ActiveTeach contains the following features:
• An ActiveBook is the • The DigiList is a • The Teachers • The glossary • Target sheets are
heart of the ActiveTeach. quick way of finding Notes give can also be provided in electronic
The electronic version your way around a short accessed via format for students
of the Student’s Book the interactive and description of this tab. to focus their own
can be projected onto a electronic files. It the electronic learning. The target
whiteboard or through works as a menu that files in the sheets can be filled in
a digital projector. Every enables you to locate ActiveTeach. on screen to provide
area of the book can be a file quickly and a record of student’s
magnified by the interactive see the full range of achievements.
zoom feature. This means material available for
that students’ attention can each unit.
be focused on a paragraph
of text, a diagram or a
question.
• All of the glossary terms • The Interactive view allows you • Multimedia assets can be accessed
in the book are available to gain access to the interactive via the pages of the book or via the
as audio files – just click features on the page. If you do DigiList. The assets include video
on the word and both not want the distraction of the clips, animations and interactive
word and definition are multimedia assets then you can exercises, as well as presentations,
played as sound files. return the screen to Book View. documents and spreadsheets.
Every copy of the print version of the Student’s Book contains a student’s ActiveBook.
This contains the same electronic copy of the book plus the targets for each topic, summary
exercises and editable word lists for the unit. Word lists for each unit contain the key words
from the glossary and other words important in the unit.
Teacher’s Guide
The Teachers Guide contains detailed information for each unit as well as these
introductory notes. For each topic the pattern is as follows:
• Introduction This gives a brief overview of the unit and sets out the learning objectives.
• Notes for each topic The notes are laid out along the lines of a lesson plan so that
you can incorporate the material easily into your teaching. The following features are
included for each topic:
• learning objectives • a list of the • suggestions • ideas for starter • ideas for additional
and key words worksheets for learning and plenary homework or
available for activities activities research activities
the topic
• points to note such • higher tier, how • a guide to running practicals

as common areas of science works and and/or demonstrations,
confusion or detailed ActiveTeach materials including apparatus list,
notes on the science are highlighted timing and safety points.
At the end of the topic notes for each unit you will also find answers to the Student’s Book
and Copymaster File questions, guidance on marking coursework ISAs (see note above) and
a mark scheme for the end of unit test.
Copymaster File
The Copymaster File provides all the worksheets and other materials intended to be
photocopied for student use. The following worksheets can be found in the
Copymaster File:
• Target sheets Each unit begins with a student target sheet. Students should look at the
statements and then record which statements they already understand. The target sheet
also asks students for confidence levels. We would suggest that students are asked to
fill in the target sheet at the beginning and end of the unit, and after they have revised
for their end of unit test. This should provide them with a record of their own progress
through the unit and increasing levels of confidence. This process of setting targets and
monitoring progress themselves is a key feature of Assessment for Learning.
• Practical sheets and classwork sheets All topics have at least one worksheet to
support classroom learning. These may be practical worksheets in some cases.
• Homework sheets Each topic is accompanied by a Homework sheet. The worksheets do

not require the students to have access to the Student’s Book.
• Sample ISA ISAs require students to analyse data from a practical they have carried out
in class and then answer questions on a related experiment. The full ISA can be found in
the Copymaster File. The practicals that may be used by AQA as the basis for ISA work are
clearly laid out in the AQA Biology, Chemistry and Physics GCSE specifications. We have
followed these as closely as possible but practicals used are not always those mentioned
as potential ISA material by the specification. This has been done because they are only
suggested ISAs and to ensure that students have relevant work for each unit.
• Unit assessment A practice short answer assessment is provided for each unit. These
follow the style of the AQA sample materials.
The contexts
In order to emphasise the importance of science in everyday life we have set each unit in
two contexts. In each case the contexts are introduced by video footage that can be found
on the ActiveTeach. The video clips show a series of individuals who are not necessarily
scientists but who use science everyday as part of their occupation. Each individual
explains what their job entails. The context is then used whenever appropriate in the
Student’s Book to illustrate how their job uses scientific ideas.
The contexts we have used are as follows:
Biology B3 At the gym – exchange and balance and Industrial fermentation
Chemistry C3 Water analysis and Chemistry in cars
Physics P3 Forces and energy in Space and Investigating Space
How Science Works
The emphasis in all of the new science specifications is on building the skills and
scientific literacy of candidates. There is now a much greater weighting towards this in
the assessment process. All good teachers have always covered the essential areas of
How Science Works (HSW) through their teaching methods. There is now an even greater
imperative to do so with 60% of the overall assessment being for the application of
knowledge, investigation skills and the ability of the candidates to see science in the wider
context and understand current debate.
There are areas detailed throughout the Student’s Book where HSW can be highlighted
in the lesson. The Teacher’s Guide also highlights opportunities for introducing aspects
of HSW. This includes a number of practical investigations that can be attempted, some
of which are in the form of practice ISAs as well as material referring to scientific issues
currently under debate. The context that each unit is set in also helps with the integration
of HSW, providing a real flavour of science in everyday life. This integrates HSW closely into
the teaching materials rather than it being a simple ‘bolt on’.
Foundation and Higher tiers

The AQA Biology, Chemistry and Physics GCSE specifications allow students to enter either
the Foundation or Higher tier for any of their assessments. Content aimed at Higher tier
students only is indicated by an H icon. We have provided additional questions on the
ActiveBook that are aimed at A*–A candidates. Worksheets that are aimed at Higher tier
students only are indicated in the topic notes.
Safety
We have attempted to identify all the recognised hazards in the practical activities in
this Teacher’s Guide, provide suitable warnings about them and suggest appropriate
precautions. Teachers and technicians should remember, however, that where there is a
hazard, the employer is required to carry out a risk assessment under either the COSHH
Regulations or the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations. Most education
employers have adopted a range of nationally available publications as model (general)
risk assessments and, where such published assessments exist for the activity, our advice is
believed to be compatible with them. Nevertheless, teachers and technicians must check
whether what is proposed is indeed compatible with the requirements of the employer.
In a few cases activities may be included that are not covered by widely-used model risk
assessments. We have tried to identify these and in such cases teachers or technicians may
need to check with their employer whether the activity is acceptable. If the employer is a
member, they will often suggest consulting CLEAPSS. The proposed activities are likely to
be acceptable to these organisations.
Even where an activity is broadly in line with a model risk assessment, staff in a school will
still need to consider whether their particular situation requires any adaptation.
We have assumed that practical work is carried out in a properly equipped and maintained
laboratory and that any field work takes account of the employer’s guidelines. In particular,
we have assumed that any mains-operated electrical equipment is properly maintained,
that students have been shown how to conduct normal laboratory operations safely
(such as heating or handling heavy objects) and that good practice is observed when
chemicals or living organisms are handled (see below). We have also assumed that classes
are sufficiently small and well behaved for a teacher to be able to exercise adequate
supervision of the students and that rooms are not so crowded that students’ activities
pose a danger to their neighbours.
The practical notes and worksheets have been checked by health and safety professionals
who gave guidance on how to make this text conform to the above policy, and such
recommendations were incorporated before publication.
Good laboratory practice

A brief statement such as this can only be a summary. Any guidance issued by your
employer must be followed, whatever is suggested here.
It is expected that every school will have rules governing behaviour in the laboratory. No
eating, drinking, smoking or the application of cosmetics should be allowed in laboratories.
Interference with mains services or equipment should be strictly forbidden, as should
running or foolish behaviour generally.
Good hygiene is needed at all times, but especially when chemicals or living organisms are
being used. Benches need to be wiped down after such activities and hands washed.
Suitable eye protection must be worn whenever the risk assessment requires it, i.e.
whenever there is a recognised risk to the eyes. This will certainly include activities in which
chemicals are heated, heat is generated in a chemical reaction, or any activities involving
chemicals with a hazard classification. Eye protection is also necessary when there are
mechanical hazards, e.g. when stretching wires to breaking point or evacuating vessels.
Many accidents occur during heating activities. Long hair should be tied back and ties,
cardigans, scarves, etc. should not be allowed to hang freely. It is assumed that teachers will
show and remind students how to safely heat small quantities of solids in test tubes and
liquids in boiling tubes (wide diameter test tubes), using small quantities so that the tube is
not more than one-fifth full, and pointing the tube away from their own and other people’s
faces. The tube should be sloping so that the holder is not in a flame. For liquids, tubes
should be gently shaken or a water bath used where appropriate. Students should stand,
not sit, for most operations in which chemicals (and especially liquids) are handled.
Teachers will need to show students how to smell the contents of a test tube or bottle
safely. First, fill the lungs with (ordinary) air by breathing in deeply (so that only a small
amount of chemical can subsequently be sniffed in). The container should then be held
some distance from the face and pointing away from it, and the odours wafted gently
towards the nose with a hand.
Students need to be shown how to pour safely from bottles, pouring away from the label
(so that it is not damaged by drips). Spills of chemicals should be wiped up at once. Some
may require chemical treatment (e.g. neutralisation) but, in the quantities normally handled
by students, a damp cloth is usually sufficient. The cloth should then be rinsed. Students
should be trained to use a spatula or similar device, and never to handle chemicals with
their fingers. Wherever possible, teat pipettes should be avoided. Even with well-behaved
classes, too many accidents occur when liquids are squirted from them (e.g. when clearing
up at the end of a lesson). Work in schools rarely requires the use of protective gloves.
However, when chemicals have been used or living organisms handles, students should be
trained to wash their hands afterwards.
If the risk assessment requires the use of a fume cupboard, then this should meet the
standard of Building Bulletin 88, Fume Cupboards in Schools (Architects and Buildings
Branch, DfEE, HMSO, 1998) (previously Design Note 29). If safety screens are required for a
demonstration, then they should be sufficient to protect the teacher and all the students.
They should be sufficiently tall and close to the apparatus to prevent objects going over the
top. There should be a gap of 2 m or more between any demonstration and the students.
If microorganisms are in use, teachers unfamiliar with modern techniques may need training
(see, for example, Topics in Safety, Safety in Science Education, or the CLEAPSS Laboratory
Handbook). In any work in microbiology, risks can be reduced to an acceptable level by
observing good practice and following simple precautions. Sterile technique is needed to
prevent cultures from becoming contaminated and to stop microorganisms escaping from
cultures. This will involve ensuring that materials that will contact microorganisms are sterile
before and afterwards; a pressure cooker or autoclave is essential, complemented by the use
of appropriate chemical disinfectants to deal with spills and to clean working surfaces. By
choosing appropriate organisms and growth media, avoiding the culture of microorganisms
from dangerous sources and incubating at room temperature, together with the correct
handling and sealing of cultures, exposure to pathogens can be minimised or eliminated.
Any culture of organisms that is to be consumed, e.g. yoghurt bacteria or baker’s yeast,
should not take place in a science laboratory.
B3
Biology
Topic Learning outcomes and codes
1 13.1.2 Dissolved substances move by diffusion transport.
H 13.1.3 Substances are sometimes absorbed against a concentration
gradient. This requires the use of energy from respiration. The process
is called active transport. It enables cells to absorb ions from very dilute
solutions. Other substances, such as sugar and ions, can also pass through
cell membranes.
2 13.1.1 To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and
other organisms are adapted to maximise effectiveness.
13.1.4 Many organs are specialised for exchanging materials.
13.1.5 In humans:
– the surface area of the lungs is increased by the alveoli.
13.1.6 The lungs are in the upper part of the body (thorax) protected by
the ribcage and separated from the lower part of the body (abdomen) by
the diaphragm.
13.1.7 The breathing system takes air into and out of the body so that
oxygen from the air can diffuse into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide
can diffuse out of the bloodstream into the air.
13.1.8 The alveoli provide a very large, moist surface, richly supplied with
blood capillaries so that gases can readily diffuse into and out of the
blood.
13.1.5 In humans:
– the surface area of the small intestine is increased by villi.
13.1.9 The villi provide a large surface area with an extensive network of
capillaries to absorb the products of digestion by diffusion and active
transport.
13.1.4 Many organs are specialised for exchanging materials.
13.1.10 In plants:
– carbon dioxide enters leaf cells by diffusion
– most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cells.
13.1.11 The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the
surface area of leaves by the flattened shape and internal air spaces.
13.1.12 Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
5 13.1.13 Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves. This loss
of water vapour is called transpiration. Transpiration is more rapid in hot,
dry and windy conditions. Most of the transpiration is through stomata.
The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells that surround them. If
plants lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots, the stomata can
close to prevent wilting.
6 13.2.1 The heart pumps blood around the body. Blood flows from the
heart to the organs through arteries and returns through veins. In the
organs, blood flows through capillaries. Substances needed by cells in the
body tissues pass out of the blood, and substances produced by the cells
pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries.
13.2.2 There are two separate circulation systems, one to the lungs and
one to all the other organs of the body.
10 AQA GCSE Extension Units Teacher’s Guide © Pearson Education Limited 2007
7 13.2.3 Blood plasma transports:
– carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungs
– soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organs
– urea from the liver to the kidneys.
13.2.4 Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs.
Red blood cells have no nucleus. They are packed with a red pigment
called haemoglobin. In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen
to form oxyhaemoglobin. In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into
haemoglobin and oxygen.
8 13.3.1 To interpret data relating to the effects of exercise on the human
body.
13.3.2 The energy that is released during respiration is used to enable
muscles to contract.
13.3.3 During exercise a number of changes take place:
– the heart rate increases
– rate and depth of breathing increases
– the arteries supplying the muscles dilate.
13.3.4 These changes increase the blood flow to the muscles and so
increase the supply of sugar and oxygen and increase the rate of removal
of carbon dioxide.
13.3.5 Glycogen stores in the muscle are used during exercise.
9 13.3.6 If muscles are subjected to long periods of vigorous activity they
become fatigued, i.e. they stop contracting efficiently. If insufficient oxygen
is reaching the muscles they use anaerobic respiration to obtain energy.
H 13.3.7 Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose
and produces lactic acid. As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete,
much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration. Anaerobic
respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to
oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.
10 13.4.2 A healthy kidney produces urine by:
– first filtering the blood
– reabsorbing all the sugar
– reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the body
– reabsorbing as much water as the body needs
– releasing urea, excess ions and water as urine.
H 13.4.3 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a
concentration gradient.
11 13.4.1 To evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney
failure by dialysis or kidney transplant.
13.4.4 People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by
using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney
transplanted.
13.4.5 In a dialysis machine a person’s blood flows between partially
permeable membranes. The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration
of useful substances as the blood. This ensures that glucose and useful
mineral ions are not lost. Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid.
Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances
in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals.
12 13.1.4 Many organs are specialised for exchanging materials.
13.4.6 A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a
healthy one from a donor. However, the donor kidney may be rejected by
the immune system unless precautions are taken.
13.4.7 To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidney:
– a donor kidney with a ‘tissue-type’ similar to that of the recipient is used
– the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system.
© Pearson Education Limited 2007 AQA GCSE Extension Units Teacher’s Guide 11
13 13.7.1 Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing
carbohydrates as an energy source, mineral ions, and in some cases
supplementary protein and vitamins. These nutrients are often contained
in an agar medium that can be poured into a Petri dish.
13.7.3 In school and college laboratories, cultures should be incubated at
a maximum temperature of 25 °C, which greatly reduces the likelihood
of pathogens growing that might be harmful to humans. In industrial
conditions higher temperatures can produce more rapid growth.
14 13.7.2 In order to prepare useful products, uncontaminated cultures of
microorganisms are required. For this:
– Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill
unwanted microorganisms
– inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be
sterilised by passing them through a flame
– the lid of the Petri dish should be sealed with adhesive tape to prevent
microorganisms from the air contaminating the culture.
15 13.5.1 To explain how scientists such as Spallanzani, Schwann and
Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of
Biogenesis.
16 13.5.2 Microorganisms are used to make food and drink:
– bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacture
13.5.7 In the production of yoghurt:
– a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk
– the bacteria ferment the milk sugar (lactose) producing lactic acid
– the lactic acid causes the milk to clot and solidify into yoghurt.
17 13.5.2 Microorganisms are used to make food and drink:
– yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinks.
13.5.3 Yeast is a single-celled organism. The cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm
and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
13.5.4 Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration), producing
carbon dioxide and ethanol (alcohol). This is called fermentation. In the
presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces
carbon dioxide and water. Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is
necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce.
18 13.5.5 In brewing beer and wine-making, carbohydrates are used as an
energy source for yeast to respire. For making beer:
– the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by
enzymes in the germinating grains, in a process called malting
– the sugary solution is extracted then fermented
– hops are then added to give the beer flavour.
13.5.6 In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its
energy source.
19 13.6.3 Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to
produce useful products such as antibiotics. Industrial fermenters usually
have:
– an air supply to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganisms
– a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an
even temperature
– a water–cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring
microorganisms
– instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperature.
13.6.4 The antibiotic, penicillin, is made by growing the mould Penicillium,
in a fermenter. The medium contains sugar and other nutrients, e.g. a
source of nitrogen. The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using
up most of the nutrients for growth.
20 13.6.5 The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein, a protein-rich
food suitable for vegetarians. The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic
conditions and the biomass is harvested and purified.
21 13.6.2 To evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of
biogas generator.
13.6.6 Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation. Biogas,
mainly methane, can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide
range of plant products or waste material containing carbohydrates.
13.6.7 On a large scale, waste from, for example, sugar factories or sewage
works can be used. On a small scale, biogas generators can be used to
supply the energy needs of individual families or farms. Many different
microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas
production.
22 13.6.1 To interpret economic and environmental data relating to
production of fuels by fermentation and their use.
13.6.8 Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation
of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the
action of carbohydrase. The ethanol is distilled from the products of the
fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuels.
B3.0
Exchange and balance

Overview
This unit starts with a revision of diffusion and introduces active transport, then builds
on this to cover exchange and the adaptations of exchange surfaces in the lungs, the
small intestine, plant leaves and root hair cells. It then describes the transport of water
around plants and transpiration, and the transport of blood through the heart and human
circulation. It continues by explaining how exercise affects the body during aerobic activity,
and when muscles use anaerobic respiration. It ends with a section on kidneys, how they
work normally and how dialysis and transplants are used to treat kidney failure.
Investigative Skills Assessment

The ISA for Unit B3.0 is investigating the effect of environmental conditions on the rate
of transpiration. In the Student’s Book, data is presented to the students and then they
are asked a number of questions about the investigation. The Copymaster File provides
questions for students to answer based on their own investigations into the rate of
transpiration. Practical 1 in Topic B3.5 gives instructions for this investigation.
B3.0 Context page

Objectives for the unit Notes on context
Students should know and understand: This unit is presented in the context of fitness and
exercise at the gym. The efficient exchange of gases in
• how exchange surfaces in animals and plants, the lungs, and between cells and blood, is fundamental
such as the lungs, small intestine, kidneys, plant
to being fit and healthy. Regular exercise improves
leaves and root hair cells, are adapted for effective
the body’s response to increasing levels of activity,
exchange
improving the strength of the heart and the response
• how blood circulates through the heart and the two of the breathing and circulation systems to the
circulation systems of the human body transport of blood around the body. This supplies cells
with the glucose and oxygen they need for aerobic
• how the body responds to exercise to increase activity.
supply of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
AT The ActiveTeach component for this topic is a
• how muscle cells use anaerobic respiration when video introduction to what fitness really means.
aerobic respiration cannot supply enough energy for
activity
• different methods for treating kidney failure.
B3.1 Diffusion and active transport
Worksheets available
No. Title Type Foundation Higher
B3.1a Diffusion questions Classwork/homework 4 4
(write-on)
B3.1b Transport across cell membranes Classwork/homework 4
(reusable)
Objectives This will help you decide what needs covering in

greater detail or can be glossed over. It is particularly
Students should be able to: important that students understand how the rate
of diffusion is dependent on the concentration
• recall that dissolved substances move by diffusion gradient, as this concept will be applied to specific
transport
examples in humans and plants in the following
• H explain how active transport moves substances topics. If there is any confusion about rate of
against a concentration gradient using energy. diffusion, ask students to carry out Practical 1.
• Worksheet B3.1a is a revision sheet about diffusion

Key words and could be used with Foundation and Higher
students as classwork or homework, depending on
concentration gradient, diffuse, partially permeable
their response to your initial assessment of their
membrane
understanding.
H active transport
• H Worksheet B3.1b is a Higher-level sheet on
diffusion and active transport that could be used
Points to note as classwork or homework, as appropriate for your
students. A suitable website for the final research
• Students may get the impression from articles question is Asthma UK, which can be accessed via
they read that ‘rate of diffusion’ relates to speed
www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
of movement of the particles. This is incorrect.
Particles move at a speed that is related to the heat • AT The ActiveTeach includes a repeat of the
energy they have (i.e. the temperature). If that does diffusion animation from the AQA Additional Science
not change, then the particles cannot move faster. materials, for students who need to revise their
Starting with a higher concentration gradient will understanding of this process.
not affect the distance that particles move over a
given time. However, if you start with more particles • H AT The ActiveTeach also includes an animation
of active transport for students to compare with
in one area, then more will move to the area of lower
diffusion.
concentration. Rate of diffusion is a rate of change of
concentration. Practical 1 illustrates this, and can be
used to dispel any misunderstanding.
Plenary
• Return to the concept map produced in the starter.
Ask students to identify any words that were
Lesson ideas misplaced then, and suggest where they should be
placed correctly. They should also suggest any new
Starter words or ideas that they have come across in the
• Write the word ‘diffusion’ in the middle of the board lesson that could be added to the map.
or an OHT. Ask students to suggest words they
associate with diffusion, and how they should be Additional homework/research ideas
linked to build up a concept map for this topic.
Much of the work on diffusion in this topic is
• ICT Key examples of diffusion and active transport
will be covered in following topics. However, you
revision of Topic B2.4 in the AQA Additional Science could ask students to research other examples
materials. This activity should revise the work they here. For diffusion, students could research uptake
did then and identify any weaknesses or confusion of substances from the host by parasites such as
in their knowledge. Keep the concept map for the tapeworms and flukes, and how this influences their
plenary. body design. Higher-tier students could research
the importance of active transport of sodium and
Learning activities potassium ions for the action of muscles and nerves.
• Questions 1–4 in the Student’s Book could be used
as assessment of how well students remember and
understand what they have learnt about diffusion.
Practicals and demonstrations students to make sure that they are clear that rate
of diffusion is not speed of movement of the dye
1 Diffusion in agar This practical will produce the
particles (as commonly believed) but the amount of
results shown in Diagram B in the Student’s Book. Cut
particles that penetrate to any given depth.
two identical wells in a non-nutrient agar plate using
a cork borer. Seal the base of each well with a drop of If it is not possible for students to set up and return
liquid agar and leave to set. This will reduce the risk to the practical within the time given, then the set up
of leakage at the base of the well. Using a dropper, could be done for them, leaving them to look at the
place similar amounts of dye solution in each well, results.
using one concentrated and one dilute dye solution. 15 minutes set up, leave for 24–48 hours, 5 minutes
Cover the plate and leave for 24–48 hours.
for results
This should show that in different concentrations
Apparatus (per group)
the dye penetrates the same distance, but that the
amount of dye that penetrates is greater for a higher Non-nutrient agar plate; cork borer; dye (food
concentration of solution. Discuss these results with colouring); water; dropping pipette.
B3.2 Gas exchange in the lungs

B3.2a Diseases of the lungs Classwork (reusable) 4 4
B3.2b The structure of fish gills Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives breathing. Then ask them to place one hand on their

chest and one on their abdomen and see whether
Students should be able to: they can breathe in and out without moving the rib
cage. What other part of the body moves with the
• describe how the lungs are protected in the thorax breath during this kind of breathing?
and are separated from the abdomen by the
diaphragm Learning activities
• explain the role of the breathing system in the • Although students do not need to understand the
exchange of gases between the air and the blood mechanisms of ventilation for this specification, a
demonstration using the apparatus below will help
• describe how the alveoli in the lungs are adapted for to reinforce the importance of the diaphragm in
gas exchange in relation to surface area, thin walls
breathing and the fact that breathing in and out is
and rich blood supply
the result of movements of the diaphragm (and rib
• explain how these adaptations maximise the cage) rather than the other way around.
effectiveness of the lungs.
Key words Y tube
abdomen, alveolus, bronchi, capillary, diaphragm, bell jar

thorax balloons fixed
firmly to ends
of Y tube
Points to note rubber sheet fixed
firmly to base of
bell jar
• The specification refers to moistness of the alveolar
surface. Although there is some moisture in lungs • Practical 1 reinforces the relationship between
(which is why exhaled air has a higher proportion of surface area and rate of diffusion. This could be
water than inhaled air), it is not a continuous layer carried out during work on this topic or any of
and does not play a critical role in gas exchange. Topics B3.3–B3.5. Ask students to use their findings
to explain the importance of increased surface
area to alveoli in the lungs (or as appropriate for
Lesson ideas following topics).
Starter • Worksheet B3.2a may be better used as a whole-
class activity with some students.
• Ask students to put their hands on their chest and
take a deep breath in and then out. Ask them to • Worksheet B3.2b looks at how the gills of fish are
describe the movements of the rib cage during their adapted for gas exchange.
• AT The ActiveTeach also contains a video clip that You could ask Higher-level students to convert the
discusses the importance of the breathing system tube diameters into surface areas for better analysis
during exercise, including the body’s response of of the results.
breathing deeper and faster during activity to supply
This could be extended by asking students to
oxygen and remove carbon dioxide faster.
compare the rate of diffusion from the same volume
of Visking tubing of different diameters. They will
Plenary have to calculate first how many tubes of narrower
• Carry out a connectives exercise with the class using diameter will be needed to hold the same volume of
connective words, including ‘and’, ‘because’, ‘such as’, dye as one wide-diameter tube.
‘to’ and ‘which’, to revise the adaptations of the lungs 1 hour
to exchange of gases. Suitable sentence starters are:
‘The alveoli increase the surface area of the lungs Apparatus (per group)
…’, ‘The breathing system takes air in and out of the
body …’. Visking tubing of different diameters; dye (food
colouring); beakers; water; clamp and clamp stands.
Additional homework/research ideas 2 Demonstration of lung structure Ask your butcher
• Ask students to research examples of lung diseases for the lungs from a sheep or pig (alternatively, a
that are caused by industrial pollution, such as ‘pluck’ includes the lungs and heart). Use these to
pneumoconiosis and asbestosis. They should try help students identify the trachea (if still attached)
to find the causes of these diseases, and which and the two bronchi, and how these tubes divide
industries they are most closely related with. They and get narrower, the deeper you get in the lungs.
could also research legislation that is aimed at Students should appreciate that the spongy texture
reducing the risks to people working in industry from of the lungs is due to the millions of alveoli at the
this kind of pollution. ends of the bronchioles, though they will not be
able to see alveoli clearly except with a magnifying
Practicals and demonstrations glass. Students should also note the red colour of the
1 Surface area and rate of diffusion The effect of lungs, which indicates the rich blood supply
surface area on the rate of diffusion can be shown Wash hands thoroughly after handling lungs.
using identical lengths of different diameters of Disinfect any dissecting boards used with 1% Virkon
Visking tubing. Tie off one end of each tube and fill solution for 10 minutes. Alternatively, perform the
it with a solution of dye (food colouring). Wash the demonstration on a sheet of plastic.
tubes under a running tap to remove any spills of
colour on the outside. Then suspend the tubes to the After the demonstration, wrap the lungs in
same depth in different beakers of water. Differences newspaper, place in a black plastic bin bag and place
in density of dye that diffuses into the water can be in normal refuse, preferably in a skip outside.
measured using a colorimeter. Apparatus
Lungs from a sheep or pig, dissecting board or plastic
sheet, 1% Virkon solution, sharp knife or scalpel.
B3.3 Absorbing food

B3.3a Structures of the small intestine Classwork (reusable) 4 4
B3.3b Adaptations of the intestine wall Homework (write-on) 4 4
Objectives • explain how the adaptations of the small intestine

Students should be able to: maximise its effectiveness for absorption
• describe how the surface of the small intestine is • H understand that some products of digestion are
increased by villi absorbed by active transport.
• describe other adaptations of the small intestine Key words

for absorption by diffusion, including the extensive
network of capillaries digest, microvillus, villus
Points to note • Practical 1 from Topic B3.2 could be used here also.
Ask students to apply their findings to the structure
• You will find many different estimates of the length of the small intestine and explain the importance of
of the small intestine and its surface area. The
difficulty with length is that the muscles in the increased surface area to the absorption by diffusion
intestine wall relax after death, so measures taken of molecules released by digestion.
then give lengths that are much longer than they
are in life. Also, gut length naturally varies between
• Worksheet B3.3b could be used as either a classwork
or homework sheet as appropriate for your students.
individuals and may be affected by diet. Estimates
of surface area make many assumptions, so will • AT The ActiveTeach has an electron micrograph of
obviously vary depending on the assumptions made. the microvilli on the cells of the surface of the small
intestine for use with Worksheet B3.3a. This will need
• H Active transport in the small intestine is to be displayed on a whiteboard or screen while
a confusing subject to research because of students complete this part of the worksheet as a
variations in terminology and accuracy of the classwork activity.
detail that students will find. Glucose and other
monosaccharides, and some amino acids, are actively Plenary
transported, but only across one membrane of a
cell and, in some cases, are not actively transported • Write up the key words and other suitable words
from this topic on the board. Give students 5
themselves but are cotransported with sodium ions minutes to write questions to which each word is an
that are actively transported. It is suggested that this answer. Take examples from the class to discuss.
detail is left to A-level to avoid confusing students.
Additional homework/research ideas
Lesson ideas • Not all the food substances that are absorbed in the
gut are absorbed in the small intestine. Students
Starter could research the few substances that are absorbed
• Revise work on digestion from AQA Additional in the stomach (such as alcohol and aspirin) and try
to find out why this is possible.
Science by giving students 5 minutes to jot down
notes to answer the question ‘What happens to your
lunch inside your gut?’ Take answers from the class
• Alternatively, students could research the effect of
diet on the intestine length, particularly in animals
to assess what they remember about the structure that vary their diet through the year (such as voles).
of the gut, where enzymes are released and what Note that this research is not suitable for students
they do. who are upset by the thought of killing animals for
study.
Learning activities
• If you have a 5-metre rope or flexible pipe, use it Practicals and demonstrations
to demonstrate the length of the average human 1 Structures of the small intestine In this practical,
small intestine. Alternatively, get three students to lie students observe a prepared slide of small intestine
down in a long line to give an idea of the length that (ideally human, but any mammal will do) to look
you are describing. With the rope or pipe, students at the villi and microvilli (brush border). Note that
can attempt to ‘pack’ it so that it fits within the space they will be able to see little detail of microvilli
of the abdomen. More able students could attempt using a light microscope. The ActiveTeach contains
to estimate the surface area of the inside of the an electron micrograph of microvilli for use with
small intestine if there was no folding. This will help Worksheet B3.3a to complete the practical.
give an idea of just how much the villi and microvilli
increase the surface area. If using a microscope with a mirror, do not allow
sunlight to shine directly through the microscope.
• Practical 1 and Worksheet B3.3a give students the 20 minutes
opportunity to study slides of the small intestine
and assess the impact of villi and microvilli on Apparatus (per student)
surface area. Alternatively, a slide of small intestine
could be projected on a whiteboard or screen and Microscope with low- and high-power objectives;
the calculations on the worksheet carried out as a light source; piece of thread or thin string; ruler;
whole-class activity. Worksheet B3.3a.
B3.4 Absorption in plants
B3.4a Diffusion and shape Practical (reusable) 4 4
B3.4b Getting enough carbon dioxide Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives different shapes to explore the effect of shape on

diffusion.
Students should be able to:
• H With more able students, explore the relationship
• describe how carbon dioxide enters leaves by between surface area and volume by calculating
diffusion through stomata the surface area of different-shaped blocks with the
same volume. Start with a cube of side 2 cm2 and
• describe how water and mineral ions enter plants draw up a table of surface area, volume and SA/V
through root hair cells
ratio. Repeat with shapes that are increasingly flat,
• explain how leaves and roots are adapted as such as rectangular blocks of 42221 and 82121.
exchange surfaces. Ask students to relate their findings to the shape of
leaves.
Key words • Practical 2 gives students the opportunity to look at
the distribution of stomata on leaf surfaces.
root hair cells, stomata
• Plants that live in places where water is short
(such as dry places, or cold places where water is
Points to note frequently frozen) have a conflict in need between
• Some of the features of leaves are adaptations to getting carbon dioxide in through stomata for
other needs. For example, thin flat leaves are more photosynthesis, but losing as little water vapour
effective for catching sunlight, and the control through the stomata as possible. Worksheet B3.4b
of stomatal opening is usually to control water- explores some ways that plants are adapted to these
vapour exchange with the air, not oxygen or carbon conditions. This partly anticipates the work in the
dioxide. You may wish to discuss these facts with next topic on transpiration, and could be done then
students during this topic, but they will not need to instead of here. This worksheet may be better used
remember them for the examination. as a classwork activity with some students.
• AT The ActiveTeach includes an animation that

Lesson ideas shows how the gases carbon dioxide and water
vapour are exchanged between the cells inside the
Starter leaf, the air spaces and, through the stomata, with
the air.
• Briefly revise photosynthesis by giving students
5 minutes to jot down answers to the following
questions: what is the equation for photosynthesis, Plenary
where do the reactants for photosynthesis • Play ‘traffic lights’ to test how well students have
come from, which conditions affect the rate of learnt the features of absorption in plants. Give each
photosynthesis, where does photosynthesis happen student a red, a yellow and a green card. Ask them to
in a plant and why does it only happen here? Take hold up the red card if a statement is false, green if is
answers from the class and tackle any weaknesses or true and yellow if they are not sure. Offer statements
misconceptions. covered in this topic, such as ‘Stomata are holes
in the leaf surfaces’ (true), ‘There are usually more
Learning activities stomata on the upper leaf surface than the lower
surface’ (false), ‘Root hair cells are an adaptation for
• Discuss the effect of shape in relation to diffusion absorption’ (true).
distance. Students should understand from the
previous topics why diffusion distance affects the
time it takes for a gas to diffuse from one place to Additional homework/research ideas
another. So they should be able to explain why the • Ask students to research the adaptations that plants
flat shape of a leaf is an advantage for the effective have for keeping their stomata open in conditions
exchange of gases. when they need to reduce water loss. For example,
they could consider cacti (hot/dry), conifers (cool/
• HSW Practical 1 and Worksheet B3.4a give students dry) and epiphytes that live high in trees such as
the opportunity to design and test models of orchids and ‘airplants’ (hot/dry).
Practicals and demonstrations 2 Leaf peels Students can study the stomata of leaves
by looking at them under a binocular microscope,
1 Diffusion into 3D shapes Students can model the
or by looking at leaf peels with a monocular
effect of 3D shape on the rate of diffusion by using
microscope. Leaf peels are made by painting clear
different shapes of agar blocks. Higher-tier students
nail varnish thickly on to a leaf surface. Leave the
should decide the thickness of the blocks in order
peel at least two hours or, even better, overnight to
to get some data to analyse in support of their
harden. Cover the peel with clear sticky tape and
conclusions. You may prefer to provide the agar
then carefully peel the varnish from the leaf. The
blocks already prepared for Foundation students.
tape can then be stuck to a microscope slide for
The agar should be mixed with indicator solution
viewing.
before making the blocks. The blocks are then
placed in dilute acid that will change the colour of Ask students to compare the number of stomata
the indicator. It should be possible to see when the on upper and lower leaf surfaces. If possible, they
acid reaches the centre of the blocks. Worksheet should also compare the leaves of different plant
B3.4a supports the planning of this investigation. species. In most plants, they should find that upper
1 hour leaf surfaces have relatively few stomata compared
with the lower surface, and that different species
Apparatus (per group) show different distributions of stomata.
Non-nutrient agar blocks of different thicknesses Apparatus
including indicator, ideally a cube, e.g. 12121 cm,
Selection of leaves from different plants; clear nail
a half-cube, e.g. 1212½ cm, and a quarter-cube,
varnish, clear sticky tape, microscope and slides.
e.g. 1212¼ cm; dish; dilute acid; ruler; knife; clock;
Worksheet B3.4a.
B3.5 Movement of water through plants

B3.5a Investigating transpiration Practical (reusable) 4 4
B3.5b Transpiration and concentration Homework (reusable) 4 4
gradients
Objectives Lesson ideas

Starter
• describe how plants lose water from their leaves by
• Use a potted plant as the basis for asking questions
transpiration that revise how water gets into and is lost from a
• suggest in which conditions transpiration is most plant. A simple demonstration of a celery stalk that
has been standing in a dyed solution for 24 hours
rapid
will help students remember how the water gets
• explain how and why a plant controls the rate of from the roots to the leaves. It would be useful to
transpiration in some conditions. introduce the term xylem at this point, to describe
the tubes that carry the water up the plant.
Key words Learning activities
guard cell, osmosis, potometer, transpiration, wilt,
xylem • Some students may need a hint to help them
answer Question 5 in the Student’s Book. It refers
to a factor that affects transpiration rate that
Points to note hasn’t been mentioned in this topic, and that is the
concentration gradient. This is discussed in more
• The vascular tissue of a plant contains other types of detail in Worksheet B3.5b.
cells, such as phloem and cambium. Students do not
need to know these for this specification. However, it • HSW Worksheet B3.5a supports Practical 1 in
is important that they don’t form the misconception investigating the effect of humidity on transpiration
that vascular tissue only contains xylem. rate. Alternatives are suggested at the end of
Practical 1.
• The Investigative Skills Assignment expects students a cut a leafy shoot under water to stop the entry of
to carry out an investigation into the effect of wind air into the stem (Pelargonium is suitable for this)
speed on the rate of transpiration.
b fill the graduated capillary tube with water
• You may wish to use Worksheet B3.5b as a classwork c under water, fit the shoot into the bung at the
sheet with Foundation students, in small-group or
end of the potometer and seal it with Vaseline to
whole-class discussion of each situation, to help
make it airtight
students’ understanding.
d join the potometer to the capillary tube using
• AT The ActiveTeach includes animations that are rubber tubing
an extension from Topic 4, to show how changes
in temperature, wind speed and humidity affect e submerge the whole apparatus in water to make
transpiration rate. sure that it is airtight
f introduce an air bubble into the capillary tube
Plenary
• Sketch a graph like the one below on the board and g use a syringe to move the bubble to the start of
the scale.
ask students to explain the shape in as many ways as
they can. Note that potometer designs vary, so these
instructions may need adapting. What is important
100% is to make sure the equipment is airtight before
starting, and to make sure the air bubble can be
adjusted to a zero point before each experiment.
Transpiration rate
75%
If potometers are not available, a simpler set-up is

50% to use a plant in a plant pot on weighing scales. The
pot (not including the plant) will need to be sealed
25%
within a plastic bag to avoid water loss from the
soil. However, even with sensitive weighing scales,
this set-up will not give as precise measurements
6am 12 noon 6pm 12pm
as using a potometer. This should be discussed with
students if they use this set-up.
Additional homework/research ideas Wash hands after handling plants.
• Ask students to research all the adaptations of 1 hour
desert-growing plants to enable them to survive in
hot, dry conditions. This will extend work from the Apparatus (per group)
leaf adaptations researched in Topic B3.4, and should
include form of growth, colour, root structure and Potometer (including graduated capillary tube,
life cycle. rubber tubing, syringe, bung with hole); leafy shoot,
e.g. Pelargonium; Vaseline; beaker; water; stopclock;
Practicals and demonstrations Worksheet B3.5a.
1 Investigating transpiration Worksheet B3.5a For investigating humidity: plastic bag and tie to
supports this practical in the investigation of place over shoot, humidity sensor and datalogging
humidity on transpiration rate. Students will use equipment. Humidity can be varied by spraying
a potometer to measure transpiration rate. This different (small) amounts of water into the bag
equipment will need to be set up for them as before placing it over the plant.
detailed below. You will also need to demonstrate For investigating temperature: source of heat
how to move the bubble along the scale using the such as within an incubator, or rooms of different
syringe so that the scale can be set to zero at the temperature, thermometer or heat sensor with
start of each experiment. datalogging equipment.
To set up the potometer (see diagram on Worksheet For investigating wind speed: small fan with several
B3.5a): speed settings. Make sure the fan is not placed
too close to the plant where it may cause physical
damage at high speed.
B3.6 Human blood circulation
B3.6a Structure of the heart Classwork (write-on) 4 4
B3.6b Why two circulations? Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives • Worksheet B3.6a can be completed alongside

Students should be able to: Practical 1 or, if preferred, through individual research.
You will need to introduce the terms ‘oxygenated’
• describe how the heart pumps blood through the and ‘deoxygenated’ to describe blood that contains
arteries to the organs that returns through veins to higher or lower concentrations of oxygen.
the heart
• Worksheet B3.6b could be completed as a classwork
• identify two separate circulation systems in humans, activity, if this will support your students better.
one to the lungs and one to the rest of the body
• The summary activity in the Student’s Book could be
• explain how substances are exchanged between extended by asking students to write the essay.
body cells and the blood in capillaries.
• AT The ActiveTeach includes a video clip that
discusses the importance of the heart and
Key words circulation in normal levels of activity.
artery, vein • AT The ActiveTeach also includes an animation
that shows the circulation of the blood through the
two circulation systems. There are close-up details
Points to note in body tissue and in lungs to show exchange of
• Worksheet B3.6b introduces mm Hg (millimetres of materials with blood in relation to concentration
mercury) as the measure of blood pressure. This is gradients. This would be appropriate for either this
an old measure of pressure still used in the medical or the next topic.
profession as it is linked to the use of mercury
sphygmomanometers. If you have access to one of Plenary
these, it would be useful to demonstrate to students
so that they can understand the term more easily.
• Return to the concept map developed in the starter
activity and ask students to identify any errors and
explain how to resolve them. They should then
Lesson ideas suggest further words and ideas from the topic
to add to the concept map and explain how they
Starter should be linked.
• Write the word ‘heart’ on the board and, either as Additional homework/research ideas
a whole-class activity or pair work, ask students
to suggest words that can be added to compile a • ICT Ask students to research on the internet to find
concept map linked to this. After a few minutes, if the heart and circulation structure of other groups
they have not already been mentioned, introduce of animals, such as fish, amphibians and reptiles.
the words ‘circulation’ and ‘respiration’ and ask how If possible, they should compare the effectiveness
they should be linked to the concept map. It is of the different kinds of circulation for delivering
important at this stage to help students make the oxygenated blood to tissues.
link to lungs and small intestine (as an example of a
body organ) covered earlier. Keep the concept map Practicals and demonstrations
to return to in the plenary. 1 Dissection of a mammalian heart This practical
can be done as a whole-class demonstration or, if
Learning activities appropriate for your students, as small-group work.
Students will have to be shown how to dissect the
• Question 4 in the Student’s Book refers back to work heart and be made aware of safety procedures. You
covered in Topic B3.2. Question 7 refers to work on
diabetes that was covered in AQA GCSE Additional will need to ask a more experienced colleague if
Science. If students have forgotten, you may have you have not dissected a heart before. Use a pig’s
to remind them about how insulin is secreted from or sheep’s heart from the butchers. If possible, ask
cells in the pancreas acts on cells in the liver and the butcher to leave the tubes attached to the heart
muscles. rather than trimming them off as they are usually
prepared, or buy a ‘pluck’ and cut out the heart with
longer lengths of vessels.
Help students to identify the left and right sides of part of the circuit. The muscle of the left ventricle is
the heart, using the thickness of the left ventricle thicker as it has to produce enough pressure to send
as a guide. From this they should be able to work blood around the whole body. The muscle of the
out which tubes are which, using Worksheet B3.6a. right ventricle only has to produce enough pressure
They should also be able to point out each of the to send blood through the lungs (see Worksheet
atria and ventricles. Explain that blood movement B3.6b). Use a metal seeker to help identify which
through the heart starts with filling of the atria, tubes are connected to each ventricle.
then the atria contract to push the blood into the
Soak the dissecting board in 1% Virkon disinfectant
ventricles, then the ventricles contract to push the
for about 10 minutes afterwards. Wash hands
blood out into the arteries.
thoroughly after practical. Dissecting instruments
Cut open the heart, from side to side in the position can be autoclaved afterwards. Treating with
that it is found in the body (see Worksheet B3.6a). disinfectant will eventually cause corrosion.
Help students to interpret the detail inside the heart, 1 hour
including the valves and ‘heartstrings’ that stop the
valves turning inside out. Discuss how the valves and Apparatus (per group)
heartstrings mean that it is usually only possible for
Sheep’s or pig’s heart (with tubes); dissecting board;
blood to flow one way through the heart.
scissors; metal seeker; disinfectant; Worksheet B3.6a.
Again, compare the thickness of the muscle in the
walls of the atria and in each ventricle and relate this
to the effort needed to push blood through the next
B3.7 Travelling in the blood

B3.7a Living at altitude Classwork (resuable) 4 4
B3.7b Anaemia Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives this should include oxygen, carbon dioxide, products

of digestion and urea. (Note that urea was covered
Students should be able to: in Module B2.00 in AQA Additional Science.) If any
of these have been missed, remind students of the
• explain that blood plasma carries carbon dioxide name to prompt for details about where they enter
from the organs to the lungs, soluble products of
digestion from the small intestine to other organs, and leave.
and urea from the liver to the kidneys
Learning activities
• describe red blood cells as having no nucleus and • The fact that red blood cells have no nucleus means
being full of haemoglobin that they have a much shorter life-span than other
• explain how oxygen is carried by haemoglobin in cells in the body. Ask students to find out how long
they survive in the body, what happens to them
red blood cells, as oxyhaemoglobin, from the lungs
to tissues. when they are beginning to break down, where new
red blood cells are made and which substances are
needed to make them.
Key words
haemoglobin, oxyhaemoglobin, plasma, red blood cell,
• The worksheets provide examples of situations in
which the red blood cell count is changed (increased
urea at altitude, decreased in anaemia) to give students
further understanding of their importance in
Lesson ideas carrying oxygen around the body. Students could
carry out their own research on either of these to
Starter learn more about the changes they cause within the
body.
• Before looking at the Student’s Book, ask students to
jot down as many substances as they can remember • Worksheet B3.7a may be better used as a whole-
that are transported in the blood. If possible, they class activity with some students.
should identify where in the body they enter the
blood, and where they leave. Take answers from the • AT If you did not use the animation on the
ActiveTeach mentioned in the previous topic, then it
class until you think they have covered everything –
would be useful to do so here.
Plenary are several kinds of white blood cell, for the purposes
of this activity they can be considered under the
• Write the key words and other related words from one heading. If platelets are visible in the smear, you
the topic on the board. Give students 5 minutes to
might like to explain their role in blood clotting.
write questions to which each word is an answer.
Take examples of questions from the class to discuss. Also ask students to look closely at single red blood
cells and draw one cell from different angles so that
Additional homework/research ideas they get a clear idea of its 3D shape.
• ICT Ask students to research other substances, H More able students could use a graticule to
such as hormones, that dissolve in plasma and are estimate the size of the different kinds of blood cell.
transported around the body. Their research should
include where the hormones are made, and where Students may need reminding of how to use a
the target cells are that they affect. microscope safely.
15 minutes
Practicals and demonstrations
Apparatus
1 Investigating blood smears This is best done
by looking at prepared slides of blood smears. To Microscope with low- and high-power objectives (to
make slides of fresh blood, follow the instructions give at least 2400); prepared slide of human blood
in CLEAPSS Laboratory Handbook, Section 14.4. Ask smear.
students to identify the different kinds of cells they
can see in the smear, and roughly estimate the
proportion of each kind. Note that although there
B3.8 Exercise and the body

B3.8a Exercise and heart rate Classwork (reusable) 4 4
B3.8b Being healthy, being fit Homework (resuable) 4 4

Starter
• explain that some of the energy from respiration is • Choose a relatively fit student who will not be
used to make muscles contract concerned by the attention. Quickly take their pulse
• describe changes that take place in the body during and record it on the board. Then ask the student to
carry out a simple exercise, such as 20 star jumps,
exercise, including increased heart rate, increased
rate and depth of breathing, and dilation of arteries and measure their pulse rate again. (It should have
to muscles increased.) Ask students to suggest as many reasons
as they can why this change has happened. They
• interpret data on the effects of exercise on the could also suggest any other changes they noticed,
human body such as increased breathing rate and depth of
• explain that the effect of these changes is to supply breathing.
sugar and oxygen faster to muscles and remove
carbon dioxide more rapidly. Learning activities
• HSW interpret data relating to the effects of • Before using Worksheet B3.8a, students will need
to understand what an average heart rate is for a
exercise on the body.
person of their age, how fitness affects heart rate
during exercise (so they can identify those who are
Key words particularly fit or unfit) and what the dangers are
of exercising too much when you are not fit. These
dilate, glycogen answers can be found through research, or from the
video clip on the ActiveTeach.
• Ask students to plan and possibly carry out an

investigation into the effect of exercise on heart rate
and/or breathing rate. Note that depth of breathing
changes as well as rate of breathing during exercise,
so there is not such a clear-cut comparison of these Plenary
factors with increasing exercise as there is with
heart rate. Students could use their own data in the
• On the board, sketch a graph of heart rate and
level of exercise like the one shown in Graph C
analysis given in Worksheet B3.8a. Alternatively, give for this topic in the Student’s Book. Ask students
them the data on the ActiveTeach to analyse. As for suggestions on how to annotate the graph to
before, be sensitive to any student who may have explain the shape of the curve. Then ask how the
a medical condition that affects either heart rate or curve might differ for someone who is very fit, or for
breathing rate. someone who is unfit.
• ICT The data on the ActiveTeach could be analysed Additional homework/research ideas
using a spreadsheet program rather than by hand.
This will simplify the graphing task. • Question 8 in Worksheet B3.8a asks students to
research examples of moderate and vigorous
• HSW Worksheet B3.8a gives students the exercise. They could combine this with their ‘exercise
opportunity to identify anomalous results and
audit’ by identifying how easy it would be to include
decide how to handle them when calculating
sufficient moderate exercise simply into their daily
averages.
lives.
• Worksheet B3.8b introduces students to some of
the health and fitness statements that they may Practicals and demonstrations
come across in their own research, and asks them 1 Exercise and heart rate Students should plan
to compare exercise for health with exercise for and then, if appropriate, carry out an investigation
fitness (as these are not the same thing). This may be into the effect of exercise on heart rate. Exercise
better used as a classwork activity with Foundation should be restricted to light–moderate exercise, and
students. carried out in an appropriate situation (such as the
• If appropriate for your students, ask them to carry gym or playing field) and in suitable clothing (such
as PE clothing). Manage this activity sensitively.
out their own ‘exercise audit’ and to think of simple
ways in which they could increase their daily level Pairing students, so that those for whom exercise
of activity. (If they are already very active, they could is inappropriate take readings while their partners
consider other members of their family.) Explain how exercise, is prudent.
important it is to make exercise simple and easy Students will need to consider which levels of
to incorporate as part of normal life, otherwise you exercise they will use, and how they can make
are much more likely to give up. Link any discussion the investigation fair and provide reliable data for
on exercise to the reasons why it has an effect on analysis. This will mean taking repeat measurements,
health and fitness. identifying anomalous results in the range, and
• ICT Students could also investigate the claim that taking averages of reliable results.
decreasing levels of fitness are reducing the nation’s This practical can be extended to look at the
health, or the current recommendations of exercise link between exercise and breathing rate. Simple
level for health/fitness and what judgements these exercises, such as jogging on the spot or walking
are based on. up and down a short flight of stairs, for 3 minutes
• AT The ActiveTeach includes a video clip interview should produce a change in breathing rate. Note,
however, that depth of breathing will change as
with a fitness instructor. In this, the instructor
explains what an average heart rate is, how heart well as rate, and this can only be quantified properly
rate and breathing rate are affected by aerobic during activity using a spirometer.
exercise, how being fit changes the body’s response Students should not carry out this activity if they
to exercise by being better able to supply blood to have a medical condition that will be affected by
muscles, and the dangers of exercising too much increased heart rate or blood pressure. Asthmatics
when you are not fit. should be warned to use their broncho-dilator
• AT ICT The ActiveTeach also includes a inhalers before exercising. Do not allow exercise
to become competitive, and ensure it is always
spreadsheet of data on heart rate for a range of
individuals at different levels of exercise. This can be done safely.
used with Worksheet B3.8a so that the data can be Apparatus
analysed electronically rather than by hand.
Watch or clock with second hand.
B3.9 Exercise fatigue and anaerobic respiration
B3.9a Does lactic acid hurt Classwork (reusable) 4
B3.9b Training for endurance swimming Homework (resusable) 4
Objectives may already be aware that they occasionally use

anaerobic respiration. If so, ask them to explain to
Students should be able to: the class what they know.
• understand that muscles become fatigued after long Learning activities
periods of activity
• explain that anaerobic respiration supplies energy to • happen in muscle cells during prolonged activity.
ICT Students could research the changes that
muscle cells if not enough oxygen is available This will result in many suggestions as to why cells
• H describe how anaerobic respiration is the fatigue. Some sources still suggest lactic acid from
anaerobic respiration as the cause, although recent
incomplete breakdown of glucose to produce lactic
acid and some energy, though less energy than is medical and scientific research shows that this is
produced by aerobic respiration unlikely. Another suggested cause is the build-up
of phosphate in muscle cells due to the breakdown
• H explain that anaerobic respiration results in an of creatine phosphate, which is another source of
oxygen debt that has to be repaid. energy in muscle cells. (Note that students do not
need to remember this source for this specification.)
Key words An interesting debate topic for the class could
be ‘How could scientists determine what causes
aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, fatigue muscle fatigue?’ This will illustrate the difficulty of
H lactic acid, oxygen debt identifying one factor from a number of changes
that occur simultaneously, and help to explain the
confusion about lactic acid for so long.
Points to note
• It is important that students realise that anaerobic
• Students may come across some ideas in their respiration in muscles is used to supplement aerobic
research into anaerobic respiration on sports respiration when needed, and never replaces it. Even
websites that are not very scientific. If appropriate when exercising vigorously, aerobic respiration in
to your students, warn them of this. cells will be supplying some of the energy need.
• There are no Foundation worksheets for this topic • H The understanding of when aerobic and
as that material can be covered using the Student’s anaerobic respiration is used by an athlete is
Book and activities suggested below. very important in sports training. An example of
• In their research, students may come across swimming is given in Worksheet B3.9b, though it is
applicable to any endurance sport.
reference to another system in muscles that
supplies energy for movement, known as the
phosphocreatine or creatine phosphate (CP) system.
• H Students should be aware of the need to pant
or breathe heavily after finishing some strenuous
This is also anaerobic and supplies energy in the first exercise. If they seem uncertain, choose one of
5–10 seconds of vigorous exercise, along with any your fitter students and ask them to do something
ATP stored in the muscle cells. Students do not need strenuous for several minutes, such as jumping up
to understand or explain this system separately for and down or jogging on the spot. This needs to be
this specification. linked to the idea of ‘oxygen debt’ and the use of the
oxygen to convert the lactic acid back to glucose.
Lesson ideas • H HSW At the end of the period of exercise, you
could also ask the student how their leg muscles
Starter feel. They should answer that the muscles are tired,
• Ask students what aerobic respiration is (the release fatigued or ache. It was thought that this effect
was caused by the build-up of lactic acid. However,
of energy from food materials using air). Then
ask them to suggest what anaerobic respiration recent research suggests that, contrary to having a
is (release of energy from food without air), and negative effect on muscles, lactic acid is essential for
to suggest situations when it might be needed. continued functioning during prolonged strenuous
Note that any students involved in sports training exercise. The development of this idea is covered in
more detail in Worksheet B3.9a.
• AT The ActiveTeach contains a video clip that Additional homework/research ideas
discusses the role of anaerobic respiration in
vigorous activity.
• ICT Ask students to research training for other
endurance sports and the importance for trainers
and athletes of understanding when anaerobic
Plenary respiration is used so that they can improve
• Play ‘traffic lights’ to test how well students have performance.
learnt the features of anaerobic respiration. Give
each student a red, a yellow and a green card. Ask • H ICT Students could research further examples
of where anaerobic respiration occurs in animals.
them to hold up the red card if a statement is false,
Suggestions for topics to investigate are in diving,
green if is true and yellow if they are not sure. Offer
in low-oxygen (anoxic) conditions, in high-speed
statements appropriate to level covered in this topic,
chases such as those of the cheetah after prey.
such as ‘Anaerobic respiration uses oxygen to break
down glucose and release energy’ (false), ‘Muscle
cells use anaerobic respiration to release energy
when oxygen levels are low’ (true). None suggested.
B3.10 Healthy kidneys

B3.10a Testing urine Classwork (reusable) 4 4
B3.10b Getting the right water balance Homework (write-on) 4 4

Starter
• describe how a healthy kidney filters the blood, then
• Start the lesson with a large flask of yellow-coloured
reabsorbs sugar and any ions and water that the water (appropriately coloured for a normal urine
body needs sample). Tell students that it is a sample of urine and
• explain that urine contains urea, excess ions and that they will be analysing it to see what it contains.
Give them 5 minutes to jot down a list of substances
water
that they would expect to find, and reasons why
• H explain that sugar and dissolved ions may be they would expect to find them in the urine. This
actively absorbed in the kidneys. should revise all earlier work on kidneys, the removal
of waste products such as urea, and the control of
Key words water in the body.
glomerulus, tubule, urine Learning activities

• Practical 1 and Worksheet B3.10a both look at
Points to note urine testing. Following the practical work with
the worksheet will help reinforce the reasons why
• During research, students may discover the fact the tests are indicative of problems. You could tell
that up to 50% of the urea that is initially filtered students that in the days before there were indicator
from the blood into the kidney tubule is reabsorbed strips, doctors often tasted a patient’s urine to
from the tubule. Since we talk about urea being a test for diabetes. (It is not suggested that students
waste product that is removed by the kidneys, this attempt this with the artificial urine samples
can be confusing. The reason is that urea is a small provided!) Students should be able to explain that
molecule and moves back by diffusion along its urine from these patients should taste sweet due to
concentration gradient. However, in the last stage of high levels of glucose. This sheet may be better used
urine formation water is selectively reabsorbed from as a whole-class activity with Foundation students.
the tubule, meaning that the concentration of urea
in urine increases even if the actual amount does • Worksheet B3.10b extends work from previous
not. The removal of urea from the blood is a gradual courses on the maintenance of homeostatic balance
process. Students do not need to understand this for of water in the body, and introduces the role of
the specification. ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) as part of the feedback
mechanisms that keeps the balance. If appropriate
for your students, consider revising homeostasis and
feedback mechanisms from AQA Additional Science
in class so that they have refreshed their knowledge • Glucose – Dip a Clinistix into a tube containing some
of the sample for just a moment, then take it out.
before working on the worksheet.
Count to ten, then check the colour with the chart.
• AT The ActiveTeach includes an animation that The darker the colour, the more glucose there is in
shows how the kidney filtrate is formed, and which the sample.
substances are reabsorbed as it passes through the
tubule. • Protein – Place a tube containing the sample into
the water bath and leave for a few minutes. Remove
the tube and compare with a tube containing some
Plenary unheated sample. If there is cloudiness in the heated
• Give students lists of three words and ask them to sample, then it contains protein. (The protein is
identify the odd one out, giving reasons for their coagulated with the heat, causing the cloudiness.)
answers. Suitable lists include: glucose, ions, urea; red Alternatively, use Albustix strips if available.
blood cell, plasma, oxygen; red blood cell, plasma,
carbon dioxide. • pH – Test some of the sample using universal
indicator or non-bleeding pH strips. Normal urine
Additional homework/research ideas has a pH between 4.5 and 8.0.
• ICT Animals that live in desert conditions need to Artificial urine samples:
extract more water from the kidney tubule than
those that live in wetter places. Ask students to • ‘normal’ – dissolve 3 g sodium chloride and 5 g urea
in 1 litre of water
research the differences in their kidneys which
allows this to happen. • ‘diabetic’ – as normal with 1 g glucose powder
• ICT Doctors do more tests on urine than those • ‘protein’ – as normal with 1 g albumin powder
mentioned in Worksheet B3.10a. Students could
research a wider range of tests, to find out what they • ‘high pH’ – as normal with 3 cm ammonia solution
3
indicate. Yellow food colouring can be added in varying

amounts to give a more realistic appearance.
Practicals and demonstrations 30 minutes
1 Testing urine Ask students to carry out tests on
various artificial urine samples to identify which is Apparatus (per group)
the one from a diabetic (+glucose), which from a Artificial urine samples as above, labelled A–D;
patient with high blood pressure (+albumin), and pipettes; test tubes, test tube rack; water bath at
which from a patient with a urinary tract infection 70 °C; universal indicator or non-bleeding pH strips;
(high pH). Clinistix glucose test strips and chart; Albustix test
Students can use the following tests to identify the strips.
additional substances:
B3.11 Dialysis treatment

B3.11a Craig’s story Classwork (reusable) 4 4
B3.11b Getting the concentration right Homework (write-on) 4 4
Objectives • explain why dialysis has to be carried out at regular

Students should be able to: intervals
• describe how a person with kidney failure may be • evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of
treated using dialysis dialysis treatment.
• describe how substances, including urea, are Key words

exchanged between dialysis fluid and the patient’s
blood across partially permeable membranes dialyser, haemodialysis, kidney failure
• explain how the dialysis fluid contains the same
concentration of useful substances as the blood to
ensure that glucose and useful mineral ions are not
lost
Points to note • H For more able students, this would be a useful
opportunity to extend understanding of the role
• Students do not need to remember the details of of the kidneys beyond what is needed by the
peritoneal dialysis for this specification. It has been
included here because it helps to highlight some of specification. For example, the kidneys play an
the disadvantages of haemodialysis. important part in the formation of red blood cells
(by producing erythropoietin) and in the production
of vitamin D. Patients suffering from kidney failure
Lesson ideas and treated with dialysis need regular medication to
protect against anaemia and calcium shortage.
Starter
• Ask students to work in pairs for 5 minutes to jot • AT The ActiveTeach includes an animation that
shows how substances are exchanged between
down what effect there would be if the kidneys blood and dialysis solution in the dialyser. This
suddenly stopped working. (Be sensitive to the can be compared with the animation of normal
possibility that a student, or someone they know, kidney function for the previous topic to highlight
may have suffered kidney failure.) Take answers similarities and differences.
from the class to make sure that they have a clear
understanding of the role of the kidneys from the Plenary
last topic.
• Give students 5 minutes to write down the key
problems with dialysis. Take examples from around
Learning activities the class, then ask students to judge whether dialysis
• H Question 4b in the Student’s Book is for Higher- is worth the effort. Again, take answers for both ‘yes’
tier students because it relates to active transport, and ‘no’ (if there are any), to evaluate this treatment
which they learned about in the last topic. You could for kidney failure.
extend this question by relating it to the restrictions
on diet, particularly foods that contain high levels of Additional homework/research ideas
mineral ions.
• Some children suffer kidney failure and have to face
• Worksheet B3.11a may be better used as a whole- a life of dialysis. Ask students to design a poster that
class activity with Foundation students. is aimed at reassuring these children that dialysis
will make it possible for them to lead a reasonably
• ICT Ask students to find out more about dialysis normal life.
using the internet or books to help them with their
evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of • Alternatively, ask students to find out the link
this treatment. Useful websites include the National between diabetes and kidney failure, and to consider
Kidney Federation and Kidney Research UK, which how the increase in diabetes as a result of increase in
can be accessed via www.Longman.co.uk/AQAScience. obesity means that the need for treatment for kidney
failure is likely to increase in the next few decades.

None suggested.
B3.12 Kidney transplants

B3.12a Not enough kidneys Classwork (resuable) 4 4
B3.12b Craig’s transplant Homework (resuable) 4 4
Objectives • HSW evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of

Students should be able to: kidney transplants.
• explain that a person with kidney failure may be Key words

given a healthy kidney in a transplant
• explain why the tissue of the kidney must be immunosuppressant drug, rejection, tissue type,
transplant
matched with the patient
• explain why the patient is treated with drugs to

suppress the immune system
Points to note against, or you could set up a true debate within
class. In the latter case, consider splitting the class in
• The specification says that diseased kidneys are two with each half working together for one side of
replaced by healthy ones in kidney transplants. This the debate. Each half should appoint a spokesperson
is true if the kidney failure was due to infection who will deliver the arguments, with support from a
that is likely to spread to other parts of the body. small group during the debate. The rest of the class
However, in most cases kidney failure is the result can then act as ‘jury’ and vote on the question at the
of other causes (such as diabetes) that result in end of the debate.
physical damage to the tissue. In these cases the
patient’s kidneys are left intact, and the transplant • ICT The research activity needed to prepare for the
is connected to the blood system in the patient’s debate can be carried out using the Internet. For
groin. If a kidney has to be removed, this is done in a useful websites see www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
separate operation before the patient is considered
for transplant.
• Worksheet B3.12b extends the ‘case study’ of Craig
introduced in the previous topic. This sheet could
be used as either classwork or homework and
should help students appreciate the advantages
Lesson ideas and disadvantages of transplants, which can be
compared directly with their answers to Worksheet
Starter B3.11a. This worksheet may be better used as a
• Revise the last topic by asking students to suggest classwork activity with Foundation students.
quickly what the problems are when treating kidney
failure with dialysis. Then ask them if they know of Plenary
other ways to treat organ failure. It is highly likely
that some students will suggest organ transplant. • Ask students to imagine that a friend’s sister is on
dialysis for kidney failure. The friend is thinking about
If not, offer a hint by asking what they would do if
offering to donate one of their kidneys to their sister.
the batteries ran out in a torch, and whether we can
Give students 5 minutes to think of two reasons why
do something similar for body parts. Ask students
they should donate, and two why they should not.
to suggest the advantages of replacing a diseased
Take answers from around the class, until you think
kidney rather than treating it with dialysis. This
all sensible examples have been covered.
can be revisited in the plenary to make sure that
students have learnt the correct answers.
Learning activities • ICT Students could research the increase in
numbers of organ transplants in pets, and consider
• Worksheet B3.12a prepares students for a debate what are the advantages and disadvantages of doing
on the topic of organ supply for transplants. This
this.
will require time to research further information
about the suggestions mentioned in the worksheet.
It can be carried out simply as a paper exercise,
with students writing down their arguments for or None suggested.
B3.0 Answers
B3.1 Diffusion and active b Diagram should show even distribution of colour
through water in beaker.
transport c Particles of coffee dissolved in the warm water,
Student’s Book and then moved through the water by random
movement.
1 a Dye particles have moved randomly from where
3 a There are small holes in the membrane that are
they were placed at the start. This has resulted in
large enough for the particles to move through.
their spreading out (diffusing) through the agar.
b The amount of a substance dissolved in a
b The area of dye may have spread out further.
solution.
2 a i Diagram showing beaker of water, with drop
c i Yes.
of colour added.
ii Yes.
ii Diagram showing spread of colour from initial
drop, still more concentrated near the original d Particles move in both directions, but more
drop and getting less concentrated as you get move from the concentrated side to the dilute
further from the drop. side.
iii Diagram showing even spread of colour Worksheet B3.1b
throughout water in beaker, paler than
original drop. 1 a Through a protein pore, because it is ionic.
b Movement should be a random, zigzag path b Diffusion, because it is a small, non-ionic

within coloured area. molecule.
3 a The particles are all moving at the same speed. 2 Diffusion when the concentration outside is greater
than inside. Active transport when the cell needs
b More particles have moved from well A than glucose but the concentration outside is less than
from well B. inside.
c Rate of diffusion is the rate of change of 3 a To make the protein change shape.
concentration.
b Respiration.
4 a A membrane that lets particles of small size
through, but not larger particles. 4 The membranes around different organelles may
contain different transport proteins, so it is possible
b All the particles are moving. to have different concentrations of substances
c More of the particles from the concentrated inside organelles compared with the cytoplasm.
solution pass through the membrane to the This means different processes can go on inside
dilute side than particles pass in the opposite the organelles.
direction. This means the concentration gradient
gets less and will eventually disappear when the B3.2 Gas exchange in the lungs
solutions are the same concentration on each
side. Student’s Book
5 a This means more move from the dilute to the 1 When you breathe in deeply, the rib cage lifts and
concentrated solution than in the other gets a little wider and the diaphragm gets lower.
direction. When you breathe out, the rib cage collapses a
b Because diffusion results in more particles from little and the diaphragm is raised.
the concentrated side moving to the dilute side 2 Air, mouth, windpipe, bronchi, alveoli, blood in
than in the other direction. capillary.
6 a Mitochondria. 3 There is more area/blood to exchange gases with.
b Contains many mitochondria. 4 Sketch should show that greater surface area means
Worksheet B3.1a that more exchange can happen at the same time.
5 The particles do not have far to move, so they get
1 The particles of perfume diffused from the place
there faster.
where Paula sprayed them and spread through
the air. It took a few minutes for some particles to 6 a The blood is continually taking away oxygen and
diffuse as far as Gill. bringing in carbon dioxide, so that keeps O2
concentration low and CO2 concentration high
2 a Diagram should show beaker with small pile of
on the blood side. Breathing replaces air in the
coffee at bottom.
lungs to keep O2 concentration high and CO2
concentration low in the alveoli.
B3.0 Answers
b Rate of diffusion depends on concentration 7 a Glucose for carbohydrates such as starch, glycogen.
gradient. If the blood flowed more slowly and Amino acids build into proteins.
breathing was slower, concentration gradients b It can take more than would be available just by
for the gases would get less and diffusion would diffusion.
be slower.
c They carry out the process of respiration, releasing
Worksheet B3.2a the energy needed for active transport.
1 Both reduce the exchange of air between the Worksheet B3.3b
alveoli and the atmosphere, so carbon dioxide
concentration in the alveoli will be higher than 1 Adaptations: villi and microvilli for increased surface
normal and oxygen concentration will be lower. area; thin walls of capillaries and intestine surface
This will slow down the exchange of gases with the to make diffusion distance as short as possible; lots
blood. of capillaries to take diffused products of digestion
as quickly as possible.
2 It reduces surface area for exchange, so less can be
exchanged in the same time. 2 All these adaptations increase rate of diffusion.
3 If alveoli are filled with liquid, they cannot exchange

gases with the blood. Increasing the oxygen B3.4 Absorption in plants
concentration in the air they breathe in will
increase the rate of exchange in the alveoli that are Student’s Book
still clear. 1 Being thin reduces distance for diffusion.
Worksheet B3.2b 2 a Oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour.

b Oxygen out during day, in at night; carbon
1 a Lots of gills containing lots of gill plates.
dioxide in during day, out at night; water
b Gill membranes very thin, well supplied with vapour out. Oxygen and carbon dioxide at
capillaries close to the surface. night as a result of respiration, during the day
c Blood constantly flowing through capillaries, as a result of the balance between respiration
water constantly flowing over gills, blood and photosynthesis. Water vapour at higher
flowing in opposite direction to water, so concentration inside plant than outside most of
always a concentration gradient for gases. the time.
2 All these factors increase the rate of diffusion of 3 Most leaves are wide and flat, giving as large a
gases between the blood in the capillaries and the surface area as possible.
water. So this makes the gills effective exchange 4 a Air, stoma, air space, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
surfaces. chloroplast (may be transfer between cells
before reaching chloroplast).
B3.3 Absorbing food b One.
Student’s Book c The shorter the distance for diffusion, the faster
diffusion can happen.
1 Being very long allows as much as possible to be
5 Air, because carbon dioxide in the chloroplast is
absorbed from the digested food.
combined with water during photosynthesis.
2 Increased surface area increases rate of absorption.
6 a They greatly increase surface area.
3 Brings them into contact with more of the digested
b The greater the surface area, the faster the rate
food so absorption is faster.
of diffusion possible.
4 a They increase the surface area even more.
7 Active transport, because the ions are moving
b Means rate of absorption can be even faster. against their concentration gradient.
5 So substances can diffuse as fast as possible.
Worksheet B3.4b
6 a The blood that has a high concentration of food
products that have diffused into it moves 1 Oxygen out, carbon dioxide in, water vapour in.
away to be replaced with blood that has a 2 a Wide and flat, to give as large a surface area as
low concentration. The concentration of food possible and as short a diffusion distance as
products remains high within the gut while possible.
digestion continues. So the concentration b Leaves are the main surface for exchange of
gradient is kept steep. gases between the inside and outside of the
b Rate of diffusion is faster with a steeper plant and where photosynthesis (which uses and
concentration gradient. produces gases) occurs.
B3.0 Answers
3 a Rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Worksheet B3.5a
b Closing stomata reduces rate of gas exchange. 1 A preliminary trial run would help to choose the
So carbon dioxide concentration inside range of humidities to use.
the leaf will drop, which will reduce rate of
photosynthesis. 2–8 Students’ own answers.
4 Photosynthesis only happens when it is light. Worksheet B3.5b

5 a Water-vapour loss will be reduced so plant will not 1 Transpiration is the diffusion of water from the
have to close stomata so soon if not enough leaf surface. Increasing concentration gradient
water is available. increases rate of diffusion and vice versa.
b It reduces rate of exchange of other gases too. 2 a Increasing temperature increases evaporation
6 Spruce, in cold temperate areas where ground may from the cell surfaces inside the leaf, but
freeze during winter. Lavender in dry warm areas decreases the number of water particles in the
such as Mediterranean, where little rain falls during air (humidity).
summer. Both environments will have little water b It will increase the rate of transpiration because
available to plants at some times of the year so it increases the concentration gradient between
adaptations that reduce water loss at these times the inside and outside of the leaf.
are essential. 3 a Increasing wind speed decreases the number of
7 Carbon dioxide can be captured at night, when water particles outside the leaf.
temperatures are lower and loss of water by
b This is because the moving air moves water
transpiration will be less. During the day, stomata particles away from the leaf faster.
are closed to prevent loss of large amounts of
water due to the higher air temperatures, but c It will increase the rate of transpiration because it
photosynthesis can be carried out as the carbon increases the concentration gradient between
dioxide is released inside the plant. the inside and outside of the leaf.
8 Dry and heat means the plants must have 4 a There are more water particles in humid air than
adaptations to reduce water loss but allow carbon in dry air.
dioxide in for photosynthesis: physical adaptations b It will decrease the rate of transpiration because
that reduce air movement over the leaf, or it decreases the concentration gradient between
physiological adaptations such as those of the the inside and outside of the leaf.
cacti, which allow carbon capture when it is cooler. 5 Warm, windy and dry, because rate of transpiration
would be highest in those conditions.
B3.5 Movement of water through
plants B3.6 Human blood circulation
Student’s Book Student’s Book
1 Sketch annotated to show stages of osmosis from 1 Because you would not be able to show all the
soil water to xylem in terms of concentration capillaries as there are so many of them and they
changes. are so small.
2 It travels up the xylem tubes. 2 Arteries, large blood vessels that carry blood away
3 Sketch annotated in terms of concentration changes from the heart; capillaries, very narrow blood
to show stages of osmosis from xylem to cell by air vessels that supply cells in organs; veins, large
space, then to air space and out through stoma to blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart.
air. 3 Right side of heart, lung circulation through
4 Plan to include use of potometer, several different air capillaries in lungs, left side of heart, body
temperatures with same plant, and same light and circulation through capillaries in other organs, right
other conditions. side of heart.
5 Wind blows away any water particles next to the 4 a Several possible answers including oxygen
leaf, increasing the concentration gradient between concentration in blood decreases, carbon
the leaf and the air. A greater concentration dioxide concentration in blood increases,
gradient means greater rate of diffusion. concentration of glucose (sugar) in blood
decreases.
6 Dry and hot.
b Oxygen concentration in blood increases, carbon
7 Stop photosynthesis as chloroplasts would run out dioxide concentration in blood decreases.
of carbon dioxide to convert to glucose.
B3.0 Answers
5 Layer of cells around capillaries only one cell 5 The blood does not have to travel as far, and gets
thick, so short distance for diffusion. Very many to capillaries in shorter distance so less pressure
capillaries increases surface area for exchange. loss. If the pressure was the same as the body
6 Because capillaries run close to most cells, walls very circulation, the capillaries would get a much higher
thin and distance for diffusion is very short. pressure than capillaries in other organs, and so
might burst.
7 Blood that has passed through the pancreas will
also have exchanged gases with cells, so oxygen 6 Left ventricle has to produce greater pressure to get
concentration will be low and carbon dioxide blood all the way round the body, so muscle needs
concentration high. By going through the lungs to be more powerful than in the right ventricle,
first, the oxygen and carbon dioxide can be which only has to get blood through lungs and
exchanged between the blood and the alveoli, so back to the heart.
that the blood going to the liver cells can supply 7 a Respiration.
oxygen as well as insulin. b The blood carries glucose and oxygen to the
Worksheet B3.6a cells, and carries carbon dioxide from cells to
lungs.
1 Arrows showing blood flowing in through vena cava
c Mammals and birds need more energy than other
to right aorta, down to right ventricle, out through
animals for maintaining body heat. A double
pulmonary artery to lungs, back through left aorta
circulation means you can have different
and ventricle, out through aorta.
pressures in the two circuits, so you get better
2 a Artery, because blood flows away from heart exchange in each circuit. So cells can be supplied
through it. more efficiently.
b Deoxygenated, because it is bringing blood back
from the body. B3.7 Travelling in the blood
3 a Lungs.
b Deoxygenated, because they are carrying blood
Student’s Book
that has come from body cells. 1 It contains many red blood cells.
4 They stop blood flowing backwards when the 2 Red blood cells.
muscles of the atria and ventricles contract. 3 a From cells in body organs.
5 a The atria only have to push blood into the b Capillaries in small intestine.
ventricles. The ventricles have to push blood
4 a Capillaries in the lungs.
much further.
b Cells in body organs.
b The left ventricle has to push blood all the way
round the body, the right ventricle only has to 5 It is soluble in water.
push blood through the lungs. 6 a It makes the distance as short as possible.
Worksheet B3.6b b Oxygen needs to be exchanged by diffusion as
rapidly as possible. The shorter the distance for
1 a All the body except the lungs.
diffusion, the faster the exchange.
b Lungs.
7 Contain haemoglobin, and no nucleus so more room
2 a Net diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into blood, for haemoglobin.
net diffusion of carbon dioxide from blood into
8 It can combine with oxygen to form
alveoli.
oxyhaemoglobin, and oxyhaemoglobin easily
b Net diffusion of oxygen from blood into cells, net gives up the oxygen when near cells to form
diffusion of carbon dioxide from cells into blood. haemoglobin again.
3 a Capillaries.
Worksheet B3.7a
b There are many more capillaries than other
1 Oxygen concentration in the air is low. Heart rate
blood vessels that pass close to all cells. They
and breathing rate increase to try to supply the
also have thin walls for faster diffusion.
cells with the oxygen they need for normal activity.
4 They might burst because they have thin walls.
2 The body diverts blood to the most important
organs that need oxygen. The lungs have to get as
much blood as possible so that they can supply it
to the rest of the body. The brain needs a minimum
level of oxygen to work properly, otherwise you fall
unconscious.
B3.0 Answers
3 a To carry oxygen around the body from lungs to
cells.
B3.8 Exercise and the body
b The same volume of blood can carry a greater Student’s Book
amount of oxygen.
1 a Oxygen and glucose (sugar) for more respiration to
c At high altitudes the blood can extract less oxygen produce more energy.
from the air. Having more red blood cells
b More carbon dioxide and water from respiration.
increases the amount of oxygen that can be
extracted. 2 Oxygen in red blood cells from lungs, glucose
dissolved in plasma absorbed from small intestine.
4 Red blood cells have no nucleus so they only last for
a few months. At sea level the extra cells would not 3 So they can get more glucose rapidly when needed
be replaced because they are not needed. in exercise and blood glucose concentration is low.
5 a Rosy cheeks indicate a lot of haemoglobin (red 4 a Decreases.
blood cells) in the blood. b Increases.
b It helps them extract more oxygen from the air 5 This shows what is happening in the body cells.
at high altitude. Concentrations in the arteries reflect what is
6 a It will help them increase the number of red blood happening in the lungs.
cells in their blood. 6 Breathing faster and deeper exchanges more
b They can extract more oxygen from the air air in the alveoli for fresh air. This increases the
so can compete for longer using aerobic oxygen concentration in alveoli and decreases the
respiration. carbon dioxide concentration, which makes the
concentration gradients between the blood and
c Only for a few weeks as red blood cell count will
alveoli steeper for both gases, increasing the rate of
return to normal as red blood cells die off and
exchange.
are replaced.
7 Lack of regular activity leads to health problems.
Worksheet B3.7b
Worksheet B3.8a
1 a They carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells in
the organs. 1 a Correctly plotted graph of Heart rate (y-axis)
against Exercise level (x-axis) with one line for
b Haemoglobin.
each student.
2 a Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form
b Many possible reasons, including: different level
oxyhaemoglobin.
of fitness, natural variation in measurement
b Oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen to form within an individual, mis-reading by recorder.
haemoglobin again. The oxygen is taken up by
2 The results suggest that Tom, Claire and Leila are
the cells in the organs.
fitter than the others because their heart rate is
3 Anaemia means that less oxygen is carried in the generally lower than the others. Paul and Davey
blood. Lack of oxygen means that respiration seem to be the most unfit because their heart rates
cannot be carried out at the same rate in body increase the most with activity.
cells. Respiration produces energy, so less
3 a Anomalous results: 68 for Jonathon level 2 (looks
respiration means less energy, leading to tiredness.
too low); 165 for Gary level 3 (looks too high);
Lack of oxygen in the brain causes dizziness. If
112 for Sarah level 4 (looks too low).
oxygen is low in the body, it responds by breathing
faster to try to get more oxygen, so causing b Error in measurement.
breathlessness. c Because they will make the average less accurate.
4 Meat and green vegetables provide iron. Lack of 4 a Level 1, 75.1; level 2, 90.3; level 3, 117.0; level 4,
meat and green vegetables means lack of iron, so 160.5.
lack of haemoglobin, leading to anaemia.
b Heart rate increases with increasing level of
5 a They are absorbed from digested food in the small activity.
intestine.
5 a 204.
b They dissolve in the water in blood plasma.
b Level 1, 36.8%; level 2, 44.3%; level 3, 57.4%; level
c Carbon dioxide and urea. (Other answers are 4, 78.7%.
possible.)
c Davey exceeds maximal heart rate on level 4
exercise. He should not exercise to this level until
he has increased his fitness.
B3.0 Answers
6 Repeat measurements for each individual at 3 Oxygen is being used rapidly in respiration to
each activity level to improve reliability of release lots of energy.
measurements. 4 a Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy
7 Students should be very clear about what they have from the breakdown of one glucose molecule.
to do, follow sensible safety precautions when b Supplies energy quickly, and when oxygen levels
active and stop as soon as they feel uncomfortable low.
or unwell.
5 a Breathing rate is as fast as possible to supply
Worksheet B3.8b oxygen for aerobic respiration.
1 The activity is increasing the muscle cells’ need b Breathing rate is still raised to supply oxygen for
for oxygen and also the amount of carbon dioxide converting lactic acid back to glucose.
produced by the cells. Increased breathing rate and 6 a The oxygen needed after anaerobic exercise to
depth increases the rate of supply of oxygen and convert lactic acid back to glucose.
removal of carbon dioxide.
b The debt is built up during vigorous exercise. It
2 It improves circulation of the blood so the heart is paid back once exercise has ended or reduced
does not have to pump as hard to get blood round sufficiently for oxygen to be available for the
the body. conversion of lactic acid.
3 Maximal heart rate is 220 minus current age. Target 7 It supplies energy when not enough can be supplied
heart rate during vigorous activity=70% of from aerobic respiration because of limits of oxygen
maximal heart rate. supply through lungs and blood circulation.
4 a As the circulation improves with fitness, the heart
rate will decrease. So as you get fitter, you will Worksheet B3.9a
have to exercise harder to get to the target heart 1 No it was not valid, because he had shown there was
rate. a correlation between the increase in lactic acid
b So as not to exceed the target heart rate at any and loss of response, not that the lactic acid caused
point, which could be damaging. the loss of response. Another factor that Hill did
not measure could also change at the same time
5 Not on current recommendations. Exercise for health and be the cause.
is less than for fitness.
2 No, it is not. Possible reasons are: the original
6 To encourage everyone to do at least some conclusion was not valid; Hill did not show that the
exercise and so improve their health. development of pain was linked to the production
7 Many possible answers including: use motor of lactic acid.
transport too much, use machines to do physical 3 It showed a possible way that lactic acid could cause
work. the loss of response.
8 a Students’ own research. 4 a It was only carried out at low temperatures.
b i Many possible answers. Should include b Later work at higher temperatures did not
appreciation that little time is available, or support the conclusion.
that childcare will be needed.
5 It shows that lactic acid is needed by muscle cells
ii Many possible answers. Should show when fatigued to improve contraction response
understanding that exercise needs to be rather than damaging them.
developed slowly, and aimed at cardiovascular
endurance as well as general muscle fitness. 6 Understanding that lactic acid is important could
change exercise that only improves aerobic
respiration over longer periods, to a mixture of that
B3.9 Fatigue and anaerobic and improving the body’s response to higher levels
respiration of lactic acid from anaerobic respiration.
Student’s Book Worksheet B3.9b

1 When the muscle stops responding properly due to 1 The release of energy from glucose using oxygen
over-use. from air.
2 a They both release energy. 2 a To speed up heart and breathing rate so increasing
rate of gas exchange.
b Several possible answers including: aerobic
respiration uses oxygen, anaerobic does not; b It will make it more possible for the blood to
H anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid, deliver all the oxygen the cells need during the
aerobic respiration does not. sprint.
B3.0 Answers
3 Because they need to stay within the aerobic range Worksheet B3.10a
of breathing for much longer.
1 Water, urea, and possibly water-soluble vitamins
4 a Produced in the cells. and sodium ions if the diet has included more than
b As the result of anaerobic respiration. the body needs. Glucose is not normally excreted.
5 Lactic acid levels would start at zero and only start 2 a The colour depends on the amount of water in the
to build when aerobic respiration was unable to urine. This varies depending on how much the
supply all the energy the swimmer needed. Lactic person has drunk recently, or how much water
acid levels would drop again only after the swim has been lost in sweating.
was over. b Very pale after drinking large quantities of water,
6 Curve A is a sprint swimmer and curve B is a distance very dark after not drinking anything on a hot
swimmer, because A is faster but produces more day or after lots of exercise, when water is lost in
lactic acid than B. sweating.
7 a i A
ny point of the ‘after’ curve because it is all 3 a Visual check with microscope will show if red
below the before-training curve. blood cells present in urine.
ii M
ark the end point of the ‘after’ curve, where b Cells cannot usually get into kidney tubules as
it is higher than the end point of the ‘before’ they are too big. Presence in the urine indicates
curve. damage to the kidneys.
b Swimming faster aerobically means they can 4 a Blood glucose concentration is not controlled
swim faster before adding in the energy from properly and rises very high after a meal.
anaerobic respiration, so their top speed should b At a high concentration, the kidneys cannot
be greater. Being able to tolerate higher levels reabsorb all the glucose, so some is left in the
of lactic acid means that they should be able to urine.
keep swimming faster for longer.
5 Only molecules below a certain size can be filtered
out of the blood in the glomerulus. Proteins are
B3.10 Healthy kidneys usually larger than this limit.
Student’s Book 6 If blood pressure is high, it could force larger
molecules through the holes in the capillary
1 Many possible answers, including dissolved ions, membranes in the glomerulus.
urea, glucose, amino acids.
7 a They are easy to do.
2 Blood cells, as they are too large to get through the
holes. b Ketones for diabetes; bilirubin for liver or
gallbladder infection; HCG for pregnancy; NTP
3 For rapid exchange of substances by diffusion. for Alzheimer’s syndrome.
4 Glucose is normally all reabsorbed by the kidneys.
Its presence in urine suggests blood glucose Worksheet B3.10b
concentration is abnormally high. 1 It could absorb too much water by osmosis and
5 Tiredness, because the glucose could not be used burst the cell membrane.
to release energy in respiration. 2 Osmosis from blood, and product of respiration.
6 Some of the water in your blood will be lost through 3 As the blood flows past the cells, water is exchanged
sweating, so more water will be reabsorbed from with the cells by osmosis. Water will move from
the kidney tubule to keep the balance of water in the more dilute solution to the more concentrated
the body at the right level. solution. Keeping the amount of water in the blood
7 Urea and excess water and dissolved ions that the at the right level will keep the amount of water in
body does not need. These are what is left in the the cells at the right level.
kidney tubule after everything that the body needs 4 The concentration of urine will increase.
is reabsorbed. 5 a Jamie will produce more urine than Sam, and it will
8 a They will move by diffusion when the be paler in colour.
concentration in the blood is higher than the b Sam, because he will need to absorb more water
concentration in the kidney tubule. from his urine to prevent dehydration.
b The body needs to keep glucose and the right 6 a The effect of any change is fed back to the control
balance of ions. This means it will have to mechanism, so that a ‘normal’ or ‘set’ position is
absorb some of these against the concentration maintained.
gradient at times. This can only be done by
active transport.
B3.0 Answers
b It makes it possible to keep the changes in water b Advantages: save life. Disadvantages: need to
level in the body within limits so that cells can be very disciplined as needs doing four or five
work properly. times a day; need to be very careful to prevent
7 Alcohol and tea are diuretics because they increase infections; fewer limitations on diet and fluid
the amount or urine produced, by decreasing the intake; can travel, as long as to places where can
amount of ADH produced by the hypothalamus. get dialysis solution.
Aspirin is an anti-diuretic because it increases the 3 Someone who is not very skilled or confident at
release of ADH. changing the fluid, or someone who is not very
disciplined and capable of changing the fluid
B3.11 Dialysis treatment frequently.
Worksheet B3.11b
Student’s Book
1 a Particles move through the membrane, with
1 Because it sometimes does not produce any more particles moving from the side where
symptoms. the concentration is higher than in the other
2 If it blocks the ureter, the urine cannot flow away. So direction.
urea and excess water and ions cannot be removed b It changes the rate of diffusion.
from the blood by that kidney.
c So that the blood returned to the patient has the
3 a Substances that are produced by the body, such right concentration of substances, such as water
as urea, will increase in concentration in the and mineral ions, in it.
blood. Substances that enter from the products
of digestion will not be kept in balance, so 2 a Glucose and ions will move out from blood into
concentrations will either increase or decrease dialysing solution.
much more than normal depending on how b Glucose and ions will move into blood from
much is taken in. dialysing solution.
b This will change the concentration of the c In the kidney, substances are first filtered out and
substances in the body cells, and possibly affect then reabsorbed into the blood; in dialysis,
the way the cells work. substances just diffuse out. In the kidney,
4 a It exchanges substances by diffusion with the substances are balanced by what the body
blood. needs; in the dialyser, substances are balanced
by their concentrations in the dialysing solution.
b It does not filter the blood like the glomerulus
does, and there is no active transport across the 3 No, because dialysis tries to remove as much urea as
membrane. possible.
5 It keeps the concentration of substances such as 4 a Usually three times a week.
urea, water and dissolved ions at levels that allow b Continually, with solutions replaced four or five
normal working of body cells. times a day.
6 Frequent regular dialysis means having to be near c Because substances are not allowed to build up in
hospital or have lots of equipment at home; control the blood as much as in haemodialysis.
of diet to stop some substances building up too 5 A build up of toxins in the body, risking affecting the
rapidly; cannot travel away from dialysis equipment way cells work, or at worst coma.
for long; takes a lot of time and care to do properly.
Worksheet B3.11a B3.12 Kidney transplants

1 He would fall into a coma and die.
Student’s Book
2 a Advantages: save life; lots of time to read.
Disadvantages: must be done regularly at least 1 a Because they may have a condition that would
three times a week; often done in hospital; takes make the operation very risky.
a lot of time, so interferes with everyday life; b Dialysis.
equipment at home takes up lots of room; feel 2 a It identifies any invading cells, such as those that
rough at end of treatment session due to blood cause disease.
pressure drop; difficult to go away from home
for more than a day; limitations to fluid intake b Because the transplant comes from another
and diet. person, but is something we want to keep
working in the body.
38 AQA GCSE Extension Science Teacher’s Guide © Pearson Education Limited 2007
B3.0 Answers
3 Because markers are dependent on genes, and 7 Take the value for 5 minutes and divide by 5 to
you are more likely to share genes with someone give cm/min. (1 mark)
close in your family than with someone who is not 8 Line graph. (1 mark)
related to you.
9 Do a control experiment. (1 mark)
4 Because the kidney can be kept alive long enough
to transport that distance. 10 Repeat measurements and take averages for each
time and setting. (1 mark)
5 To give the greatest chance of success.
11 Rate of transpiration increases from settings 0–2,
6 Because the cell markers are likely to be a close and setting 3 shows transpiration has virtually
match to those of the patient. ceased. (4 marks)
7 Advantages: more normal life than on dialysis; Conclusion relates wind speed to the speed of
do not have to have treatment every few days. removal of water particles from near the leaf, and
Disadvantages: have to take immunosuppressant increase of concentration gradient from leaf to air.
drugs for rest of life, which may allow other (1 mark)
infections to get into body; no guarantee how long
kidney will last; increased risk of some cancers. Setting 3 shows the condition when the plant closes
its stomata because rate of transpiration is greater
Worksheet B3.12b than rate of supply of water from potometer, to
avoid wilting. (1 mark)
1 a The markers on Dave’s cells are likely to be a close
match to Craig’s. Quality of communication – correct use of two
scientific terms, e.g. transpiration, diffusion,
b He did not want to take the risk that something
concentration gradient, rate. (1 mark)
might happen to Dave.
2 a Because the tissue type was a better match for him
than for them.
B3.0 Investigative Skills
b To give the best possible chance to success.
Assessment (Copymaster File)
3 a Student’s own answer. Section 1
b Suitable justification for answer in a. 12 a Rate of transpiration. (1 mark)
4 a Advantages of dialysis: survival, for those who b Wind speed. (1 mark)
cannot have transplant. Disadvantages of 13 a Temperature, humidity. (2 marks)
dialysis: must be done regularly; major impact
b By shielding the plant from changes of air and
on life in time and restrictions on travel; control
temperature. (1 mark)
of diet.
14 a Depending on method used:
Advantages of transplant: more normal life; fewer
restrictions on diet. Disadvantages of transplant: either the uptake of water by the plant from
must take immunosuppressant drugs for rest of a potometer
life; catch more other infections; increased risk of or loss of weight from the plant. (1 mark)
some cancers, such as skin cancer; no guarantee
b Depending on method used:
how long kidney will last.
either water is taken up by the plant as it loses
b Any reasonable answer with suitable justification.
water through transpiration
B3.0 Investigative Skills or weight is lost as water evaporates from the

leaves. (1 mark)
Assessment (Student’s Book) 15 Suitable statement concerning the precision of
1 Discrete. (1 mark) measurements taken. (1 mark)
2 Wind speed sensor and datalogger. (1 mark) 16 Correct identification of a clear anomaly or correct
statement that there are no anomalies. (1 mark)
3 So the plant could adjust to the new conditions.
(1 mark) 17 Pattern correctly identified, or statement that there
is no pattern. (1 mark)
4 No, she has not made any effort to control other
variables such as temperature or humidity. Above but using terms linear/non-linear, or (not)
(2 marks) directly proportional. (1 mark)
5 Her measurements are more precise. (1 mark)
6 Speed setting 1, 4 minutes. (1 mark)
© Pearson Education Limited 2007 AQA GCSE Extension Science Teacher’s Guide 39
B3.0 Answers
18 No marks for yes/no. Judgement needed here. The 5 Her measurements are more precise. (1 mark)
explanation must match the answer and the data: 6 Speed setting 1, 4 minutes. (1 mark)
• can suggest that extra evidence is (not) required 7 Take the value for 5 minutes and divide by 5 to
(1 mark) give cm/min. (1 mark)
• can identify the extra evidence needed. (1 mark) 8 Line graph. (1 mark)
19 Suitable table of results with all relevant data 9 Do a control experiment. (1 mark)
included. (1 mark)
10 Repeat measurements and take averages for each
Columns and rows correctly labelled. (1 mark) time and setting. (1 mark)
Units present and correct. (1 mark) 11 Rate of transpiration increases from settings 0–2,
Correct choice of bar chart or graph. (1 mark) and setting 3 shows transpiration has virtually
Suitable scales chosen and labelled. (1 mark) ceased. (4 marks)
Correct plotting. (1 mark) Conclusion relates wind speed to the speed of

removal of water particles from near the leaf, and
Section 2 increase of concentration gradient from leaf to air.
1 Discrete. (1 mark) (1 mark)
2 Wind speed sensor and datalogger. (1 mark) Setting 3 shows the condition when the plant closes
3 So the plant could adjust to the new conditions. its stomata because rate of transpiration is greater
(1 mark) than rate of supply of water from potometer, to
avoid wilting. (1 mark)
4 No, she has not made any effort to control other
variables such as temperature or humidity. Quality of communication – correct use of two
(2 marks) scientific terms, e.g. transpiration, diffusion,
concentration gradient, rate. (1 mark)

B3.00
Exploiting microorganisms
Overview
This unit starts by exploring how we can be sure we are using microorganisms safely in the
school laboratory. Students then look at the way Spallanzani, Schwann and Pasteur were
involved in developing the theory of biogenesis.
The next topic begins a study of how microorganisms are used to make food and drink.
Starting with the involvement of bacteria in the dairy industry, yoghurt and cheese
production are explored. Continuing with the traditional use of microorganisms, the
structure of yeast is investigated and its role in bread making, wine making and brewing
beer is examined. This leads to investigating how other useful substances can be made by
culturing vast amounts of microorganisms in modern biotechnology industries. The fungal
production of penicillin and mycoprotein is explored and we look at how fermenters supply
optimal growth conditions.
The last two topics focus on the production of fuels by fermentation. Small and large-scale
biogas generators and the uses of the biogas are explored. Advantages and disadvantages
of design features included in the biogas generators are presented. The concept of carbon-
neutral fuels is introduced and the increasing percentage of transport fuels produced by
fermentation is investigated. Plans for expanding the production of ethanol-based biofuels
in the United Kingdom is then explored. Financial data related to the plant source and cost
of biofuel in various countries is presented. Data comparing carbon dioxide emissions of
transport fuels is also included.

The ISA for Unit B3.00 is using the aseptic technique to grow E. coli bacteria. In the
Student’s Book, data is presented to the students from an investigation into the effect of
temperature on the fermentation of yeast. Then they are asked a number of questions
about the investigation. The Copymaster File provides questions for students to answer
based on their own investigations into using the aseptic technique to grow E. coli bacteria.
B3.00 Context page

Practical 1 in Topic B3.14 gives instructions for this
investigation.
Notes on context
The context for this unit is industrial biotechnology
and the use of microorganisms to produce useful
Objectives for the unit substances. Food production in the dairy industry
By the end of this unit students should know and is exemplified in the fermentation by Lactobacilli in
understand: yoghurt production. The operation of a large-scale
industrial fermenter is outlined. Further information
• how we can use microorganisms safely about biotechnology and other related websites for
• the development of the theory of biogenesis this unit can be accessed via www.longman.co.uk/
AQAScience.
• how microorganisms are used to make food and
drink
Learning activities
• how industrial fermenters are used for the growth of AT The context of this module is introduced via a
the fungi Penicillium and Fusarium
video on the Active Teach. In the video, a scientist
• how fuels such as biogas and ethanol can be discusses the operation of an industrial fermenter.
produced by anaerobic fermentation. It provides an insight into the scale of production,
equipment used and its operation.
B3.13 Growing microorganisms
B3.13a Growing microorganisms Classwork (reusable) 4
B3.13b Growing microorganisms Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives • Worksheet B3.13a will allow students an opportunity

Students should be able to: to present data on bacterial growth graphically as
well as giving them practice at interpreting growth
• describe how microorganisms are grown in a culture rates and explaining the changes in rate.
medium
• AT Animation 1 from the Active Teach provides
• describe the conditions that microorganisms need in reinforcement for the bacterial growth method and
order to reproduce colony formation.
• explain why the incubation temperature is lower in • Worksheet B3.13b provides students with
the school laboratory than in industry. an opportunity to revise the substances and
temperature needed for rapid bacterial growth
leading to colony formation on agar.
Points to note
• The growth refers to the increase in population Plenary
numbers throughout this unit.
• Draw a surface view of a Petri dish containing agar
• This topic only alludes to aseptic techniques when with colonies of bacteria on it. Elicit from students
the conditions needed for these colonies to form in
referring to incubation temperatures.
three days – list them on the board.
Key words • Alternatively ask students to draw a growth curve to

show the rate of increase in population growth. Ask
agar, broth, culture medium them also to explain the changing rate at different
times.
Lesson ideas Additional homework/research ideas
Starter • ICT H Ask students to research agar, its origin,
Write the word ‘Microorganism’ on the board. Ask constituents and extraction. Also ask them to find
students to suggest examples of microorganisms. Add out about Petri, the scientist who gave his name to
the words ‘bacteria’ and ‘fungi’ to the board and ask the culture dishes.
students to list where examples of each of these can
be found, e.g. disease – ‘sore throat’; food – mushrooms. Practicals and demonstrations
This activity should give you knowledge of their prior 1 Demonstration of apparatus for growing
understanding of the area of microorganisms. microorganisms Show students an empty Petri dish
and one containing agar. Arrange to have the school
Learning activities incubator accessible to students.
• Show students two Petri dishes, one containing agar 5 minutes
and one without it. Let them pass the Petri dishes
round. The laboratory incubator should also be Apparatus
accessible for students to look at. 2 Petri dishes: 1 containing agar and 1 without agar;
incubator.
B3.14a Using the aseptic technique to grow Classwork/practical 4 4
E. coli bacteria (reusable)
B3.14b HSW Killing microorganisms Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives • Question 3 is a short comprehension activity about

Students should be able to: the use of disinfectant alcohol hand gel and allows
the opportunity to practice evaluation skills.
• recall that you need uncontaminated cultures of
microorganisms to get useful products from them Plenary
• describe how apparatus is sterilised and how this • Write the words ‘aseptic technique’ on the board or
achieves a pure culture OHP. Underneath it on the same line add the words
‘Equipment. Why? How?’
• explain how to inoculate a culture medium.
• Invite contributions from students as to how plastic
apparatus, growth media, inoculating loops and
Points to note hands are sterilised. Let them debate about hands
• Safe working procedure must be stressed to being sterile and all the steps that could be taken to
make hands sterile. This could be a good opportunity
students. Petri dishes should only be incubated
for 2–3 days and then stored in a refrigerator until to return to the photograph of the operating theatre.
students have the opportunity to see them again.
• Forward planning is essential as this practical • H ICT Ask students to research MRSA infections in
requires significant technician support.
their local area health authority. More information
can be found at www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
Key words
aseptic, autoclave, pure culture, strain
1 Using the aseptic technique to grow E. coli
bacteria This is the ISA for this unit. Details for
Lesson ideas carrying out the practical are given on Worksheet
B3.14a. Pure cultures of E. coli must be available.
Starter If the control Petri dish grew bacteria, students
Use the photograph in Display A from the Student’s should be encouraged to appraise their technique
Book showing a hospital operation in progress. Elicit and speculate about the most likely point at which
from students why masks and green gowns are visible. contamination occurred.
Develop the notion of sterile practice and where Incubate agar plates at ambient temperature. All
microbes are in the surroundings. cuts should be covered with a plaster. Eye protection
should be worn. Do not open Petri dishes once
Learning activities inoculated. Dispose of cultures safely by sterilising
• Discuss sterilisation of apparatus and liquids with them in an autoclavable bag before placing in refuse.
students and show them the autoclave. Emphasise Count out agar plates for observation after
the role of pressurised steam in the sterilising incubation and count back in, to guard against theft.
procedure. 20–25 minutes
• Use the diagrams in Display B of the Student’s Book Apparatus
in preparation for the practical work. Considerable
dexterity is needed to pour a sterile plate and then Bunsen burner; heat-proof mat; inoculating loop;
inoculate it from a pure culture. 2 sterile Petri dishes; pure culture of E. coli on agar in
Petri dish or McCartney bottle; 2 sterile McCartney/
• Worksheet B3.14a provides support for the ISA for universal bottles of liquefied sterile agar held at
this unit.
50 °C; small beaker of 1% Virkon disinfectant; paper
• HSW Worksheet B3.14b provides an opportunity to towels; adhesive tape; scissors; waterproof marker
measure, rank and plot a histogram of data relating pen; eye protection.
to chemical disinfectants. Students use the diameter
of a circle to calculate the area of a circle.
B3.15 Biogenesis
B3.15a Using a swan-neck tube Practical/demonstration 4
(reusable)
B3.15b Given the vowels Homework (write-on) 4
Objectives two more answers as a class exercise before they

attempt the worksheet as homework.
• describe Spallanzani’s challenge to the theory of Plenary

‘spontaneous generation’ • Ask students to write the word ‘abiogenesis’ at the
top of a sheet of paper and the word ‘biogenesis’
• explain Schwann’s cell theory near the bottom. Ask them to draw a flow diagram
• describe how Pasteur’s experiments totally refuted between the words to illustrate the development
of the theory about how living things come into
spontaneous generation
existence. Finally, ask them to define abiogenesis
• explain what is meant by ‘biogenesis’. and biogenesis.
Key words Additional homework/research ideas

abiogenesis, biogenesis, cell theory, spontaneous • ICT Students could be asked to research Pasteur’s
work on wine production or the development of the
generation, swan-neck tube
process of pasteurisation.
Lesson ideas Practicals and demonstrations

1 Using a swan-neck tube Worksheet B3.15a has
Starter details of this practical. If preferred, this experiment
• AT Use the ActiveTeach photograph of an egg could be done as a demonstration. Students use
and sperm joining together to form a zygote. Ask sterile nutrient broth and contain it in four tubes
students what develops from the zygote. Elicit with different apparatus. After autoclaving, the tubes
from students the fact that it is a new individual are left for one week before the results are seen.
of the same type as the parents who produced
Do not uncover the broth in any tube after one
the gametes. Go on to tell them that until the
week. Wash hands after handling the tubes.
eighteenth century people did not know this, but
believed that fully formed living organisms could Typical results:
arise by spontaneous generation.
Tube Contents Results
Learning activities number
• Tell students the old myth that people in the 1 open to air broth cloudy/turbid
eighteenth century believed about the origin of 2 tube closed broth clear
mice: if a sweaty shirt and some wheat bran were 3 straight glass tubing broth eventually goes
placed in a wooden barrel, after 21 days mice would cloudy
appear from the barrel. Let students suggest why
4 s-shaped glass tubing broth clear
mice were in the barrel.
• Explore displays A and B in the Student’s Book with Broth that turns cloudy contains bacteria from the
students to clarify the theories of Spallanzani and air, with no guarantee of whether these are harmless
Schwann or pathogenic. There is always a risk of tubes with
• H Worksheet B3.15a will give students the cloudy broth being dropped, creating massive
aerosol production and contaminating the room
opportunity to carry out, present and display the
results, and make conclusions from an experiment with bacteria. It is therefore recommended that
with a swan-neck tube. tubes in which broth becomes turbid are treated
to kill their contents before returning them to the
• Worksheet B3.15b can be used as revision for the students to observe. This is most easily done by
first three topics. It presents statements to match up adding two drops of 40% methanol solution (TOXIC)
to answers in which the vowels only are given and to the broth 24 hours in advance of the lesson.
may need familiarisation before it is presented to Technicians must wear goggles and gloves and use
the class for homework. You may wish to complete a fume cupboard when handling methanol solution.
It is easiest to add drops of methanol solution using Apparatus
a Pasteur pipette, with the tip introduced into the
Nutrient broth; 4 boiling tubes; test tube rack; non-
tube without completely removing the cotton wool.
absorbent cotton wool; short, straight glass tube;
10 minutes to set up tubes; 5 minutes at the next short, S-shaped glass tube; cooking foil; stopwatch;
lesson to note appearance of tubes after waterproof marker; autoclave; 40% methanol
autoclaving; 5 minutes to note appearance of tubes solution.
again one week later after incubation.
B3.16 Yoghurt and cheese

B3.16a Design a controlled experiment to Classwork (reusable) 4 4
produce yoghurt
B3.16b Manufacturing yoghurt. Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives • AT The ActiveTeach has a video clip of industrial

Students should be able to: yoghurt production and Display B in the Student’s
Book shows a photograph of an industrial yoghurt
• recall that bacteria are needed to manufacture fermenter.
yoghurt and cheese
• The flow diagram of yoghurt production in Display C
• describe the role of bacteria in yoghurt production should be explored with the students.
• describe the role of lactic acid in yoghurt • Worksheet B3.16a supports students in designing a
manufacture and where it comes from. controlled experiment to produce yoghurt.
• Worksheet B3.16b gives students an opportunity to

Points to note revise yoghurt and cheese making and also extends
their knowledge of additional microbes that may be
• Milk is homogenised by being forced through tiny involved in the processes.
holes under pressure to break up fat globules.
• Set yoghurt is incubated in the pots it is sold in at Plenary

the supermarket.
• Write: ‘Lactobacillus bulgaricus’ and ‘Streptococcus
cremoris’ in the middle of the board. Enlist student’s
Key words help in creating a spider diagram to show what the
involvement of these bacteria is in yoghurt and
curds, lactose, rennin, starters, whey cheese making.
Lesson ideas • Alternatively, revisit the starter from this topic

and ask students to make any revisions they think
necessary.
Starter
• Show students an empty yoghurt pot and a Additional homework/research ideas
piece of packed cheese and ask them how they
are produced. Elicit from students the idea that
• ICT Ask students to research three cheeses from
their local area. Alternatively, they could research
microorganisms are involved in their production goat’s cheese and the nutrients it contains
and what their role is. Write the words ‘texture’, ‘pH’ compared with cheese made from cow’s milk.
and ‘keeping properties’ on the board. Ask students
to suggest how these three features are different in • Students could also be asked to research the
milk and yoghurt/cheese. You may wish to keep a history of yoghurt making in third-world countries.
note of these and return to them for the plenary. Suggested sources of information can be found via
www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
Learning activities
• Take time to explore Display A in the Student’s 1 A controlled experiment to produce yoghurt The
Book with the class. An understanding of the four
processes outlined here on the arrows is crucial for practical designed in Worksheet B3.16a could be
the rest of the topics in the unit. carried out if facilities and time allow.
Eye protection should be worn. Never taste food in Apparatus
the laboratory. Therefore it is much more
Natural live yoghurt; UHT milk; 22250 cm3 beakers;
appropriate if this activity is conducted in a food
measuring cylinder; small disposable container
technology room or the school dining room. If
(plastic/paper cup); teaspoon; gauze; heat-proof mat;
hygenic conditions have been observed there is no
tripod; Bunsen burner; glass rod; clingfilm; water
reason why the yoghurt cannot be tasted. In this
bath; pH papers; eye protection.
case, do not use laboratory equipment but
appropriate utensils.
15–20 minutes to set up; 5 minutes to inspect
containers after 24 hours incubation (keep in fridge
after this time)
B3.17 Yeast
B3.17a Experiment to investigate increase in Classwork/practical 4 4
the size of bread dough with time (reusable)
B3.17b Living, respiring yeast Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives Learning activities

Students should be able to: • Take time to explore Display A in the Student’s
Book with students to give them the opportunity to
• describe the structure of yeast familiarise themselves with the structure of yeast.
• describe how yeast can respire aerobically and • AT The ActiveTeach has an animation to show the
anaerobically action of yeast in bread making.
• link the products of yeast’s anaerobic respiration to • Worksheet B3.17a investigates the effect of yeast on
its use in making food and drink. a flour paste mixture. Students are asked to present
data and draw conclusions before evaluating the
way they carried out their experiment.
Points to note
• While fungi may be known to the class as • Worksheet B3.17b gives students the opportunity to
revise the aerobic and anaerobic respiration of yeast.
mushrooms and toadstools, the knowledge of a
It highlights the amount of energy produced in each
single-celled fungus will probably be new and may
type of respiration.
need time to develop.
Plenary
Key words • Write the words ‘anaerobic respiration of yeast’
aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, budding, on the board. Ask students to help build up a
ethanol, fermentation word equation for respiration. Then ask them to
help develop the diagram (in a similar way to that
of Display B in the Student’s Book) in order to
Lesson ideas summarise how each of the products of respiration
is used.
Starter
• Before the lesson, mix up some dried yeast with Additional homework/research ideas
warm water and sugar in a beaker. Tell students
that a harmless microscopic fungus has been mixed
• ICT Ask students to research the different types of
yeast used in breweries.
with warm water and sugar. Pass it round and ask
students to smell it and ask what it reminds them Practicals and demonstrations
of. Elicit what they know about bread making: 1 Investigating increase in the size of bread dough
what ingredients are used and what conditions with time Worksheet B3.17a has all the details
are needed. You may find out that some students’ for this investigation. The ‘dough’ mixture used in
families have home bread-making machines. Worksheet B3.17a contains more yeast than a bread
dough mixture would.
Do not taste the bread dough.
40–45 minutes for the practical could show the yeast suspension under low power
and the other, under high power.
Apparatus
Do not angle the microscope mirror at the Sun, if
Plain flour; sugar; yeast suspension; electronic
using a microscrope of this type.
balance; measuring cylinder; beaker; glass rod;
stopwatch. 5 minutes to set up
2 Demonstrating the appearance of yeast Apparatus

While students are completing the bread dough
2 microscopes; 2 bench lamps; 2 microscope slides
experiment you could set up two microscopes with
and cover slips; mounted needle.
slides of the yeast suspension. One microscope
B3.18 The role of yeast in making alcoholic drinks

B3.18a Fermentation of glucose by yeast Classwork/practical 4
(reusable)
B3.18b Wort, yeast and heat produce beer Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives g Temperatures above 40 °C speed up yeast’s

fermentation.
Students should be able to: h Yeast can ferment starch.
i There are two useful products of yeast’s
• describe what the energy source for yeast is in fermentation.
brewing beer and making wine
j Ethanol is toxic to yeast cells.
• explain that alcoholic fermentation is due to the Ask students which statements are true and which
anaerobic respiration of yeast
false, and discuss their responses with them. This
• describe and explain the stages in brewing beer. will act as revision for the last topic and allow you to
assess their comprehension of fermentation so far.
Points to note Learning activities
• Brewing beer in breweries involves many different • Use Display B in the Student’s Book to explore
stages. The process has been simplified by together the commercial production of beer. Some
concentrating on three main processes and the students may be familiar with areas of the process if
biological changes that occur there. Malting is not their family practice home brewing or wine making.
usually done at modern breweries but the malted
barley grains are bought in • Worksheet B3.18a is a practical to investigate the
fermentation rate of yeast. Students can work in
• A secondary fermentation process before bottling groups of 3 or 4 if apparatus is in short supply, or
makes beer fizzy. This has not been included in the it could be done as a demonstration. Students will
production process outlined for simplicity. need instructions on how to calculate the volume of
gas collected in the test tube.
Key words • Worksheet B3.18b provides a consolidation exercise
amylase, hops, malting, maltose, mash tun on the brewing process.
Plenary
Lesson ideas • Draw up the outline of the table, with headings, on
the board or OHP and fill it in with the students’ help.
Starter
• Write the following true/false statements on the When yeast is added
Brewing beer Making wine
board or OHP.
a Yeast is a microscopic bacterium. Carbohydrate in barley/
b Yeast is a fungus. grapes
c Yeast is found in soil. Carbohydrate fermented
d Dried yeast can be used for brewing beer or wine. Other ingredients
e Fermenting yeast cannot grow. Product(s) of respiration
f Yeast needs warmth before it can ferment sugar. in beverage
20–25 minutes
• ICT Ask students to research yeast extracts 2 Fermentation of apple juice A simple
– obtained from brewery waste – and how they are demonstration of fermentation is to add a warm
used to enhance the nutrients in a wide variety of yeast suspension to apple juice in an unstoppered
foods and/or in the pharmaceutical industry. flask and watch the bubbles of gas given off.
• ICT Alternatively, ask students to research the Do not taste anything in the laboratory.
production of alcohol-free beer. 20–25 minutes
Practicals and demonstrations Apparatus

1 ICT Fermentation rate of yeast Worksheet 150 cm3 clear apple juice; 10 cm3 5% glucose
B3.18a has all the details for a practical to measure solution; 10 cm3 yeast suspension; flat-bottomed
the fermentation rate of yeast. This investigation flask.
provides the opportunity to use a datalogger and
carbon-dioxide sensor if they are available.
B3.19 Fermenters and penicillin production

B3.19a The ins and outs of a fermenter Classwork (write-on) 4
B3.19b Growing Penicillium mould and Homework (write-on) 4
producing penicillin
Objectives Fermentation is useful:
Students should be able to: produce beer and yoghurt

that involving Lactobacilli and yeast
• describe and explain the features of an industrial on a large scale it is used in the food and drinks
fermenter
industry
• make clear how very large numbers of many useful substances can be made by
microorganisms can be cultured safely in a fermenter
microorganisms
• list the specific needs of the mould Penicillium to all equipment must be sterilised before the process
produce penicillin starts
• specify when the release of penicillin from
Penicillium occurs during its growth in the fermenter. because, to, however, such as, therefore
Points to note Ask students to add one of the words in the box before
each statement. Then discuss the answers with them.
• Steam is used for sterilisation of the fermenter and Their results will help you to assess their learning so far.
associated pipework before a fermentation begins.
The fermenter and pipework are usually made of Learning activities
polished stainless steel to make cleaning easier.
• Take time with students to look at Display B in the
• It is important to stress here that the fermentation Student’s Book to familiarise them with the parts of
to produce penicillin is aerobic. the fermenter.
• AT The ActiveTeach has a video clip of an industrial

Key words fermenter.
bioreactors, isolated, penicillin • Worksheet B3.19a gives students an opportunity to
engage with the structure and use of a fermenter.
Lesson ideas • AT The ActiveTeach Animation 3 shows the

operation of an industrial fermenter.
Starter • Take time to discuss with students the graph in
• Write the following connectives quiz on the board or Display C in the Student’s Book. It shows the time
OHP: during the fermentation when the antibiotic is
released from the fungus.
• Worksheet B3.19b provides an opportunity to revise c Aerobic.
the requirements for the growth of Penicillium and d Sugar and sources of nitrogen.
the point at which penicillin is released into the e An antibiotic.
culture broth. f Removes heat produced by the respiring
microbes.
Plenary Additional homework/research ideas
• Write the following answers on the board or OHP • ICT Ask students to research other types of
and ask students to write down the question that
medication produced in fermenters. Information can
was asked about Penicillium’s fermentation to get
be found at www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
the answer.
a 28 °C. Practicals and demonstrations
b When the mould is running out of nutrients. None suggested.
B3.20 Mycoprotein by fungal fermentation

B3.20a How nutritious is mycoprotein? Classwork (reusable) 4
B3.20b Producing food by fermentation Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives out advert. Give each group 5 minutes to write down

what they already know about mycoprotein and
Students should be able to: what they have found out from the prop they have
been given. Groups should then report their findings
• define mycoprotein and recall which fungus back to the rest of the class.
produces it
• explain that the biomass of fungal hyphae is the Learning activities

product from the fermenter
• It is worth taking time with students to explore
• describe the conditions needed to produce Display B in the Student’s Book showing an
alternative type of fermenter.
mycoprotein.
• ICT Worksheet B3.20a allows students to compare
Points to note nutrients in mycoprotein fillets, beef and lentils.
Students can use Microsoft Excel for producing
• The Student’s Book provides nutrient data for freshly histograms in Worksheet B3.20a. If it is not
harvested mycoprotein. The Copymaster worksheets convenient to do this during the science lesson,
provide nutrient data for mycoprotein fillets, as they you may consider using that sheet for homework
can be bought from a supermarket. (private study in the computer department).
• Fibre, being carbohydrate, is part of the Worksheet B3.20b could then be used for classwork.
‘carbohydrate total’ figures as well as being shown
separately.
• Worksheet B3.20b provides extension material
about other fermented food and drink products.
• The whole fungal biomass is harvested from this It also presents a revision exercise about the loop
fermenter in which mycoprotein is produced.
fermentation.
Plenary
Key words • Ask students to make a concept map of fungal
hyphae, mycoprotein fermentation to produce mycoprotein.

Lesson ideas
• ICT Ask students to research one (or more) of the
Starter foods or drinks in Figure 1 of Worksheet B3.20b,
finding out how it was produced traditionally and
• Hold up an empty packet or an advert for a how it is produced now.
mycoprotein food (most well known are Quorn™
products). Write the word ‘mycoprotein’ on the
board, divide the class into groups of four and give
each group a different Quorn™ product box or cut-
Practicals and demonstrations discussion. Further information about biotechnology
and other related websites for this unit can be found
1 Demonstrating a bioreactor If the school has a
at www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
classroom bioreactor, this could be demonstrated
empty and a partially labelled diagram of it supplied 10–15 minutes
to students. They could complete and annotate
Apparatus
the diagram as you demonstrate it. Alternatively
a diagram of a classroom bioreactor could be Classroom bioreactor; diagrams of classroom
downloaded from the internet and used for bioreactor.
B3.21 Biogas
B3.21a Which biogas generator? Classwork (reusable) 4
B3.21b Upgrading biogas generators Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives copy of what you have written on the board or

OHP to return to later.
• describe how biogas can be produced from plant Learning activities

and animal waste by anaerobic fermentation • AT The ActiveTeach has an animation showing a
small-scale biogas fermenter in action.
• give examples of small- and large-scale biogas
production • Take time to explore Display B in the Student’s Book
with students to help them appreciate the benefits
• evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the biogas generation can bring to isolated third world
design of biogas generators. villages.
Points to note • The table in the Student’s Book showing some

features of fermenters that maximise biogas
• Internet searches for information on biogas production is worth discussing thoroughly with
students.
generators are more productive if the term ‘biogas
digesters’ is used.
• Worksheet B3.21a shows three designs of biogas
• Untreated biogas from rural generators containing generator. Take time exploring these with students
before they construct their table of advantages and
impurities such as hydrogen sulfide has a low
calorific value when combusted. disadvantages for each.
• Minworth sewage works on the eastern edge of • Worksheet B3.21b will allow you to assess students’
Birmingham uses the sewage sludge produced from understanding of the fermentation process and
2.5 million people. More information can be found provides an opportunity to research one type of
via www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience. biogas generator.
• Students need time to access the internet, either Plenary

in school or at home, to research biogas generator
designs. • Return to the words you used in the starter.
Annotate them with the students’ help to show what
biogas contains, how it can be used and why it is a
Key words wasted resource if flared.
biofuel, biogas, sewage sludge
Lesson ideas
• ICT Ask students to research small-scale biogas
production in China or Sri Lanka and use their
information in a PowerPoint presentation.
Starter
• Ask students what a landfill site is. Let them suggest • Alternatively, ask students to research what happens
to household waste or sewage sludge in their area
why these can be dangerous and elicit the fact that and to produce a fact sheet of their findings.
they produce biogas that can cause explosions if
not controlled. Write the words ‘landfill’, ‘biogas’ Practicals and demonstrations
and ‘hazard’ on the board or OHP. Then add ‘biogas
flaring’ and ask students what this means. Save a None suggested.
B3.22 Ethanol-based biofuels
B3.22 a Bioethanol – an alternative fuel Classwork (reusable) 4
B3.22 b Promoting Biofuel Homework (reusable) 4 4

Students should be able to: • AT Animation 5 illustrates the carbon-neutral
concept.
• describe how biofuels (ethanol-based fuels) are • Display B in the Student’s Book is a horizontal
produced.
bar chart comparing CO2 emissions of fossil and
• interpret economic and environmental data about renewable fuels. Students may not be familiar with
fuel production by fermentation and the use of this type of graphical presentation. It is used as
these fuels. there is a range of emissions depending on the
manufacturing process.
Points to note • Display C in the Student’s Book is a conventional bar
chart with information on country of production,
• Biofuel ethanol is 200 proof. source of biofuel/fossil fuel and cost in euros per
• Economic data relating to production of fuels litre. Note that petrol has fuel tax added. Some
is related to national situations, e.g. whether a explanation of tax and discussion of units used in
particular country has a desire to be an independent the table may be helpful.
producer of transport fuel, not reliant on oil imports.
The situation is political and is in a state of change • Worksheet B3.22a is a comprehension activity about
the use and availability of bioethanol. It will reinforce
as we go to press.
the students’ knowledge and understanding and
• Hand in hand with national fuel transport policies extend it by looking at data from Brazil and the USA.
are tax incentives or penalties, e.g. less tax on
biofuels and flex-fuel cars. • ICT Worksheet B3.22b allows students to
incorporate information they have researched on
• The price of biofuels and fossil fuels at the pump is the computer, and some that is supplied, into a
very similar. poster to promote the use of biofuel.
• Flex-fuel cars and biofuelled cars may cost more to Plenary
buy than cars consuming fossil fuel, though tax on
them is less. • Ask students to draw a concept map to show the
origins and advantages of biofuels. Their results
• Lowest carbon emissions are obtained from ethanol will allow you to judge their understanding of the
produced using lignocellulose from wood and straw, topic. Finally, ask them to think about when they will
but the technology to do this is not so advanced, at be car owners. Ask them to consider whether they
present, as that for using cereals. would buy a flex-fuel car or not and their reasons
• HSW The availability of biofuels in 2007 in the UK is why.
limited, but provision is already in hand to change
this in the next decade. Additional homework/research ideas
• ICT Ask students to research Biofuel production
and/or availability in their area.
Key words
bioalcohols, flex-fuel • Alternatively, ask students to compare the price of a
new petrol/diesel car to one that uses biofuel. Also
ask them to research the price at the pump for fossil
Lesson ideas fuels compared with biofuels.
Starter Practicals and demonstrations

• Write the term ‘transport fuels’ on the board or OHP. None suggested.
Ask students to name some. You will probably have
petrol, diesel and perhaps aviation fuel suggested.
Add any suggestions to the board and then add
‘biofuels’. Invite suggestions as to what this might be.
B3.00 Answers
B3.00 Exploiting microorganisms 2 c At X, there are plenty of nutrients available for the
microbes to grow so they double their number
Student’s Book every 20–30 minutes. At Z, the nutrients have
been used up by the growing bacteria and their
1 a Products listed may include:medicines,bread,wine, toxic waste products may have accumulated in
vinegar, cheese, yoghurt, fuel and many others the culture medium.
from genetically engineered microorganisms.
Worksheet 3.13b
B3.13 Growing microorganisms 1
Student’s Book Growth requirement Supplied as

Energy source Starch/glucose
1 a Carbohydrates such as starch and glucose supply
microbes with energy. Nitrogen source Mineral ions/urea
Warmth Incubator
b Mineral ions or urea supply microbes with a
source of nitrogen. Moisture Culture medium
2 Microbes can grow in it if nutrients are added.
2 a F – optimal temperature, H – 15 °C, G – 25 °C.
3 A Petri dish is a round shallow dish made of clear
plastic or glass with a lid. It is used for culturing b About 40 °C depending on the type of microbe.
microbes on agar. c Many microbes can increase their growth rate
4 25 °C is the maximum temperature used to incubate up to 45 °C.
bacteria in school laboratories. It would minimise 3 c i A bacterial colony is a group of millions of
health risks if a pathogen was accidentally bacteria.
introduced into the culture medium as most
ii A colony originated from a single bacterium.
pathogens have an optimum temperature of 37 °C.
5 A higher incubation temperature is used in industry
to achieve a higher growth rate of microbes and a
higher yield of microbial products. Student’s Book
6 a Region b.
1 Aseptic technique.
b The weight of cell numbers is increasing rapidly
2 a It would multiply rapidly.
with time.
b It would be a greater health risk than if it were a
7 a A carbohydrate energy source, a source of
single cell.
nitrogen and perhaps other minerals, additional
protein and vitamins. 3 a Glassware is sterilised in an autoclave.
b i The flask will be incubated in an incubator. b Plastic equipment is sterilised by ultraviolet or
ionising radiation.
ii So that the microbes will grow quickly
enough for experimental results to be seen. 4 It would kill the microbes and melt the agar if it was
too hot.
c i Agar is an alternative growth medium to
broth. 5 If the Petri dish lid was removed completely, it would
increase the chance of contaminating the agar with
ii Agar is a solid at room temperature.
airborne microbes.
Worksheet B3.13a 6 a and b Wash hands and clean the working surface.
1 Assemble the apparatus.
Time in Light the Bunsen burner.
minutes 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 Pour the liquefied agar into the Petri dish – do not
after start
fully open the lid.
Number of
bacteria 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 Replace the lid and allow it to set.
present Flame the incubating loop and let it cool near to the
Bunsen burner.
Pick up some of the pure culture on the loop.
Inoculate the Petri dish.
Flame the loop again.
B3.00 Answers
Tape up the plate and write details on the bottom 2 Question, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, results,
of it. analysis, evaluation, conclusion.
Incubate the plate at 25 °C. 3 Tube 2 was boiled for 5 minutes and tube 3 was
c It would be autoclaved by a technician and then boiled for 60 minutes before being sealed.
safely disposed of. 4 The broth would decay because microbes from the
d It will remain sterile. air had entered the broth.
5 Abiogenesis
Worksheet B3.14a
1 Appearance of the plate; colour, number and Disproved by Spallanzani
distribution of colonies (if any) should be Life

mentioned.
2 The technique aims to be aseptic but depends on Devised by Schwann Proved by Pasteur
the user application.

Cell theory – all Microorganisms
3 Some basic suggestions include: wear protective cells come from must be present
pre-existing cells if decay occurs
coat, cover hair, wear a face mask, wear plastic
gloves. In addition, a filtered air supply or working
in a protective cabinet might be suggested.
Worksheet B3.15a
1 The microbes are killed.
Worksheet B3.14b 2 Tubes 1 and 3.
1 a Sterile means no living bacteria are present.
3 Tubes 2 and 4.
b So that only the bacteria required will be
4 The microbes had come from the air.
present to grow.
5 When microbes in nutrient broth have been killed,
2 a i A control is a check on the experimental
the broth will stay fresh if air is excluded.
technique. It is needed to eliminate other
explanations of experimental results. 6 Louis Pasteur developed a swan-neck flask with an S
bend in it to trap bacteria.
ii To prove that the paper discs did not kill the
bacteria. Worksheet B3.15b
b and c Statement
Answer
Disc Chemical Rank Diameter, Clear area, Letter
cm cm2 1 I N C U B A T O R D
2 A G A R J E L L Y L
A Sterile water control – –
3 P E T R I D I S H O
B ‘HYPERKILL’ 1 2.5 4.9 4 A U T O C L A V E J
C ‘CLEANSO’ 2 1.6 2.0 5 L O U I S P A S T E U R N
D ‘NOGERM’ 3 0.8 0.5 6 B I O G E N E S I S M
7 I N O C U L A T I N G L O O P I
3 Advantages 8 S W A N N E C K F L A S K K
9 S P A L L A N Z A N I G
Alcohol gel Soap 10 U P W A R D D R A U G H T E
Takes less time to use Removes visible dirt 11 T H E O D O R S C H W A N N A
Kills bacteria rapidly 12 M I C R O O R G A N I S M S B
13 P U R E C U L T U R E H
Dries quickly
14 A D H E S I V E T A P E C
Can be used anywhere
15 B A C T E R I A L C O L O N Y F
Disadvantages are the converse of the advantages

above B3.16 Yoghurt and cheese
B3.15 Biogenesis Student’s Book
1 Bacteria use enzymes to digest their food.
Student’s Book
2 Digestion by the enzymes has made the food
1 The mistaken belief that living organisms could soluble.
come into existence from non-living matter.
B3.00 Answers
3 A starter culture is a culture of bacteria added to 3 Respiration in the absence of oxygen.
milk to produce yoghurt or cheese. 4 Aerobic respiration.
4 Milk is incubated at 40–46 °C for 4–6 hours. 5 a The ethanol evaporates during baking at 180 °C.
5 a Lactose is the sugar in milk. b The bubbles of carbon dioxide escape during
b It supplies energy to bacteria. the fermentation process.
6 Anaerobic respiration releases energy. 6 a In aerobic respiration, when oxygen is present,
7 a Lactic acid producing bacteria (Streptococcus much more energy is released than in anaerobic
cremoris) and rennin. respiration. This is because, in the absence of
oxygen, not all of the energy in sugars can be
b They curdle milk so that it separates into curds fully released.
and whey.
b Yeast is killed in bread making because of the
8 a Whey is a watery liquid and curds are solid white high temperature in baking.
particles.
Yeast is killed in wine making because the ethanol
b Cheese is made from curds. released is toxic to the cells.
9 d Incubation temperature is 40–46 °C. The pH c Bread dough rises because bubbles of carbon
drops from 6.3 to 4.6. dioxide released get trapped in the elastic
Worksheet B3.16a dough.
2 A Label the two beakers to show which is the Worksheet B3.17a

control and which is the experimental beaker. 3 The bread dough increases in volume with time.
B Put three teaspoons of yoghurt into each beaker. 4 Perform the experiment in a water bath set at
C Heat one beaker (the control) gently over the different temperatures.
Bunsen burner, stirring it until the yoghurt boils. 5 The mean of a large number of results would help to
D Leave the control to cool. minimise any inaccuracies and anomalous results.
E Add 125 cm3 of UHT milk to each beaker and stir it. Worksheet B3.17b
F Cover each beaker with clingfilm and keep it in a 1 a Aerobic respiration.
water bath at 40 °C for 24 hours.
b Sugar+oxygen carbon dioxide+
G If it is not possible to take the results after 24 water+energy.
hours, keep the beakers in a fridge until the next
lesson. 2 a Anaerobic respiration.
H Record pH, smell and appearance of the b Sugar ethanol+carbon dioxide+energy.
contents of each beaker. 3 a The first diagram.
3 a The pH should fall. b It has plenty of oxygen around it for aerobic
b Lactic acid. respiration.
c The bacteria in the starter culture of yoghurt.
B3.18 Yeast and making alcoholic
4 Other harmful chemicals or microorganisms might
have accidentally been introduced into the drinks
yoghurt.
Student’s Book
Worksheet B3.16b 1 a Cereal grains are seeds.
1 a Lactic acid. b They will develop into the same type of plant as
b Lactose, the milk sugar. the parents that produced them.
c The lower pH causes the protein in the milk to turn 2 Starch is a carbohydrate. It provides a chemical store
to a gel and the milk partially clots, or solidifies, of energy, which is needed for the seeds to sprout
into yoghurt. or germinate.
3 a The enzyme amylase converts the starch into
B3.17 Yeast sugar.
b It is necessary because starch is a large insoluble
Student’s Book molecule that cannot be transported to
1 The skin of fruits, plant leaves, flowers and in the soil. respiring cells and is not used in respiration.
2 Oxygen.
B3.00 Answers
4 Malting is the process used in brewing beer when b To provide a useful product and increase yield,
barley grains germinate. respectively.
The barley grains must be damp and spread out in a 2 They are performing aerobic respiration and
thin layer at 10–15 °C. growing quickly.
5 a In the mash tun, enzymes change starch into sugar. 3 By a water-filled jacket surrounding the fermenter.
In the boiler, the wort is flavoured with hops and 4 a Bubbles of carbon dioxide become trapped on the
it is sterilised. surface of the culture broth.
b From the sugary liquid called wort. b Paddles disperse the foam.
6 Hops are dried flower heads of a climbing plant. 5 pH – most microbes are pH sensitive.
They give flavour to the beer.
Temperature – microbial growth has an optimum
7 Sugar ethanol+carbon dioxide+energy. temperature.
8 a Hops are filtered out. Oxygen – microbes use it rapidly when respiring
b Dead yeast cells are filtered out. aerobically.
9 6 In the culture broth.
Process Reason 7 Penicillium grows slowly at first and does not
produce any penicillin. Penicillium mould releases
Enzymes change starch in maize
Malting most penicillin when its growth rate is slowing
to sugar
down or has stopped.
Mashing A sugary liquid is produced
8 a Clockwise from top right: gas/CO2 out; stirrer;
Flavour is added and the sugary
Boiling water jacket; culture broth; sterile air; harvesting
liquid is sterilised
drain; microbes and nutrients.
Yeast ferments the sugar to
Fermenting b i If the stirrer stopped working, the microbes
ethanol and carbon dioxide
would settle at the bottom of the fermenter
and their growth rate would fall.
Worksheet B3.18a ii If the airflow decreased by 80%, aerobic
3 As yeast ferments sugar it releases carbon dioxide. respiration would slow down and the yield of
As the sugar is used up, less carbon dioxide is penicillin would be reduced.
released. Worksheet B3.19a
4 a Use boiled yeast.
1 A and B – Microbes and nutrients inlet.
b To prove that the yeast is causing the release of
C – Gas/CO2 outlet.
carbon dioxide.
D – Sterile air inlet.
5 When all the sugar is used up and/or when the level
of ethanol increases and kills the yeast cells. E – Harvesting drain for microbial product.
3 X – To keep the microbes and culture broth in close
Worksheet B3.18b contact.
2 The barley seeds are germinated in a process called Y – To provide the optimal temperature for microbial
malting. The seeds are crushed and added to the growth.
mash tun with warm water so enzymes can change
the starch in the seeds to sugar. The filtered wort Z – So that conditions inside the fermenter can be
is transferred to the boiler and hops and sugar are maintained at optimum levels.
added. It is boiled for 2½ hours. After filtering and Worksheet B3.19b
cooling, the wort goes into the fermenter and yeast
is added. After eight days, the beer is ready for 1 a Sugar and a source of nitrogen.
packaging. b The Penicillium has used the nutrients up for its
growth.
B3.19 Fermenters and penicillin c i Penicillin.
production ii In the culture broth.
2 b It has used up most of the nutrients.
Student’s Book
1 a Keep contaminating microorganisms out and
provide optimal growth conditions.
B3.00 Answers
B3.20 Mycoprotein by fungal b Air pumped in near the base of the fermenter
reduces the density of the broth so it rises in
fermentation the fermenter. Gas is removed from the top of
the fermenter and causes the broth to become
Student’s Book denser, so it falls to the base.
1 Fusarium venenatum. c i Glucose, ammonia, compressed air.
2 A plentiful supply of nutrients and oxygen. ii Fusarium venenatum biomass.
3 Cooling coils full of cold water take heat away from d i Aerobic respiration.
the fermenter.
ii Air is added to the fermenter.
4 It supplies oxygen for respiration and it gently
agitates the culture broth.
B3.21 Biogas
5 a Glucose and ammonia.
b To maintain the growth rate of the fungus. Student’s Book
6 The product of the fermentation is the fungal body 1 A mixture of mostly methane and carbon dioxide.
or biomass of Fusarium venenatum. It is made up of 2 Plant material or animal waste, such as sewage
microscopic thread-like hyphae. sludge.
7 a Mycoprotein consists of a microscopic fungus. 3 Anaerobic fermentation.
b It is grown under carefully controlled conditions 4 a Cooking, lighting or electricity generation.
in enormous industrial fermenters and supplied
b As a fertiliser.
with oxygen and nutrients.
c Animal and human excreta will be used and not
c In pies, sausages and burgers or with pasta, rice
left to cause disease.
and potatoes, etc.
5 a Automatic mixing system, heating system and
Worksheet B3.20a agitation system.
2 a Beef sirloin. b Energy costs.
b Lentils. c Heating system in the fermenter. This would
c Lentils. speed up the fermentation rate to give a high
yield of biogas when it is needed most as a fuel,
d Lentils.
in winter.
e Mycoprotein fillets.
f Beef sirloin.
Worksheet B3.21a
1
3 Mycoprotein is the fungal body of Fusarium
venenatum. It is made by growing the fungus X Y Z
aerobically in a fermenter. Pump to force Pump to Mixing system
organic matter force organic in feed tank
4 a It involves no animal products but has a similar into fermenter matter into the
texture to meat and can be flavoured to taste fermenter
like meat.
Heating in Agitator in slurry Gas used
b It has low fat and energy values. fermenter store to generate
Advantages
electricity
c It has a slightly lower value than beef.
Gas collected from Heating in Heating in
5 Several different types of units are used in the table. slurry store fermenter fermenter
Worksheet B3.20b Agitator in slurry Gas used Only one
store to generate building to
1 a Cheese, yoghurt. electricity maintain
b Bread, beer. Gas used for
c Rice. agitation in
fermenter
d Soy sauce, miso, tempeh. Three buildings to Underground Gas from slurry
Disadvantages
e Cider, wine. maintain construction is store not

expensive collected
2 a The arrows represent the circulation of culture
broth in the fermenter. Gas not used Difficult to Feed not
to generate access plastic pumped into
electricity gasholders for fermenter
maintenance
B3.00 Answers
Worksheet B3.21b c There is a high fuel tax on it.
1 a d Maize.
e 0.5€ per litre.
No. Replacement Reason
1 Pumps will force raw A constant supply of 7 a To cut down on carbon dioxide emissions and
waste into the fermenter material will be fed to the because of the high price of fossil fuels.
fermenter b Anaerobic fermentation of glucose from sugar
2 Gas mixers or mechanical More contact between beet or wheat by yeast followed by distillation of
stirrers microbes and organic the ethanol produced.
matter c E85 fuel contains 15% petrol and 85% ethanol.
3 Wall and floor heating Fermentation rate will be Flex-fuel cars have engines that can be adjusted
and insulation to outer speeded up according to the fuel in the tank.
walls of fermenter
4 Three A higher yield of biogas
Worksheet B3.22a
will be produced 1 5%.
5 Two flexible polyethylene Greater volume of gas 2 Taking into account all carbon emissions involved in
gas holders, one above collected. Easier to the production and transport between extraction
the slurry store maintain gas holders at the oil well head and driving a car.
3 46.5% reduction.
b i There was plenty of waste organic matter to 4 £500.
feed into the fermenter.
5 Petrol containing 25% ethanol and 100% ethanol
ii Short distance to transport waste from the
source to the biogas facility. 6 a 45%.
c i Odour control, less unsightly. b 60%.
ii Revenue from sales of electricity to the 7 6 million.
National Grid. Safe disposal of wastes. 8 a
2 Advantages of balloon biogas digester plants Advantages Disadvantages
include: prefabricated and low cost; not below
70% CO2 emission Vehicles that use it cost
ground; relatively simple maintenance; most plants
reduction £500 more
can be used as feed for the fermenter.
Fully renewable fuel Not widely available in UK
Disadvantages of balloon biogas digester plants in 2007
include: low gas pressure; the plastic balloon has
a relatively short life span; local craftsmen cannot Produced from UK crops
usually repair a balloon. Less reliant on oil imports
B3.22 Ethanol-based biofuels B3.00 Investigative Skills

Student’s Book Assessment (Student’s Book)
1 a Fuels that are obtained from carbohydrate-rich 1 What effect temperature has on the fermentation of
crops. yeast. (2 marks)
b By anaerobic fermentation into ethanol. 2 Volume of gas released. (1 mark)
c They are used as transport fuels in motor vehicles 3 a 2–12 minutes. (1 mark)
instead of petrol. b By repeating the experiment. (1 mark)
2 There is no net effect on carbon dioxide levels in the 4 a No anomalous results. (1 mark)
atmosphere.
b Measurement of gas volumes. (1 mark)
3 They are fully renewable.
5 a Concentration of glucose solution, volume of
4 a Petrol. glucose solution, Volume/weight of yeast
b Ethanol from wood. suspension. Type of yeast. (any 2) (2 marks)
5 Ethanol from wheat. b Appropriate measurements. (1 mark)
6 a Bioalcohol from wheat. c Fermentation rate is related to quantities of sugar
b i Brazil. and yeast used. (1 mark)
ii Sugar cane.
B3.00 Answers
6 At temperatures between 28 °C and 32 °C increasing Section 2
the temperature; causes an increase in the volume 11 What effect temperature has on the fermentation
of carbon dioxide released by yeast. (2 marks) of yeast. (2 marks)
7 Axes X and Y (one mark each) correct drawing and 12 Volume of gas released. (1 mark)
labelling. (2 marks)
13 a 2–12 minutes. (1 mark)
Correct plots – all (2 marks)
b By repeating the experiment. (1 mark)
four or five (1 mark)
1 4 a No anomalous results. (1 mark)
B3.00 Investigative Skills b Measurement of gas volumes. (1 mark)
Assessment (Copymaster File) 1 5 a Concentration of glucose solution, volume
of glucose solution, Volume/weight of yeast
Section 1 suspension. Type of yeast. (any 2) (2 marks)
1 How to grow/culture E. coli bacteria; only. (2 marks) b Appropriate measurements. (1 mark)
2 To prevent harmful microbes being accidentally c Fermentation rate is related to quantities of sugar
introduced; and multiplying so that it became a and yeast used. (1 mark)
health risk. (2 marks) 16 At temperatures between 28 °C and 32 °C
3 a A sterile agar plate. (1 mark) increasing the temperature; causes an increase in
b To prove there were no microbes present before the volume of carbon dioxide released by yeast. (2
they were introduced. (1 mark) marks)
4 Experiment and control mentioned appropriately. 17 Axes X and Y (one mark each) correct drawing and
(2 marks) labelling. (2 marks)
5 If the control was bacteria free; then the technique Correct plots – all (2 marks)
has been justified. If the control grew microbes; the four or five (1 mark)
technique used was not aseptic. (2 marks)
6 Suitable improvement; appropriate benefit. For
example, repeat the experiment with two more
Petri dishes. This should confirm the results and
make the conclusion more valid. (2 marks)
7 The class results. (1 mark)
8 Perform the experiment again. Ask another group to
check the results. (1 mark)
9 Too low a temperature and they would only grow
very slowly. A temperature above 25 °C increases
health risks. (1 mark)
10
Number of
bacterial
Colour Clarity colonies
of agar of agar present
Experimental plate
Control plate
Suitable table. (1 mark)

All columns complete. (1 mark)
B3 Answers
B3 Assessment exercises
Question Answer Extra information Mark
1 a To average so she could increase the accuracy of her results. 1
b 70.3, 86.7, 114.0. at least 2 correct 1
c Heart rate increases with level of activity. 1
d Phil’s results are lower, so he may be fitter than Marie. 1 mark for answer, 2
1 for reason
Total 5
2 a Diagram labelled correctly. allow 1/2 mark for each 2
correct
b Blood vessel taking blood away from heart. 1
c Capillary. 1
d Very thin walls. 1
Total 5
3 a Rate of transpiration increases during daylight because 1 mark for each point 2
stomata are open
b Using a potometer. 1
c Temperature lower so rate of evaporation from leaf slower; 1 mark for each point 2
humidity higher so rate of evaporation lower.
d Sketch should show lower rate of transpiration; 1 mark for sketch; 2
fewer stomata to reduce water loss 1 mark for explanation
Total 7
4 a Reached maximum level of supply of oxygen to muscles 1
b Glucose/sugar lactic acid (+energy released) 1
c The glucose molecule is only partly broken down. Either answer. 1
or
Energy still locked in bonds in lactic acid.
d Lactic acid is transported to liver, there converted back 2
to glucose using oxygen
e Oxygen is required after activity to convert lactic acid 1 mark for each point. 1
back to glucose. 1
Total 7
B3 Answers
5 a Uncontaminated or pure cultures. 1
b Agar, inoculating loop, Petri dish, McCartney bottle. All 4 correct (2 marks); 2
3 correct (1 mark)
c Pressurised steam – culture medium. 1 mark for each correct pair 3

Ultraviolet light – plastic culture dish.
Bunsen burner flame – inoculating loop.
Total 6
6 a Boiled chicken broth sealed in glass phial did not decay. 1
b Living organisms produce other living organisms of the 1
same type.
c Swan-neck flask containing boiled chicken broth; 1 mark for each point. 3
no decay after two days;
air could enter flask but microbes settled on neck of flask.
Total 5
7 a Milk and bacteria. 1
b 6.3 and 4.6. 1
c Lactose is used as an energy source; 3
by the bacteria that ferment it;
producing lactic acid.
d 38–44 °C (any temperature in this range). 1
e An experiment with milk but no microbes. 1
Total 7
8 a Bioethanol/biobutanol/biodiesel – anaerobic fermentation. 2
b CO2 absorbed from atmosphere by wheat/sugar cane. 1 mark for each point. 3
Fermentation and distillation produce bioalcohols.
Exhaust gases from vehicles release CO2 back into the
atmosphere.
Total 5
47 marks
B3 Answers
B3 Unit test
1 a Oxygen from alveolus to blood; 1 mark for each point 2
carbon dioxide from blood to alveolus
b The membranes between the blood and alveoli are partially 1
permeable membranes.
c Horizontal line to show higher concentration in plasma (no Mark for correct plasma line 1
change or lower concentration in alveolus, with steeper line
joining the two).
d Concentration in plasma higher 1 mark for each point 2
due to more carbon dioxide produced by muscle cells.
Total 6
2 a To get more oxygen into blood through lungs; 1 mark for each point 2
get more oxygen to cells
b Lower 1
c Any two from: 1 mark for each point, allow 2
contain haemoglobin, which carries oxygen; thin disc shape 1/2 mark for adaptation
for rapid diffusion/exchange or increased SA/V ratio; no without explanation.
nucleus so more space for haemoglobin.
d Blood can carry more oxygen so can run faster or further 1 mark for each point 2
than before increase in red blood cells.
Total 7
3 a To get more organs for transplant. either answer for mark 1
or
Not enough organs for transplant.
b It goes to the patient with the best tissue match. 1
c Dialysis. 1
d Any one from: more normal life; less control of diet; or any 1
other sensible answer.
e Any one from: take immunosuppressant drugs for life; more 1
infections than other people; greater risk of some cancers.
Total 5
4 a Root hair cell. 1
b Water enters by osmosis 1 for osmosis, 1 for 2
because solution of soil water is more dilute than solution explanation
inside cell.
c Mineral ions by active transport / using energy 1 for active transport/using 2
because concentration outside is lower than inside, so energy, 1 for explanation
cannot enter by diffusion.
Total 5
B3 Answers
5 a Labels are: bud, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus. All correct – 2 2
three correct – 1
b AEROBIC RESPIRATION All correct – 2 2
sugar+oxygen carbon dioxide+water+energy three correct – 1
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
sugar ethanol+carbon dioxide+energy
c More energy is released in aerobic respiration. 1
d On the grape skins. 1
Total 6
6 a Penicillium and Fusarium. 1
b Penicillin and mycoprotein. 1
c Component of fermenter Reason needed 1 mark for each correct pair 4
Water jacket to maintain a constant
temperature in the fermenter
Temperature probe to monitor conditions in the
culture medium
Stirrer to keep microbes and
nutrients in close contact
Sterile air for respiration of microbes
Total 6
7 a Methane, carbon dioxide 1
b Any 3 for both 6
Third-world farmer European farmer –
community biogas
• protection of forests • income from power sales

• improvement in hygiene • no need to treat farm waste
• yields fertiliser • yields fertiliser
• provides lighting
Total 7
8 a Beer making is starch in barley grains; wine making is sugar 1 mark for each point. 2
in grapes
b Enzymes break starch down to sugar 1
c Hops add flavour to the beer 1
Total 4
46 marks
C3
Chemistry
Topic Specification learning outcomes and codes
1 13.3.3 Water in rivers, lakes and the oceans is evaporated by the heat of
the Sun. This forms water vapour that rises in the atmosphere and cools
so that it condenses to form clouds. The water droplets in the clouds join
together to produce rain. This is known as the water cycle.
2 13.3.2 To consider and evaluate the environmental, social and economic
aspects of water quality and hardness.
13.3.14 Water of the correct quality is essential for life. For humans,
drinking water should have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and
microorganisms. This is achieved by choosing an appropriate source,
passing the water through filter beds to remove any solids and then
sterilising with chlorine.
13.3.15 Water filters containing carbon, silver and ion-exchange resins can
remove some dissolved substances from tap water to improve the taste
and quality.
13.3.16 Pure water can be produced by distillation.
3 13.3.4 Many substances dissolve in water. Most ionic compounds are
soluble in water. Some molecular substances are soluble but many
covalent compounds are insoluble in water.
13.3.5 The solubility of a solute in water, or any other solvent, is usually
given in grams of solute per 100 grams of water (or solvent) at that
temperature.
13.3.8 Many gases are soluble in water. Their solubility increases as the
temperature decreases and as the pressure increases.
– Dissolving carbon dioxide in water under high pressure makes
carbonated water. When the pressure is released, the gas bubbles out of
the solution. Carbonated water is used to make fizzy drinks.
– Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic life. If the temperature of the
water increases, the amount of oxygen that is dissolved decreases.
4 13.3.1 To interpret solubility curves and explain when crystallisation may
occur.
13.3.5 The solubility of most solutes that are solids increases as the
temperature increases.
13.3.6 A saturated solution is one in which no more solute will dissolve at
that temperature. When a hot saturated solution cools, some of the solute
will separate from the solution.
5 13.3.9 Soft water readily forms lather with soap. Hard water reacts with
soap to form scum and so more soap is needed to form lather.
13.3.10 Hard water contains dissolved compounds, usually of calcium or
magnesium. The compounds are dissolved when water comes into contact
with rocks.
6 13.3.10 Hard water contains dissolved compounds, usually of calcium or
magnesium. The compounds are dissolved when water comes into contact
with rocks.
13.3.11 Using hard water can increase costs because more soap is needed.
When hard water is heated it can produce scale that reduces the efficiency
of heating systems and kettles.
13.3.13 Hard water can be made soft by removing the dissolved calcium
and magnesium ions. This can be done by:
– adding sodium carbonate that reacts with the calcium and magnesium
ions forming a precipitate of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
– using an ion-exchange column containing hydrogen ions or sodium
ions that replace the calcium and magnesium ions when hard water
passes through the column.
7 13.3.2 To consider and evaluate the environmental, social and economic
aspects of water quality and hardness.
13.3.11 Using hard water can increase costs because more soap is needed.
When hard water is heated it can produce scale that reduces the efficiency
of heating systems and kettles.
13.3.12 Hard water has some benefits because calcium compounds are
good for health.
13.3.13 Hard water can be made soft by removing the dissolved calcium
and magnesium ions. This can be done by:
– adding sodium carbonate that reacts with the calcium and magnesium
ions forming a precipitate of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
– using an ion-exchange column containing hydrogen ions or sodium
ions that replace the calcium and magnesium ions when hard water
passes through the column.
8 13.5.1 To interpret results of the chemical tests in this specification.
13.5.4 Flame tests can be used to identify metal ions. Lithium, sodium,
potassium, calcium and barium compounds produce distinctive colours in
flame tests.
13.5.7 Aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form white precipitates
with sodium hydroxide solution but only the aluminium hydroxide
precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
Copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions form coloured precipitates with sodium
hydroxide solution.
13.5.10 Ammonium ions react with sodium hydroxide solution to form
ammonia.
13.5.5 Carbonates react with dilute acids to form carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide turns limewater milky.
13.5.6 Copper carbonate and zinc carbonate decompose on heating and
can be identified by the distinctive colour changes.
13.5.8 Halide ions in solution produce precipitates with silver nitrate
solution in the presence of dilute nitric acid. Silver chloride is white, silver
bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow.
13.5.9 Sulfate ions in solution produce a white precipitate with barium
chloride solution in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid.
13.5.11 Nitrate ions are reduced by aluminium powder in the presence of
sodium hydroxide solution to form ammonia.
12 13.2.1 To evaluate the contributions of Arrhenius, Lowry and BrØnsted to
our understanding of acid-base behaviour.
H 13.2.2 To suggest why the work of some scientists, for example
Arrhenius, took much longer to be accepted than the work of
others, for example, Lowry and BrØnsted
H 13.2.4 An acid can be defined as a proton donor. A base can be defined
as a proton acceptor.
13.2.5 Water must normally be present for a substance to act as an acid or
as a base.
13.2.6 Acids produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. The H+ ion is a
proton. In water this proton is hydrated and is represented as H+(aq).
13.2.7 Alkalis produce hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), in aqueous solutions.
13.2.8 Acids and alkalis are classified by the extent of their ionisation in
water.
– A strong acid or alkali is one that is completely ionised in water.
Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric acids.
Examples of strong alkalis are sodium and potassium hydroxide.
– A weak acid or alkali is only partially ionised in water. Examples of weak
acids are ethanoic, citric and carbonic acids. An example of a weak alkali is
ammonia solution.
13.5.1 To interpret results of the chemical tests in this specification.
13.5.12 Organic compounds burn or char when heated in air.
H 13.5.13 The empirical formula of an organic compound can be found
from the masses of the products formed when a known mass of the
compound is burned.
13.5.14 Unsaturated organic compounds containing double carbon–
carbon bonds decolourise bromine water.
13.5.2 To evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of instrumental
methods of analysis and the features that influence that development.
13.5.3 To interpret and evaluate the results of instrumental analyses
carried out to identify elements and compounds for forensic, health or
environmental purposes.
13.5.15 The development of modern instrumental methods has been
aided by the rapid progress in technologies such as electronics and
computing.
13.5.16 Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using
a variety of instrumental methods. Instrumental methods are accurate,
sensitive and rapid and are particularly useful when the amount of a
sample is very small.
15 13.5.3 To interpret and evaluate the results of instrumental analyses
carried out to identify elements and compounds for forensic, health or
environmental purposes.
H 13.5.17 Some instrumental methods are suited to identifying elements,
such as atomic absorption spectroscopy used in the steel industry.
Other instrumental methods are suited to identifying compounds, such
as infrared spectrometry, ultraviolet spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy and gas-liquid chromatography. Some methods
can be adapted for elements or compounds, such as mass spectrometry.
16 13.1.5 When electrons, protons and neutrons were discovered early in the
20th century, the Periodic Table was arranged in order of atomic (proton)
numbers. When this was done, all elements were placed in appropriate
groups.
13.1.6 The modern Periodic Table can be seen as an arrangement of the
elements in terms of their electronic structures. Elements in the same
Group have the same number of electrons in their highest occupied
energy level (outer shell).
13.1.13 In the Periodic Table between Groups 2 and 3 is a block of
elements known as the transition elements. These elements are all metals.
17 H 13.1.7 The trends in reactivity within Groups in the Periodic Table can
be explained because the higher the energy level:
– the more easily electrons are lost
– the less easily electrons are gained.
13.1.8 The elements in Group 1 of the Periodic Table (known as the alkali
metals):
– are metals with low density (the first three elements in the Group are
less dense than water)
– react with non-metals to form ionic compounds in which the metal ion
carries a charge of+1. The compounds are white solids that dissolve in
water to form colourless solutions
– react with water releasing hydrogen
– form hydroxides that dissolve in water to give alkaline solutions.
13.1.9 In Group 1, the further down the group an element is:
– the more reactive the element
– the lower its melting point and boiling point.
18 H 13.1.13 The transition elements have similar properties and some

special properties because a lower energy level (inner shell) is being filled
in the atoms of the elements between Groups 2 and 3. This is because the
third energy level can hold up to 18 electrons, once two electrons have
occupied the fourth level.
13.1.14 Compared with the elements in Group 1, transition elements:
– have higher melting points (except for mercury) and higher
densities
– are stronger and harder
– are much less reactive and so do not react as vigorously with water or
oxygen.
13.1.15 Many transition elements have ions with different charges, form
coloured compounds and are useful as catalysts.
19 13.1.10 The elements in Group 7 of the Periodic Table (known as halogens):
– have coloured vapours
– consist of molecules that are made up of pairs of atoms
– form ionic salts with metals in which the chloride, bromide or iodide ion
(halide ion) carries a charge of –1
– form molecular compounds with other non-metallic elements.
13.1.11 In Group 7, the further down the group an element is:
– the less reactive the element
– the higher its melting point and boiling point.
13.1.12 A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from
an aqueous solution of its salt.
20 13.1.1 To explain how attempts to classify elements in a systematic way,
including those of Newlands and Mendeleev, have led through the growth
of chemical knowledge to the modern Periodic Table.
13.1.2 To explain why scientists regarded a periodic table of the elements
first as a curiosity, then as a useful tool and finally as an important
summary of the structure of atoms.
13.1.3 Newlands, and then Mendeleev, attempted to classify the elements
by arranging them in order of their atomic weights. The list can be
arranged in a table so that elements with similar properties are in columns,
known as Groups. The table is called a Periodic Table because similar
properties occur at regular intervals.
13.1.4 The early Periodic Table were incomplete and some elements were
placed in inappropriate Groups if the strict order of atomic weights was
followed.
13.1.5 Mendeleev overcame some of the problems by leaving gaps for
elements that he thought had not been discovered.
21 H 13.2.3 To calculate the chemical quantities in titrations involving

concentrations (in moles or mass per unit volume) and masses.
22 H If the concentration of one of the reactants is known, the results of a

titration can be used to find the concentration of the other reactant.
23 13.2.9 The volumes of acid and alkali solutions that react with each other
can be measured by titration using a suitable indicator:
– strong acid+strong alkali . any acid-base indicator
– H strong acid+weak alkali . methyl orange indicator
– H weak acid+strong alkali . phenolphthalein indicator.
24 13.4.10 During a chemical reaction:
– energy must be supplied to break bonds
– energy is released when bonds are formed.
These changes can be represented on an energy-level diagram.
25 H To calculate the energy transferred in reactions, using simple energy-

level diagrams or supplied bond energies.
13.4.11 In an exothermic reaction, the energy released from forming new
bonds is greater than the energy needed to break existing bonds.
13.4.12 In an endothermic reaction, the energy needed to break existing
bonds is greater than the energy released from forming new bonds.
26 13.4.5 The relative amounts of energy released when substances burn
can be measured by simple calorimetry, e.g. by heating water in a glass
or metal container. This method can be used to compare the amount of
energy produced by fuels and foods.
13.4.1 To compare the energy produced by different fuels and foods.
27 13.4.2 To consider the social, economic and environmental consequences
of using fuels.
28 13.4.6 Energy is normally measured in joules (J). Some dietary information
is given in calories, which are equal to 4.2 joules.
13.4.7 Different foods produce different amounts of energy. Foods with
high proportions of carbohydrates, fats and oils produce relatively large
amounts of energy.
13.4.8 Eating food that provides more energy than the body needs can
lead to obesity.
29 13.4.9 The amount of energy produced by a chemical reaction in solution
can be found by mixing the reagents in an insulated container and
measuring the temperature change of the solution. This method can be
used for reactions of solids with water or for neutralisation reactions.
C3.0
Water
Overview
This unit looks at water. It starts with where water comes from and how it is purified. It then
goes on to discuss the effect of increasing temperature on the solubility in water of both
gases and solid solutes, including the use of solubility curves. Hard water is then examined
– its origins, its effect on soap, its benefits and disadvantages, and methods of removing
hardness. The detection of dissolved ions in water is then studied in depth. This includes
flame tests for the identification of some metal ions, and the effect of sodium hydroxide
solution on solutions of some metal ions. The simple chemistry of carbonates is then
studied, followed by the detection of halide, sulfate and nitrate ions in solution. Strong and
weak acids and alkalis are then covered, including the contributions of Arrhenius, Brønsted
and Lowry to our understanding of acid–base reactions at Higher level. The unit then
continues by looking at the simple detection of some organic functional groups, including
combustion analysis at Higher level. The unit ends by describing how modern instrumental
methods can be used to detect and identify tiny amounts of substances quickly and
accurately, including the specific use of some instruments at Higher level.

The ISA for Unit C3.0 is investigating the differing hardness of samples of water. In the
Student’s Book, data is presented to the students and then they are asked a number of
questions about the investigation. The Copymaster File provides questions for students
based on their own investigation into comparing the hardness of a number of samples of
water. Practical 1 in Topic C3.6 gives instructions for this investigation.
C3.0 Context page

Objectives for the unit • H how to use combustion analysis data to
Students should know and understand: determine the empirical formula of an organic
compound
• how water is cycled and purified • the use of some instrumental methods for
• how the solubility of gases and solids changes with identifying compounds
increasing temperature
• H the specific use of some instrumental methods.
• why soap reacts with the ions in hard water to form
a scum
Notes on context
• how both permanently and temporarily hard water The context for this unit is a water company. Here
are formed and the hardness can be removed
water is purified and then analysed for both purity and
• the benefits and disadvantages of hard water hardness.
• how to carry out flame tests or use sodium
hydroxide solution to identify some metal ions Learning activities
• how to test for carbonate, halide, sulfate and nitrate
• AT The ActiveTeach component for this topic is a
ions video about the treatment of water to make it fit for
• the difference between strong and weak acids and use. It shows the extraction of water from aquifers
and rivers, followed by purification. The small scale
alkalis
and accurate analysis of water is also shown.
• H the influence of Arrhenius, Brønsted and Lowry
on ideas about acids • Students should realise that water is not an infinite
resource, and should be encouraged to consider
• how to distinguish some organic compounds methods of conserving this essential resource.
C3.1 The water cycle
C3.1a Water for life Classwork (reusable) 4 4
C3.1b Rainfall statistics HSW Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives water shortage found in other parts of the world,

especially developing countries.
• AT The ActiveTeach has an animation showing the
• explain how water is cycled by a continuous water cycle.
process involving evaporation, condensation and
precipitation. • ICT The Homework sheet gives statistics for rainfall
in this country. It gives students an opportunity to
plot bar charts and also to analyse data. The bar
Key words charts could be plotted using ICT.
water cycle
Plenary
Lesson ideas • Ask students to note down what would happen if we
ran out of water, or if it were severely rationed. Some
students living in the south east of England will have
Starter experienced the hosepipe bans of 2006.
Fill a beaker with water from the tap. Ask students to
make a list of what they know about water. Give them Additional homework/research ideas
two minutes and then pool their ideas into a class list.
They should have some ideas from previous years, and
• ICT Use the internet to gather more data about
water availability and consumption in developing
also from Geography. countries.
Learning activities Practicals and demonstrations

• Worksheet C3.1a is based on the United Nations None suggested.
‘Water for Life’ campaign. It illustrates the severe
C3.2 Purifying water

C3.2a Filtering dirty water Practical 4 4
C3.2b Bottled water Homework 4 4

Starter
• explain that our water must be of the correct quality Show students some muddy water and ask them if it is
with sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and fit to drink. If they say it is not, ask them what must be
microorganisms done to it to make fit for drinking and how they will be
• explain how this is achieved by filtration and able to tell when it is fit to drink.
chlorination
Learning activities
• describe how water filters remove dissolved • HSW The method by which water is purified by the
substances from tap water
water companies is described in the Student’s Book.
• describe how pure water is obtained by distillation.
• The practical (Worksheet C3.2a) gives students an
opportunity to try to purify water on a much smaller
Key words scale.
chlorinate, filter beds, water filter
• AT The ActiveTeach has a video clip showing the Additional homework/research ideas
removal of water from aquifers and rivers. It also • ICT Research more uses of activated charcoal.
shows the purification of water so that it is fit to Students could start off by looking at its use in
drink. Second World War gas masks.
• The purity of water can be checked using water- Practicals and demonstrations
testing kits bought in garden centres or aquarium
shops. Water-testing kits are available to allow you 1 Filtering dirty water This straightforward
to test for pH, ammonia, nitrate, and copper. Oxygen- experiment lets students make a simple model of
testing kits are also available. water filtration.
30 minutes
• ICT The summary question (Q7) could be completed
using a computer presentation package. Students must wash their hands after using dirty
• The homework sheet (Worksheet C3.2b) gives water and should take care with the sharp tool.
students data about bottled water and asks them to Apparatus (per group)
compare three types on sale.
Small yoghurt pot; sharp tool for making holes in
Plenary the yoghurt pot; coarse gravel; fine gravel; fine sand;
beaker; sample of dirty water (this could be just mud
• Give students the sentence ‘Clean water is essential mixed with water); Worksheet C3.2a.
because …’ and ask them to complete it in as many
ways as possible.
C3.3 Solubility
C3.3a Dissolving air in water Classwork 4 4
C3.3b Cleaning up the Thames HSW Homework 4 4
Objectives be determined. This experiment may be done

practically if the correct apparatus is available, but it
Students should be able to: is difficult to set up. Practical details have therefore
not been given.
• describe how many substances dissolve in water
• describe how most ionic compounds are soluble in • AT The ActiveTeach has a video showing the
water, while many covalent substances are insoluble analysis of oxygen levels in water.
• express solubility as grams of solute per 100 g of • The homework sheet (Worksheet C3.3b) gives
water (or solvent) at a given temperature information about how oxygen levels in the Thames
have changed over the past 100 years. Students
• describe how the solubility of gases changes as the could be told that it is now quite usual to find
temperature and pressure change. salmon swimming in the Thames.
Key words Plenary

solubility, solute, solvent
• Ask students to draw a poster or mind map to
summarise what they know about the effect of
increasing temperature on the solubility of gases.
Lesson ideas This can be completed after the next topic.
Starter Additional homework/research ideas

Boil a beaker of water and watch how bubbles of gas • ICT Ask students to research how the ‘fizz’ is put
leave as the temperature increases. Explain that this is into fizzy drinks.
because the gas is less soluble in hot water than in cold
water. Practicals and demonstrations
None suggested.
Learning activities
• Worksheet C3.3a has information from which the
relative solubilities of oxygen and nitrogen may
C3.4 Saturated solutions
C3.4a Measuring the solubility of copper Practical 4 4
sulfate HSW
C3.4b A solubility curve for potassium Homework 4 4
chloride HSW
Objectives • ICT The homework sheet (Worksheet C3.4b) gives

Students should be able to: students an alternative method of measuring
solubility. It also gives students practice in plotting
• describe how the solubility of solid solutes increases and interpreting graphs. These could be done using
as the temperature increases ICT.
• explain that a saturated solution is one in which no Plenary
more solute will dissolve at that temperature
• interpret solubility curves and explain when • Complete the poster or mind map started at the
end of the last topic, in this case showing how the
crystallisation will occur. solubility of solid solutes varies with temperature.

crystallise, saturated solution • Find out if the solubility of liquids varies with
temperature.

1 Measuring the solubility of copper sulfate
Starter Although copper sulfate is expensive, this practical is
Write the word ‘solubility’ on the board and ask more memorable than one using white crystals, and
students to jot down as many words and phrases that the copper sulfate obtained can always be reused.
they associate with it as possible. Use this to revise first 1 hour
the solubility of gases covered in the last topic, and
then any differences when solid solutes dissolve in Copper sulfate is harmful. Eye protection should be
water at different temperatures. worn at all times. Ensure that students wash their
hands at the end of the practical.
Learning activities Apparatus (per group)
• The theory of solubility and saturated solutions is 9 g copper sulfate (hydrated); boiling tube; 25 cm3
covered in the Student’s Book. The use of solubility
curves is covered in some detail, with examples given. measuring cylinder; 250 cm3 beaker; tripod; gauze;
Bunsen burner; heat-proof mat; thermometer
• Practical 1 (Worksheet C3.4a) allows students to (0–100oC); access to a balance; eye protection;
find the solubility of copper sulfate at different Worksheet C3.4a.
temperatures.
C3.5 Hard water

C3.5a Finding the ions that cause hard water Practical 4 4
C3.5b Soaps and detergents HSW Homework 4 4
Objectives • explain that hard water contains dissolved

Students should be able to: compounds, usually of magnesium or calcium, which
dissolved when the water came into contact with
• describe the effects of both hard and soft water on rocks.
soap
Key words Plenary
hard water, soft water • Ask students to jot down individually what they
know about water now. They can then share their
ideas with other people before contributing them to
Lesson ideas a list written on the board. Ask them to compare this
to the list that they wrote in Topic 1.
Starter
Demonstrate to students what happens if soap is added Additional homework/research ideas
to hard water. If you live in an area where there is hard • Find out what else is added to soap.
water, use tap water. If you live in a soft water area, add
a little calcium sulfate to some tap water before the Practicals and demonstrations
lesson. 1 Finding the ions that cause hardness This is a
simple experiment in which students add solutions
Learning activities containing various ions to soap and find which ones
• ICT The effect of soap on both hard and soft water form a lather easily (are soft) and which ones do not
is covered in the Student’s Book. If a turbidity meter form a lather (are hard). This could be extended to
is available this could be used with datalogging other compounds should you wish.
software to make a more accurate comparison. 30 minutes
• AT The ActiveTeach contains a video about the Eye protection should be worn. Most soap solutions
analysis of water during the purification process.
are made up in ethanol and water and so are highly
• The Worksheet C3.5a gives students an opportunity flammable.
to find out which ions cause hardness.
• HSW The homework sheet (Worksheet C3.5b) 0.1 mol/dm3 sodium chloride; 0.1 mol/dm3 calcium
extends the idea of soaps further by discussing the
chloride; 0.1 mol/dm3 magnesium chloride; 0.1 mol/
difference between soaps and detergents.
dm3 potassium chloride; soap solution; 1 cm3 syringe;
10 cm3 measuring cylinder; 4 test tubes; test tube
rack; Worksheet C3.5a.
C3.6 Types of hard water

C3.6a Comparing the hardness of water Practical 4 4
C3.6b Hard water Homework 4 4

Students should be able to: • The Student’s Book explains the difference between
permanently hard water and temporarily hard water.
• explain how hard water is formed • Practical 1 (Worksheet C3.6a) gives students an
• explain the difference between permanently hard opportunity to test different waters for hardness, both
water and temporarily hard water. before and after boiling. This practical can be used to
provide data for the ISA element of the coursework.
Key words • The differences between permanently hard water
and temporarily hard water are reinforced in the
calcium hydrogencarbonate, calcium sulfate,
homework sheet (Worksheet C3.6b)
permanently hard water, temporarily hard water
Plenary
Lesson ideas • Revisit the starter activity, asking students to revise
their definitions. If ideas are shared between the
Starter class and then written on the board, they can be
Write the words ‘Hard water’ on the board and ask used to provide revision notes.
students to note down words and phrases that they
associate with this. Most students will not have had
experience of both hard and soft water, as this will
depend on where they have lived.
Additional homework/research ideas Apparatus (per group)
• ICT Research areas of the country where the water Permanently hard water (or calcium sulfate solution);
is permanently hard and where it is temporarily hard. temporarily hard water (or calcium hydrogencarbonate
solution); distilled water; a mix of permanently hard and
Practicals and demonstrations temporarily hard water; 100 cm3 conical flask; 25 cm3
1 Comparing the hardness of water This experiment measuring cylinder; burette; soap solution; clamp
may be used to provide data for the ISA element of stand; boss; clamp; Bunsen burner; tripod; gauze; eye
the coursework. protection; Worksheet C3.6b.
1 hour
Students must take care when boiling the water to

try to soften it. Eye protection should be worn. The
soap solution is probably highly flammable.
C3.7 Should we remove hardness from water?

C3.7a Softening water Practical 4 4
C3.7b Other ways of softening water Homework 4 4
Objectives • AT The ActiveTeach has an animation showing how

Students should be able to: an ion-exchange column works.
• describe the advantages to health of drinking hard • The homework sheet (Worksheet C3.7b) gives
water students other methods of removing hardness.
• explain the disadvantages of using hard water Plenary

• describe how to remove the hardness from water • Make a summary of the advantages and
disadvantages of hard water on the board.

ion-exchange column, limescale, sodium carbonate, • Look at packets of washing powder to find out if
soften they contain any softening ingredients.

1 Softening water This experiment could be
Starter combined with that from the previous topic.
Ask students if hard water is a good or a bad thing. 1 hour
Depending on their experiences of their local water
Sodium carbonate can irritate the eyes. Eye
supply, they may realise that hard water affects
protection should be worn. The soap solution is
washing and if the water is temporarily hard, there is
probably highly flammable.
a problem with limescale. This is often apparent on
beakers used to boil water. Apparatus (per group)
100 cm3 permanent and temporary hard
Learning activities water (calcium sulfate solution and calcium
• Practical 1 (Worksheet C3.7a) allows students to hydrogencarbonate solution); sodium carbonate
show the effect of adding washing soda (sodium crystals; 100 cm3 measuring cylinder; 22250 cm3
carbonate) to water. beakers; spatula; filter funnel; filter paper; burette;
• The class could be encouraged to debate the clamp stand; boss; clamp; soap solution; eye
protection; Worksheet C3.7a.
advantages and disadvantages of hard and soft
water.
C3.8 Flame tests
C3.8a Carrying out flame tests Practical 4 4
C3.8b The origin of flame colours Homework 4 4
Objectives • For homework Worksheet C3.8b explains in simple

Students should be able to: terms why flames’ colours are observed.
• describe how flame tests can be used to identify Plenary

some metal ions
• Write up some colours (red, lilac, orange, green,
• know the flame colours for lithium, sodium, brick-red) on the board and ask students to match
the colour with the metal ion.
potassium, calcium and barium compounds.

Key words
• Find out if transition metals give characteristic flame
flame tests colours.
Points to note
Chlorides are used for flame tests as they are more 1 Carrying out flame tests This experiment should be
volatile and therefore give more intense flame colours. set up as a ‘circus’, with students moving from one
station to another. Not only is this quicker, it is also
Lesson ideas safer and removes the chances of nichrome wire
becoming contaminated with more than one type
Starter of metal compound. The acid should be put out for
students and removed either by the teacher or a lab
Ask students to list everything that could be in river
technician to avoid spillages of concentrated acid.
water, and everything that could be in drinking water.
From here you could go on to talk about how those Magnesium chloride has been included to show that
things that can be seen could be tested for. this method cannot be used for all metal ions.
30 minutes
Learning activities
• Demonstrate how to carry out a flame test. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is corrosive, lithium
chloride is harmful, calcium chloride is an irritant
Emphasise the importance of having clean
nichrome wire and also the dangers of concentrated and barium chloride is toxic. Goggles should be
hydrochloric acid. worn at all times.
• Students have an opportunity to carry out flame Apparatus per station

tests. You may wish to do the whole experiment as a Sample of lithium chloride, sodium chloride,
demonstration with some classes. Details are given potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium
on Worksheet C3.8a. chloride, or barium chloride; small amount of
• AT The ActiveTeach has a video showing how concentrated hydrochloric acid in a small beaker;
Bunsen burner; nichrome wire; heat-proof mat; eye
fireworks depend on different elements giving
different flame colours. protection; Worksheet C3.8a.
C3.9 Detecting ions using sodium hydroxide solution
C3.9a Using sodium hydroxide to identify Practical 4 4
metal ions
C3.9b Camelford HSW Homework 4 4
Objectives • Alternatively, write the colours of some precipitates

Students should be able to: on the board and ask students to identify the metal
ions that cause them.
• distinguish between some metal ions by their
reaction with sodium hydroxide solution Additional homework/research ideas
• test for ammonium ions using sodium hydroxide • Research the colour of precipitates formed by
solution. other transition metal ions when they are reacted
with sodium hydroxide solution. They may need to
consult A-level texts for this.
Key words
precipitate, sodium hydroxide solution Practicals and demonstrations
1 Using sodium hydroxide to identify metal ions
This experiment shows students how to distinguish
Lesson ideas between different metal ions. They should follow the
instructions carefully, or the aluminium hydroxide
Starter will not redissolve.
Ask students for any drawbacks of flame tests that 1 hour
they can think of. They should include the fact that
not all metals give a coloured flame. Students should Sodium hydroxide is an irritant. Eye protection
then be encouraged to think of other methods of should be worn.
distinguishing between different metal ions – by
chemical means. Apparatus per group
0.1 mol/dm3 aluminium sulfate; 0.1 mol/dm3 calcium
Learning activities chloride; 0.1 mol/dm3 copper sulfate; 0.1 mol/dm3
• The Student’s Book gives full details of how iron(II) sulfate; 0.1 mol/dm3 iron(III) sulfate; 0.1 mol/
to distinguish between calcium, magnesium, dm3 magnesium chloride; 0.1 mol/dm3 sodium
aluminium, copper, iron(II) and iron(III) ions. It also hydroxide solution; 7 test tubes; test tube rack; teat
describes how to identify ammonium ions. pipette; eye protection; Worksheet C3.9a.
• The practical (Worksheet C3.9a) gives students an 2 Testing for ammonium ions Place a 2 cm depth of
opportunity to distinguish between metal ions ammonium chloride in a test tube and add a 2 cm
practically. depth of sodium hydroxide solution. Warm the tube
gently and hold a piece of damp litmus paper in
• You could demonstrate the reaction of sodium the mouth of the tube. It will go blue as ammonia is
hydroxide solution on ammonium chloride. See
produced.
Practical 2.
10 minutes
• AT The ActiveTeach contains a PowerPoint
presentation summarising the reactions of calcium Sodium hydroxide is an irritant. Eye protection
carbonate. should be worn.
• HSW For homework Worksheet C3.9b gives Apparatus

students details about the water pollution incident
0.1 mol/dm3 ammonium chloride; 0.1 mol/dm3
at Camelford in 1988. This can be tied in with the
sodium hydroxide; test tube; Bunsen burner; test
general water treatment and analysis context, and
tube holder; damp litmus paper; eye protection.
also as an example of ions that can be tested in
aqueous solution.
Plenary
• Draw a flow diagram on the board, showing how to
differentiate between the metal ions studied, and
ask students to complete it.
C3.10 Looking at carbonates
C3.10a Comparing samples of copper Practical 4 4
carbonate
C3.10b Heating carbonates Homework 4 4
Objectives Additional homework/research ideas

Students should be able to: • Find out if acid can be used to compare the purity of
carbonate rocks, e.g. limestone, chalk (both calcium
• describe how carbonates react with acids to form carbonate) or malachite (copper carbonate).
carbon dioxide
• describe how carbon dioxide turns limewater milky 1 Heating carbonates This simple experiment
• describe how zinc carbonate and copper carbonate illustrates the colour changes that occur when
decompose when they are heated copper carbonate and zinc carbonate are heated.
• identify these carbonates by their distinctive colour Place a 1 cm depth of copper carbonate in a test
tube. Using a test tube holder, hold the tube over a
changes.
blue Bunsen burner flame until there is no further
change. Repeat this with zinc carbonate.
Key words 30 minutes
carbonates
Copper carbonate is harmful. Eye protection should
be worn.
Lesson ideas
Starter Copper carbonate; zinc carbonate; spatula; test
Ask students what is in ionic compounds as well as tubes; test tube holder; test tube rack; Bunsen
positive metal ions. They should remember that non- burner; heat-proof mat; eye protection.
metal ions are negatively charged. Elicit the names of
2 Comparing samples of copper carbonate Students
anions they have already met. They should remember
are given three samples of ‘malachite’. This can be
carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, nitrates (and possibly
copper carbonate with added sand. They can heat
hydrogencarbonates). They should then be encouraged
each sample and find out how much carbon dioxide
to think about how these can be identified.
is formed. The purer a sample is, the more gas is lost.
Details of the experiment are on Worksheet C3.10a.
Learning activities
1 hour
• The general chemistry of carbonates is covered in
the Student’s Book. Copper carbonate is harmful. Eye protection should
• Practical 1 gives details of heating both copper be worn at all times.
carbonate and zinc carbonate. Apparatus (per group)
• Practical 2 (Worksheet C3.10a) shows students 1 g of each of three samples of powdered copper
how the purity of samples of malachite (copper carbonate (pure, with 20% sand, with 40% sand);
carbonate) can be compared by heating them and crucible; balance; Bunsen burner; tongs; tripod;
finding mass loss. gauze; heat-proof mat; eye protection; Worksheet
• The ideas given in this topic are reinforced on the C3.10a.
homework sheet (Worksheet C3.10b)
Plenary
• Draw a mind map of all of the reactions of
carbonates. This should include the action of
heat and the action of hydrochloric acid; it could
also include the relationship between calcium
hydrogencarbonate and calcium carbonate.
C3.11 Testing for other non-metal ions
C3.11a Testing inorganic compounds Practical 4 4
C3.11b Identifying inorganic compounds Homework 4 4
Objectives Additional homework/research ideas

Students should be able to: • Ask students to find out how to distinguish between
carbonates and hydrogencarbonates (add sodium
• describe how to test for halide ions using silver carbonate solution – carbonates give a precipitate of
nitrate solution calcium carbonate, hydrogencarbonates do not give
a precipitate); or sulfates and sulfites (sulfates do not
• describe how to test for sulfate ions using barium react with dilute hydrochloric acid, sulfites do). They
chloride solution
may need to consult A-level texts to do this.
• describe how to test for nitrate ions using
aluminium powder and sodium hydroxide solution. Practicals and demonstrations
1 Testing inorganic compounds This gives students
Key words an opportunity to test for inorganic ions. You
could start by giving them known compounds (for
halide, nitrate, sulfate example, sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodium
iodide, sodium nitrate and sodium sulfate) before
Lesson ideas giving them compound X. X should be a soluble
Group 1 or 2 or zinc halide, nitrate or sulfate.
Starter 1 hour
Show students solutions of sodium chloride, sodium
Eye protection should be worn at all times. Ammonia
nitrate and sodium sulfate, and ask them if they could
is a very smelly and toxic gas. Make certain that the
distinguish between them. They will probably say ‘No’.
lab is well ventilated. Sodium hydroxide and nitric
You could try adding dilute hydrochloric acid to show
acid are irritants, and barium chloride is harmful.
that they do not react like carbonates. Elicit the idea that
Wipe up any spills at once. Aluminium powder is
chemical tests are needed to detect non-metal ions.
highly flammable. Silver nitrate stains skin and
clothing. Hands should be washed thoroughly after
Learning activities this experiment.
• The theory behind the tests for halides, nitrates and Apparatus (per group)
sulfates is covered in the Student’s Book.
• Worksheet C3.11a gives students an opportunity Solid X; 0.1 mol/dm3 barium chloride solution;
0.1 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution; litmus
to try the tests for all three halides, nitrates and
sulfates. Details are given as Practical 1. paper; aluminium powder; 0.1 mol/dm3 nitric acid;
0.1 mol/dm3 silver nitrate solution; test tubes; test
• You could demonstrate the use of ammonia to tube rack; teat pipettes; test tube holder; Bunsen
further distinguish between the halides. Silver burner; heat-proof mat; eye protection; Worksheet
chloride dissolves in dilute ammonia solution, C3.11a.
silver bromide dissolves in concentrated ammonia
solution and silver iodide does not dissolve in 2 Using ammonia to differentiate between halide
concentrated ammonia. See Practical 2. ions
• The homework sheet (Worksheet C3.11b) is synoptic Once a silver halide has been made, add dilute
ammonia solution. If the solid does not dissolve, add
in nature and encourages students to use flame-
test results as well as chemical-test results to help concentrated ammonia.
identify unknown compounds. 10 minutes
Plenary 8 mol/dm3 ammonia is corrosive. This experiment

should be done in a fume cupboard. Goggles should
• Write up some results on the board and ask students be worn.
to identify the ions present.
Apparatus
• Alternatively, draw an incomplete flow diagram
showing how to identify an unknown compound, Samples of silver chloride, silver bromide, silver
and ask students to pool ideas to complete it. iodide; test tubes; dilute ammonia solution; 8 mol/
Students could work as a class or in small groups. dm3 ammonia.
C3.12 Testing for acidity
C3.12a Comparing strong and weak acids Practical 4 4
C3.12b Naturally occurring acids Homework 4 4
Objectives • AT The ActiveTeach has a video showing pH

Students should be able to: analysis in a water-company’s labs.
• explain that water must be present for a substance • H The ideas of Arrhenius, Brønsted and Lowry are
to act as an acid or an alkali also explained in the Student’s Book. This could be
used as an opportunity to discuss how scientific
• explain that acids produce hydrated ions in aqueous ideas have changed over the years.
solution, and alkalis produce hydroxide ions in
solution Plenary
• explain the difference between strong and weak • Repeat the starter activity from this topic asking
acids and alkalis, giving examples of each students how to detect acids and alkalis in water. This
will enable you to see how much they have learnt.
• H evaluate the contributions of Arrhenius, Brønsted
and Lowry to our understanding of acid–base Additional homework/research ideas
behaviour
• Find the names of three strong acids and three weak
• H define an acid as a proton donor and a base as a acids.
proton acceptor.
Key words 1 Water and acids Dissolve a spatula of citric acid
powder in 50 cm3 of water in one beaker and in
hydrated, ionise, proton donor, proton acceptor 50 cm3 of dry propanone in a second beaker. Then
Points to note test for acidic properties by adding universal indicator
solution to a sample of each. Repeat with magnesium
The difference between a strong acid or alkali and ribbon and marble chips. The solution in propanone
a concentrated acid or alkali should be emphasised. shows no acidic properties, demonstrating that water
Similarly, the difference between a weak acid or alkali is needed for an acid to work.
and a dilute acid or alkali should also be emphasised.
40 minutes
Lesson ideas Apparatus (per group)

Citric acid powder; dried propanone; distilled water;
Starter 50 cm3 measuring cylinder; 22100 cm3 beakers, 2 glass
Ask students how acids and alkalis could be detected stirring rods, 6 test tubes, universal indicator solution, 2
in water. They should be familiar with the pH scale. pieces of magnesium ribbon, 4 marble chips.
Citric acid powder is an irritant. Dried propanone is
Learning activities an irritant and is also highly flammable. Magnesium
• The difference between strong and weak acids and ribbon is highly flammable.
alkalis is explained in the Student’s Book.
2 Comparing strong and weak acids Hydrochloric
• Demonstrate that water is necessary for acids to acid is used as an example of a fully ionised strong
work by dissolving some dry citric acid in some acid, and ethanoic acid as a partially ionised weak
water and also in some dry propanone. Then test acid. Details are given on Worksheet C3.12a.
each for acidic properties. Details are given as 1 hour
Practical 1.
• Practical 2 (Worksheet C3.12a) emphasises the Magnesium ribbon is highly flammable. Eye
protection should be worn.
difference in hydrogen ion concentration between
strong and weak acids. Many students are surprised Apparatus (per group)
that vinegar is more concentrated (approx. 1 mol/
dm3) than bench hydrochloric acid. You may need to 0.5 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid; 0.5 mol/dm3 ethanoic
remind students about the effect of concentration acid; magnesium ribbon; marble chips; universal
on rates of reaction before doing this practical. indicator solution; test tubes; test tube rack; eye
protection; Worksheet C3.12a.
C3.13 Detecting organic chemicals
C3.13a Identifying alkenes Practical 4 4
C3.13b Alkanes and alkenes Homework 4 4
Objectives • The practical (Worksheet C3.13a) is revision of work

Students should be able to: carried out on alkenes in Year 10. It involves the
reaction of alkenes with bromine water.
• describe how organic compounds burn or char • For homework Worksheet C3.13b reinforces ideas
• explain that unsaturated organic compounds about alkanes and alkenes.
containing a double bond decolourise bromine water
• H Combustion analysis is covered in some detail.
• H find the empirical formula of an organic Its importance in establishing empirical formulae is
compound from the masses of the products formed stressed.
when a known mass of the compound is burned.
Plenary
Key words • Ask students to write down three differences between
organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
H empirical formula, organic compounds, unsaturated Produce a class list agreed by all students.
Points to note
While organic chemistry is considered to be the
chemistry of carbon and its compounds, it does not • ICT Find out about alcohols or another functional
group, e.g. aldehydes or carboxylic acids.
include the chemistry of inorganic salts containing
carbon (carbonates and hydrogencarbonates) or
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide or carbon disulfide.
1 Identifying alkenes As this is revision of work
carried out in Year 10, it could be omitted if time is
Lesson ideas short. Other alkanes and alkenes could be used if
they are available.
Starter 30 minutes
Burn a candle and ask why the flame is smoky. You
should elicit from students the idea that wax contains Bromine water is very toxic (0.06 mol/dm3) or
carbon, and is a hydrocarbon. irritant (0.06 mol/dm3). Cyclohexane is highly
flammable. Cyclohexene is highly flammable and
Learning activities harmful. Eye protection should be worn.
• The Student’s Book gives a simple introduction to Apparatus (per group)
organic chemistry.
Cyclohexane; cyclohexene; bromine water; teat
pipette; test tubes; test tube rack; eye protection;
Worksheet C3.13a.
C3.14 Detecting tiny amounts of chemicals
C3.14a Analysis – old and new Classwork 4 4
C3.14b Testing for illegal drugs Homework 4 4

Students should be able to: • The Student’s Book gives students an idea of the tiny
amounts of metal ions found in water samples.
• describe how the development of modern • The calculation of parts per million (ppm) may need
instrumental methods has been aided by the rapid
progress in technology some time.
• explain that instrumental methods are accurate, • The material covered in this topic is extended at
sensitive and rapid Higher level in the next topic
• explain that instrumental methods are particularly • The Worksheet C3.14a compares modern methods
useful when the amount of sample is very small. of analysis with those used in earlier topics. Students
are asked to select the most appropriate method for
a number of different examples.
Key words
• AT ICT The ActiveTeach contains a video of an
no new words analytical chemist using modern chemical analysis
techniques, including the use of ICT, in their work.
Points to note
Water companies provide very accurate data giving • The homework sheet (Worksheet C3.14b) uses drug
testing as an example of where tiny amounts of
average amounts of a number of substances in their
substances must be very accurately analysed.
tap water. These include about 15 metals, a number of
non-metal ions, at least 20 different pesticides, organic
residues and bacterial counts.
Plenary
• Give students the sentence ‘We need to know about
the presence of tiny amounts of substances because
Lesson ideas …’, and ask them to complete it in as many ways as
possible.
Starter
Remind students that they have been analysing Additional homework/research ideas
solutions where the concentration is about 0.1 mol/
dm3. What would they do if the solution was 1/1000 of
• ICT Search the website of the student’s local water
supplier to find out what they can about the content
that concentration? Elicit the idea that analysis must be of their water.
much more accurate.
None suggested.
C3.15 Instrumental analysis
C3.15a Using infrared spectroscopy H Classwork 4
C3.15b Using mass spectra H Homework 4
Objectives • Worksheet C3.15a outlines how infrared

Students should be able to: spectroscopy works. It gives students infrared spectra
for ethanol and ethanoic acid, two compounds
• describe how some instrumental methods are suited that they should be familiar with, and asks them to
to identifying elements identify the infrared absorption due to the functional
groups.
• describe how some instrumental methods are suited
to identifying compounds • If you can access any infrared or mass spectra, they
should be of interest to students. Some may be
• describe how some methods can be adapted for obtained from A-level texts.
elements or compounds.
• For homework Worksheet C3.15b gives further details
of mass spectrometry and fragmentation patterns.
Key words It then asks students to predict the fragments
Atomic spectrometer, gas–liquid chromatography, produced from ethanol.
infrared spectroscopy, line emission spectrum,
mass spectrometer, nuclear magnetic spectroscopy, Plenary
ultraviolet spectroscopy
• Write the six main methods of instrumental analysis
on the board and ask students what each one is used
Lesson ideas for. Alternatively, you could write up the names of a
number of elements and compounds (both organic
Starter and inorganic), and ask students which method they
would use to analyse each.
Building on the plenary session from the last topic, ask
students how they think that rapid analysis is carried
out. Brainstorm their ideas on the board. This leads into
the main part of the lesson. • ICT Research one of the methods not covered
by Copymaster sheets. For example, NMR or UV
Learning activities spectroscopy.
• AT The ActiveTeach has a video of instrumental Practicals and demonstrations

methods being used in a water analysis laboratory.
Ask students for their impressions – for example, the None suggested.
amount of instrumentation, the speed of obtaining
the results …
C3.0 Answers
C3.1 The water cycle C3.2 Purifying water
Student’s Book Student’s Book
1 a Sodium and chloride. 1 It has filtered through rocks.
b Calcium and hydrogencarbonate. 2 From farming and industry.
2 a Sea water=1.124. 3 There is more contact between the surface and the
Fresh water=0.002 12. water being filtered.
b Sea water contains ions that have dissolved 4 Advantages: taste and water quality improve.
in water in rivers and streams and has passed Disadvantages: expensive to replace cartridges and
through rocks. Also salts from the sea bed. may have adverse effect on health.
3 Distillation. 5 Substances dissolved in the water as it flows over
4 More showers and baths, swimming pools, etc. rocks.
5 Demand for water would increase even more. 6 Water filter is probably cheaper to run – though
adverts quote 4p per litre of water. Distillation
6 Turn taps off, have showers rather than baths, recycle apparatus needs electricity.
water by using bath/washing-up water on gardens.
Credit any sensible suggestions. 7 Summary.
Worksheet C3.1a Worksheet C3.2a

1 Extra 1.0 billion people. Therefore % increase=1.0/6. 1 Cloudy or brown.
22100=16%. 2 Clear.
2 60270/100=42%. 3 Filter through activated carbon.
3 Overuse of baths, showers, in gardens, general waste. 4 Check its boiling point (should be 100 °C).
4 Water for drinking, washing and sanitation. 5 No – the dissolved salts will remain dissolved in the
5 Industrialisation and increased population. water.
6 Decrease in fatalities if better water supplies. Worksheet C3.2b

7 If more people ate vegetarian food, less water would 1 It has not been chemically treated.
be wasted in converting vegetable matter into 2 Limestone.
meat.
3 It has been filtered through the rocks.
8 Personal responses, with examples.
4 Calcium and hydrogencarbonate.
Worksheet C3.1b 5 The total mass of ions is greater than dry mass as the
1 Bar charts. calcium hydrogencarbonate decomposed when
2 Temperature – rise in summer, peaking in July and heated and lost carbon dioxide – and hence mass.
August. 6 Table water – it may be tap water.
Sunshine – rise in summer – peaking in May. 7 Matter of opinion (the author thinks yes).
Rainfall – decrease in summer – lowest in May.
Days of rainfall – decrease in summer – lowest in
C3.3 Solubility
July.
Student’s Book
3 a 1125.2 mm.
1 Calcium carbonate and sugar.
b 112.5 cm.
2 158/5=31.6 g/100 g water.
4 Higher than hotter countries.
3 a i 0.0036 g/100 g water
5 More hours of sunshine in May than in June or July.
ii 0.0030 g/100 g water (Each +/– 0.0002).
More mm of rainfall in June than in May or July.
b Values would be lower.
More days of rainfall in June than in May or July.
4 There is insufficient oxygen.
6 Would expect maximum temperature and hours
of sunshine to increase. Probably cannot predict 5 It will increase.
effect on rainfall.
C3.0 Answers
6 More gas will dissolve at the lower temperature of Worksheet C3.4b
the fridge. Therefore more bubbles will be produced
than from a can kept at room temperature. 1 A solution that cannot contain any more dissolved
solute at a given temperature.
7 All oxygen has been boiled out of the water.
2 To prevent spitting – and loss of mass.
Worksheet C3.3a 3 Find the mass of solid and then reheat for 5 minutes
1 As temperature increases, solubility of gases more. Continue until the mass stays the same.
decreases. 4 Mass of evaporating basin.
2 a Copper+oxygen copper oxide. Mass of basin+saturated solution.
b 2Cu+O2 2CuO. Mass of basin+solid.
3 33 cm3. 5 Graph of results – correctly plotted.
4 33%. 6 48.5 g/100 g water.
5 Oxygen – there is more in the gas boiled out of 7 36.5 g/100 g water.
water than in air.
8 48.5−36.5=12.0 g crystals.
6 Increase the amount of gases dissolved in the blood.
7 It is less soluble in water. C3.5 Hard water
8 Helium must be less soluble in water.
Student’s Book
Worksheet C3.3b
1 They dissolve in rain water as it seeps through rocks
1 More sewage in 1900 than 2000. in the ground.
2 a 12–13 km after London Bridge. 2 Add soap and see if there is a scum.
b A lot of sewage and other waste entering the 3 Calcium and magnesium.
Thames from London.
4 Calcium stearate or magnesium stearate.
3 Less pollution.
5 Probably – elements in the same group tend to have
4 There is now a lot more oxygen for fish to use. similar properties.
5 Decrease fish populations. 6 A measure of the hardness of water.
6 a Could lead to illness from contaminated sewage. 7 Summary – hard water.
b Rowing, swimming, fishing.
Worksheet C3.5a
7 Prevent sewage release, or divert it to an area where
it has fewer harmful effects. 1 Table of results.
2 Calcium and magnesium. They did not form a lather
C3.4 Saturated solutions with soap solution.
3 Volume of soap solution, concentration of soap
Student’s Book solution, volume of test solution.
1 Potassium bromide. 4 Metal ion in compound.
2 Potassium nitrate. 5 Use chloride of other metals and repeat experiment
3 33 °C (+/–2). – keeping above variables constant.
4 85.522=171 g. 6 Use sodium salts with other negative ions.
5 400 g water. Worksheet C3.5b
6 75 °C (+/–2 °C). 1 Similarities: remove grease and dirt.
7 40.0−17.4=22.6 g solid. Differences:
8 Summary. soaps made from animal fats or vegetable
oils+sodium hydroxide; can be alkaline; soapless
Worksheet C3.4a detergents made from oil
1 Results table. soaps form scum, soapless detergents do not
2 Graph of results. soaps are not biodegradable, detergents are.
3 Solubility increases as temperature increases.
4 Read off graph.
5 Read off graph.
C3.0 Answers
2 Charged end of detergent attracted to water, while 2 B. Little soap needed to form a lather.
other end attracted to grease. Hence molecules 3 A. Same amount of soap needed after boiling
penetrate grease and surround it. – therefore not softened by boiling.
3 Oil not a raw material in Middle Ages, while sodium 4 C. The amount of soap needed after boiling was
hydroxide (Lye) and animal fats were available. considerably reduced.
4 Saponification. 5 a D.
5 List of household items with detergents – washing- b After boiling it had lost some hardness, but still
up liquid, shampoo, etc. needed much more soap than softened water.
6 Soapless detergents do not form scum in hard water, 6 Calcium sulfate.
while soaps do. But too many soapless detergents
cause foaming and may poison aquatic life. 7 a Calcium hydrogencarbonate.
b Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)+H2O(l).
C3.6 Types of hard water
C3.7 Should we remove hardness
Student’s Book from water?
1 a Magnesium carbonate+carbon dioxide+water
magnesium hydrogencarbonate. Student’s Book
b MgCO3(s)+CO2(g)+H2O(l) Mg(HCO3)2(aq). 1 Calcium hydrogencarbonate calcium
2 The calcium ions are no longer in solution – and carbonate+carbon dioxide+water.
therefore cannot react with soap. 2 More soap is needed for it to act as a cleaning agent
3 The electricity would have to heat the limescale as and extra expense occurs because it reduces the
well as the water. efficiency of the heating system.
4 Boiling temporarily hard water removes hardness. 3 a Build strong bones and teeth, prevent heart
disease.
5 As a control.
b Scum formed during washing, limescale in
6 The constituents in the water. kettles, hot water pipes and boilers.
7 a Similar to distilled water. 4 a Magnesium sulfate+sodium carbonate
b Similar to unboiled temporarily hard water. magnesium carbonate+sodium sulfate.
8 b MgSO4(aq)+Na2CO3(aq)
MgCO3(s)+Na2SO4(aq).
Temporarily hard water Permanently hard
water 5 No scum would form and it would form a lather
quickly.
Similarities
Contains calcium ions Contains calcium ions 6 So that hard water is available for drinking – and to
prevent harmful sodium ions being drunk.
Makes a scum with soap Makes a scum with soap
7 Appropriate letter of explanation.
Differences
Contains hydrogen- Contains sulfate ions Worksheet C3.7a
carbonate ions Not softened by boiling 1 Results obtained.
Softened by boiling 2 The water that had had sodium carbonate added to
it. The calcium ions had been removed.
Worksheet C3.6a 3 To remove solid calcium carbonate.
1 Results table. 4 To make it a fair test.
2 Depends on samples. 5 a Calcium sulfate+sodium carbonate
calcium carbonate+sodium sulfate.
3 Depends on samples.
b CaSO4(aq)+Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s)+
Na2SO4(aq).
6 The calcium carbonate formed might damage the
Worksheet C3.6b clothes.
1 a D, C, A, B.
b The hardest water will need most soap to form
a lather.
C3.0 Answers
Worksheet C3.7b C3.9 Using sodium hydroxide
1 Calcium phosphate. solution to detect positively
2 a calcium sulfate+sodium phosphate calcium charged ions
phosphate+sodium sulfate.
b 3CaSO4(aq)+2Na3PO4(aq) Ca3(PO4)2(s)+ Student’s Book
3Na2SO4(aq). 1 Aluminium nitrate+sodium hydroxide
3 Eutrophication. aluminium hydroxide+sodium nitrate.
4 So no other ions are present in experiments. 2 No. No insoluble hydroxide formed.
5 Cost of electricity. 3 Magnesium – none; calcium – brick-red.
6 H+(aq)+OH–(aq) H2O(l). 4 a FeCl2(aq)+2NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)+2NaCl(aq).
7 This ion-exchange column replaces calcium and b FeCl3(aq)+3NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)+
magnesium ions with hydrogen ions. A home ion- 3NaCl(aq).
exchange column replaces calcium and magnesium 5 Ammonium nitrate+sodium hydroxide
ions with sodium ions. This column also exchanges ammonia+sodium nitrate+water.
negative ions – which home ones do not.
6
8 Good for bones, teeth and the heart.
Ion present Observation
C3.8 Flame tests Aluminium White precipitate that dissolves in excess
Ammonium Ammonia produced – litmus goes blue
Student’s Book Calcium White precipitate, insoluble in excess
1 To identify toxic metals. Copper Blue precipitate
2 Water evaporated off. Iron(II) Green precipitate
3 It is cheaper. Iron(III) Brown precipitate
Magnesium White precipitate, insoluble in excess
4 To remove any impurities.
5 It would get covered in soot.
6 Lithium – red; sodium – orange; potassium – lilac; Worksheet C3.9a
calcium – brick-red; barium – green. 1
7 Appropriate diagrams. Compound being Metal ion Observations
Worksheet C3.8a tested present
Aluminium sulfate Al3+ White precipitate,
1 Results table. soluble in excess
Colours – red, orange, lilac, none, brick-red, green. Calcium chloride Ca2+ White precipitate,
2 Magnesium. insoluble in excess
Copper sulfate Cu 2+ Blue precipitate
3 Many flame colours are red – therefore we cannot
distinguish between these metals. Iron(II) sulfate Fe 2+ Green precipitate
4 To make it a fair test. Iron(III) sulfate Fe3+ Brown precipitate
Magnesium chloride Mg 2+ White precipitate,
Worksheet C3.8b insoluble in excess
1 Electrons gain energy and jump from lower energy
levels to higher ones.
2 Calcium chloride would give a brick-red flame
2 Electricity. colour; magnesium chloride would not give a flame
3 They give out light energy. colour.
4 a 12. 3 If too much solid is used, it may not dissolve in
excess.
b Not in visible part of spectrum.
4 It has been oxidised to form an iron(III) compound.
5 a 2.
b 1.
c Must be other unfilled electron energy levels.
C3.0 Answers
Worksheet C3.9b 2 Diagram showing delivery tube going into
limewater.
1 Neutralisation.
3 Limewater contains calcium hydroxide, which reacts
2 a Calcium hydroxide+hydrochloric acid calcium with carbon dioxide to form insoluble calcium
chloride+water. carbonate.
b Ca(OH)2(aq)+2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq)+2H2O(l). 4 Although it is a carbonate, it did not decompose
3 Through filter beds. when heated.
4 The aluminium is included in the clumps. 5 A=sodium carbonate; B=sodium chloride;
5 Copper compounds were present. C=calcium carbonate; D=zinc carbonate; E=zinc
oxide; F=copper carbonate; G=copper sulfate.
6 Less of the toxic chemical is needed to kill fish
because fish are smaller.
C3.11 Testing for other non-metal
7 At first a white precipitate forms. This dissolves in
excess sodium hydroxide solution. ions
8 a Aluminium sulfate+sodium hydroxide Student’s Book
aluminium hydroxide+sodium sulfate.
1 Yellow precipitate.
b Al2(SO4)3(aq)+6NaOH(aq)
2Al(OH)3(s)+3Na2SO4(aq). 2 The blue colour would obscure the colour of the
precipitate.
C3.10 Looking at carbonates 3 White precipitate (of barium sulfate).
4 BaCl2(aq)+K2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s)+2KCl(aq).
Student’s Book 5 They both produce solid precipitates.
1 a Calcium carbonate+hydrochloric acid 6 Ammonium ions.
calcium chloride+carbon dioxide+water.
7 No.
b CaCO3(s)+2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq)+CO2(g)+
H2O(l). 8 Outline summary of tests for halides, nitrates and
sulfates.
2 Limescale contains calcium carbonate – therefore
reacts with acids. Worksheet C3.11b
3 In (temporarily) hard water. A=lithium sulfate; B=calcium nitrate; C=sodium
4 FeCO3(s) FeO(s)+CO2(g). carbonate; D=barium chloride; E=potassium sulfate.
5 Zinc carbonate goes yellow when heated, calcium
carbonate does not. C3.12 Testing for acidity
6 Physical – no chemical change occurs. Student’s Book
7 Reactions of calcium carbonate. To include
1 pH<7, litmus or indicator goes red, reactive metals
formation of calcium hydrogencarbonate (and
hydrogen, bases salt+water, carbonates
reverse reaction), reaction with acids and thermal
salt+carbon dioxide+water.
decomposition.
2 H+ ions: formed in all acidic solutions; strong acid:
Worksheet C3.10a fully ionised in water; weak acid: partially ionised
1 Table of results. in water; strong alkali: fully ionised in water; weak
alkali: partially ionised in water.
2 Green to black.
3 People did not believe that molecules could be
3 Green copper carbonate has turned into black ionised.
copper oxide.
4 More knowledge available.
4 Mass loss calculated.
5 a No water present.
5 a The more copper carbonate present, the more
carbon dioxide is produced. b The HCl acts as an acid and donates the proton
to the ammonia, which acts as a base and
b Purest sample should lose most carbon dioxide. accepts it.
6 Only if they decompose when heated. 6 Summary. At Higher level this should include
Worksheet C3.10b Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry definitions.
1 a A, C, D, F.
b They fizzed when acid was added.
C3.0 Answers
Worksheet C3.12a Worksheet C3.13a
1 1 No reaction.
Test With hydrochloric With ethanoic 2 Bromine water decolourised / went from brown to
acid acid colourless.
pH 1 4 3 Carbon–carbon double bonds must lead to
Action of Rapid bubbling Slow bubbling reactivity.
magnesium 4 C6H10+Br2 C6H10Br2.
Action of Rapid bubbling Slow bubbling
marble chips
Worksheet C3.13b
1 Ethene. It reacts with bromine water and acidified
potassium permanganate.
2 Experiment should have worked well. The strong
acid reacts faster than the weak acid as there are 2 The presence of a carbon–carbon double bond gives
more hydrogen ions in solution. reactivity.
3 Volume and concentrations of acids. 3 a Ethane+oxygen carbon dioxide+water.
b 2C2H6+7O2 4CO2+6H2O.
Worksheet C3.12b
4 Add bromine water. Butene will decolourise it,
1 White wine has more ethanol than cider or malt. butane will not.
2 a Something else that is formed in a chemical 5 Alkanes end in –ane; alkenes end in –ene.
process other than the main product.
6 5.6 g P 17.6 g carbon dioxide+7.2 g water.
b Save money / make money / avoid waste.
Mass carbon=12/44217.6=4.8 g.
3 More – they taste sourer.
Mass hydrogen=2/1827.2=0.8 g.
4 Bee stings and nettle stings are acidic – therefore
they are neutralised by alkalis. Moles carbon=4.8/12=0.4.
5 The acid reacts with the calcium carbonate and Moles hydrogen=0.8.
removes it. Empirical formula=CH2.
6 Ethanoic acid+magnesium carbonate 7 Moles carbon=3.6/12=0.3.
magnesium ethanoate+carbon dioxide+water. Moles hydrogen=0.8.
7 From the Latin formica (ants). Moles oxygen=1.6/16=0.1.
Empirical formula=C3H8O.
C3.13 Detecting organic
8 0.46 g R 0.88 g carbon dioxide+0.54 g water.
chemicals
Mass carbon=12/4420.88=0.24 g.
Student’s Book Mass hydrogen=2/1820.54=0.06 g.
1 Any carbonate. Mass oxygen=0.46−(0.24+0.06)=0.16 g.
2 Not totally – there are exceptions. Moles carbon=0.24/12=0.02.
3 Add bromine water. Hexane has no effect; hexene Moles hydrogen=0.06.
will decolourise it. Moles oxygen=0.16/16=0.01.
4 a C3H7. Empirical formula=C2H6O.
b CH.
5 0.112 g hydrocarbon 0.352 g CO2+0.144 g H2O. C3.14 Detecting tiny amounts of
Mass carbon=12/4420.352=0.096 g. chemicals
Mass hydrogen=2/1820.144=0.016 g.
Student’s Book
Moles carbon=0.096/12=0.008.
1 0.005 ppm.
Moles hydrogen=0.016/1=0.016.
2 Fertilisers.
Empirical formula=CH2.
3 Accurate, sensitive, rapid, use tiny amounts of
6 Detection of toxic organics in water. sample.
C3.0 Answers
4 Expensive and high level of training required. Worksheet C3.15a
5 Nuclear power stations, hospitals. 1 Carbon–carbon; carbon–hydrogen; carbon–oxygen;
6 Public health. oxygen–hydrogen.
7 Appropriate leaflet. 2 Broad trough above 3000 cm–1.
Worksheet C3.14a 3 Carbon–oxygen double bond.

4 a+b Sharp one at 1700 cm–1.
1 It can only be used to detect metal ions.
5 Same as ethanoic acid.
2 If the flame is red, you cannot determine which
metal is present. Worksheet C3.15b
3 They are more specific. 1 a C4H8O.
4 Anything that does not contain ions. b 48+8+16=72.
5 The cost of computers and all of the electronic 2 Ion on right-hand side.
software.
3 15.
6 a Any of these.
4 57.
b Testing for ions in solution or modern methods.
5 The ion at 15 and the ion at 57.
c Modern methods.
6 C2H6O+−46.
d Modern methods.
CH3+−15.
Worksheet C3.14b CH3O+−31.
1 It is cheating. Also harmful to the body. OH+−17.
2 Increases body mass and muscle strength. C2H5+−29.
3 For reliable results.
4 Otherwise people may be wrongly accused. C3.0 Investigative Skills
5 To prevent people performing again with drugs in Assessment (Student’s Book)
their bodies.
1 D, A, C, B. (1 mark)
6 Probably not as sophisticated drugs had not been
2 A=23.8 and 24.0
invented.
B=1.3 and 1.3
C3.15 Instrumental analysis C=22.25 and 1.45
D=26.9 and 13.75 (all cm3). (2 marks)
Student’s Book 3 a=A, b=C, c=B, d=D. (4 marks)
1 a Flame tests.
4 Distilled water. (1 mark)
b Finding the presence of certain metal ions.
5 Do more repeats. (1 mark)
2 Detection of tiny amounts of lead in water; analysis
6 Difficult to say when there is a permanent lather.
of amounts of trace elements in steel.
(1 mark)
3 a Infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic
7 Ask another group to repeat them. (1 mark)
spectroscopy and gas–liquid chromatography.
8 Make certain that the temperature was constant, and
b Probably all. Water contains both inorganic and
check that the same concentration of soap solution
organic impurities.
was used for each experiment. (2 marks)
4 They will show each isotope as a line, so count the
9 Probably – there is a wider range of results and any
lines.
anomalies could be discounted. (2 marks)
5 Can detect elements and compounds; and measures
10 No continuous variable. (1 mark)
relative formula mass.
11 Bar chart. (1 mark)
6 Appropriate article.
12 Measure the turbidity of the water. Or similar to
rates disappearing-cross experiment, where a cross
could be drawn and the volume of soap needed
to form enough scum to obscure it could be
measured. (2 marks)
C3.0 Answers
C3.0 Investigative Skills
Assessment (Copymaster File)
Section 1
1 To compare the hardness of a number of samples of
water. (2 marks)
2 a Volume of water, concentration of soap solution.
b Either have same volume of water by using a
measuring cylinder or have same concentration
of soap solution throughout.
c If more water used, more soap would be needed.
If soap was more concentrated, less would be
needed. (4 marks)
3 Type of water. (1 mark)
5 Difficult to state when a lather had been formed.
(2 marks)
6 Table of results. (2 marks)
7 Bar chart showing results. (3 marks)
8 Conclusion. (2 marks)
Section 2
9 D, A, C, B. (1 mark)
10 A=23.8 and 24.0
B=1.3 and 1.3
C=22.25 and 1.45
D=26.9 and 13.75 (all cm3). (2 marks)
11 a=A, b=C, c=B, d=D. (4 marks)
12 Distilled water. (1 mark)
14 Difficult to say when there is a permanent lather.
(1 mark)
15 Ask another group to repeat them. (1 mark)
16 Make certain that the temperature was constant,
and check that the same concentration of soap
solution was used for each experiment. (2 marks)
17 Probably – there is a wider range of results and any
anomalies could be discounted. (2 marks)
18 No continuous variable. (1 mark)
19 Bar chart. (1 mark)
20 Measure the turbidity of the water. Or similar to
rates disappearing-cross experiment, where a cross
could be drawn and the volume of soap needed
to form enough scum to obscure it could be
measured. (2 marks)
C3.00
Driving chemistry further

Overview
This unit develops ideas from Units C1 and C2 about the Periodic Table, acids and energy
changes in reactions. Students will learn more about the structure and development of the
Periodic Table as well as Group 1, Group 7 and the transition metals in detail. They will learn
how to perform mole calculations in solution and how to carry out an acid–alkali titration.
Finally, students will learn how to calculate energy changes in reactions using bond
energies and how to do simple calorimetry to calculate energy changes when burning fuels
and foods, and for reactions in solution.

The ISA for Unit C3.00 is based around energy changes in reactions. In the Student’s Book,
data is presented to the students and then they are asked a number of questions about
the investigation. The Copymaster File provides questions for students to answer based on
their own investigation in which they carry out an experiment to measure the temperature
change when copper sulfate solution reacts with zinc metal to see how it is affected by
changing the mass of zinc. The ISA worksheets give instructions for this investigation.
Points to note
• This unit involves a number of calculations, many involving moles from Unit C2.
• The work on acids is linked on the specification to some of the material in Unit C3.0.
C3.00 Context page
Students should know and understand: The context for this unit is cars and the context video
looks at various aspects of cars. The Periodic Table is
• how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table considered by examining the use of some transition
and be able to link the position of an element in the
metals in cars, including iron in the body, platinum
Periodic Table to its properties
and palladium in the catalytic converter, chromium
• the chemical and physical properties of the and nickel in many alloys for engine parts. Acids are
elements in Group 1 and Group 7, and the transition dealt with by looking at the use of sulfuric acid in car
metals batteries. Energy changes are considered in relation to
the use of petrol and diesel as fuels.
• how the Periodic Table developed from early ideas
about the elements
• how to perform mole calculations for reactions in Learning activities

solution • AT The context for this unit is introduced via a
video on the ActiveTeach.
• how to perform an acid–alkali titration, choosing a
suitable indicator • Students could be asked to brainstorm as many
ways as possible that chemistry is involved in cars.
• how to calculate the energy change in a reaction
using bond energies
• how to perform experiments to calculate the energy

change for a chemical reaction in solution or when a
fuel or food is burned
• how to evaluate issues surrounding the use of fuels

• which foods contain most energy and how this is
linked to obesity.
C3.16 The Periodic Table
C3.16a The Periodic Table 1 Classwork (write-on) 4 4
C3.16b The Periodic Table 2 Homework (write-on) 4 4
Objectives • ICT Worksheet C3.16a asks students to research

Students should be able to: Groups 0, 1 and 7 of the Periodic Table. For each
group they are asked to find out five things that the
• describe how elements are arranged in the Periodic elements have in common. Students could report
Table their findings to another student in pairs, and then
their combined findings to the class
• link the position of an element in the Periodic Table
to its electronic structure. • For homework, Worksheet C3.16b reinforces the
work from the lesson.
Key words Plenary
atomic number, element, group, period, Periodic Table,
transition metals
• AT Students decide whether a series of statements
are true or false. Suggested statements are given
below and on the ActiveTeach:
Points to note a Elements are listed in mass number order. (false
• Different Periodic Tables show hydrogen in different – atomic number order)
places. Some have it at the top of Group 1, but the b Elements in Group 6 have 6 electrons in their
AQA data sheet has it in the more common position outer shell. (true)
on its own apart from any other group.
c The transition metals are between Groups 1 and 2.
• New elements are being created and detected in (false – between Groups 2 and 3)
nuclear reactions. Elements 112–116 have been
detected but not fully authenticated, with some d Just over three-quarters of elements are non-
argument about element 118. metals. (false – just over three-quarters of
elements are metals)
Lesson ideas e The element with the electron structure 2,8,5 is in

Group 5. (true)
Starter f The element with the electron structure 2,8,5 is in
• Ask students to list 10 things they know about the Period 3. (true)
Periodic Table. Ask them to compare their list with g Elements in the same group have similar chemical
someone else’s from the class. properties because they have the same number
of electrons. (false – they have the same number
Learning activities of electrons in their outer shell)
• Students could be presented with samples of h The elements in Group 7 are known as the noble
various substances around the room, which should
be labelled with names and formulas (Experiment 1). gases. (false – they are the halogens)
They should decide whether each one is an element
or a compound. This could be followed up by asking Additional homework/research ideas
whether the elements are metals or non-metals. • ICT Students could be asked to use the internet
Students should be allowed access to a Periodic to find out about the formation of new elements in
Table. You may wish to extend this activity further by nuclear reactions. Element 118 is an interesting one
asking students to explain how they arrived at their to suggest.
answers.
• Use the Student’s Book to discuss the basic features 1 Elements or compounds? Samples of various
of the Periodic Table.
elements and compounds could be placed around
• Worksheet C3.16a has a variety of activities and the room. Each one should be labelled with its name
questions about the Periodic Table, leading into the and formula and relevant hazard symbol. Examples
link between electron structure and position in the are ammonia (NH3, compound, toxic), argon (Ar,
Periodic Table. element, non-metal), glucose (C6H12O6, compound),
iron oxide (Fe2O3, compound), magnesium (Mg, harmful (do not use powder). Eye protection should
element, metal, highly flammable), methane (CH4, be worn.
compound, extremely flammable), nickel (Ni, 10 minutes
element, metal), oxygen (O2, element, non-metal,
oxidising), sodium chloride (NaCl, compound), Apparatus
sulfur (S8, element, non-metal). For colourless gases
Beakers labelled glucose (C6H12O6), iron oxide
(ammonia, argon, methane and oxygen) simply use
(Fe2O3), magnesium (Mg), nickel (Ni), sodium chloride
a gas jar of air. As students look at each substance,
(NaCl), sulfur (S8) containing samples of those
they should write down in a suitable table whether
substances; gas jars labelled ammonia (NH3), argon
it is an element or a compound, and for each
(Ar), methane (CH4), oxygen (O2) containing air; eye
element whether it is a metal or a non-metal.
protection.
Use air in place of ammonia, argon, methane and
oxygen. Magnesium is highly flammable. Nickel is
C3.17 Group 1 – the alkali metals

C3.17a The alkali metals 1 Classwork (write-on) 4
C3.17b The alkali metals 2 Homework (reusuable) 4 4
Objectives • H AT Students should explain why the alkali

Students should be able to: metals become more reactive down the group. There
is an animation in the ActiveTeach to help.
• describe the physical and chemical properties of the • Worksheet C3.17a reinforces much of the work from
alkali metals
the lesson by considering the chemistry of caesium.
• H explain the trend in reactivity of the alkali metals. • For homework, Worksheet C3.17b involves
some data analysis and graph drawing to make
Key words predictions about francium.
alkali metals
Plenary
Lesson ideas • Rubidium is the fourth member of the group.
Students should predict the chemical and physical
properties of rubidium.
Starter
• Ask students to list the properties of common • An alternative is to carry out a connectives exercise.
Give students the start of a sentence such as
metals.
‘Rubidium and sodium are similar …’, then give them
connective words such as ‘to’, ‘so’, ‘such as’, ‘therefore’,
Learning activities ‘but’ and ‘however’. Ask them to complete the
• Show students the metals lithium, sodium and sentence in as many different ways as possible using
potassium, including cutting them with a knife the connective words.
(Practical 1). This should reinforce the ideas about
the physical properties of the alkali metals shown in Additional homework/research ideas
the Student’s Book.
• ICT The alkali metals have not been known for that
• Use the Student’s Book to look at the reactions long. Students could research their discovery. This
of Group 1 metals with non-metals and reinforce links to the work on electrolysis from Unit C2.
this by demonstrating the reaction of sodium with
chlorine (Practical 2). Practicals and demonstrations
• Use the Student’s Book to look at the reactions 1 Looking at the alkali metals Show students
samples of lithium, sodium and potassium. Handle
of Group 1 metals with water. Demonstrate the
reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with each one with tweezers and cut off a small piece
water (Practical 3). Students could make a table to using a scalpel on a tile.
describe what they see and write an equation for Keep the metals away from water. Lithium, sodium
each reaction. There are DVDs available from the RSC and potassium are highly flammable and corrosive.
showing the more reactive elements in Group 1. Use small pieces of each metal (no bigger than pea
sized). Do not touch the metals, use tweezers to done first and used to test for hydrogen. The lithium
handle them. Goggles should be worn. can be held in place in an inverted test tube of water
5 minutes to collect the hydrogen. In a test tube rack, away
from the alkali metals, a burning splint can be put
Apparatus into the test tube; it will give a squeaky pop. Sodium
and potassium can then be reacted with water (do
Lithium; sodium; potassium; tile; scalpel; tweezers;
not test for hydrogen with sodium and potassium).
filter paper; goggles.
Once all three reactions have been done, universal
2 Reaction of sodium and chlorine Place a small indicator should be added to the water to show that
piece of sodium on a non-porous brick. Heat it it is alkaline.
directly with a Bunsen flame until it melts and
The reactions should be done behind safety screens.
catches fire. Then place a gas jar of chlorine on top of
Lithium, sodium and potassium are highly flammable
the brick.
and corrosive. Use small pieces of each metal
Chlorine is toxic so the reaction must be carried out (sodium no more than 4 mm cube; potassium no
in a fume cupboard. Sodium is highly flammable and more than 3 mm cube). The test for hydrogen should
corrosive. Goggles should be worn. The brick should only be done for lithium. No attempt should be made
be placed in a bowl of cold water to remove any to restrain the movement of sodium or potassium.
unreacted sodium. Any flame should be extinguished before the
5 minutes reactions of sodium and potassium. Goggles should
be worn.
Apparatus 15 minutes
Gas jar of chlorine gas; sodium; filter paper; scalpel;
Apparatus
tweezers; non-porous brick; goggles.
Large glass trough; safety screens; lithium; sodium;
3 Reaction of alkali metals with water Fill a large
potassium; filter paper; scalpel; tweezers; test
glass trough with water. Handle each metal with
tube; test tube bung; splint; matches; test tube
tweezers and cut off a small piece (no bigger than a
rack; universal indicator solution and colour chart;
small pea) using a scalpel on a tile. Wipe off the oil
goggles.
using filter paper. The reaction with lithium should be
C3.18 Transition metals

C3.18a Looking at metal compounds Classwork (write-on) 4 4
C3.18b Transition metals and alkali metals Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives electrons), 3p (which holds eight electrons) and the

3d (which holds ten electrons) sub-levels. The 4s
Students should be able to: sub-level is lower energy than the 3d sub-level and
so electrons fill the 4s sub-level before 3d. Students
• describe the physical and chemical properties of the do not need this much detail, just the idea that there
transition metals and compare them with the alkali
metals is a sub-level within the 3rd energy level that fills
after two electrons have gone into the 4th energy
• describe special properties of the transition metals level.
• H explain why the transition metals have special • Not all transition-metal compounds are coloured,
properties. although most of them are.
Key words Lesson ideas

no new words
Starter
Points to note • Ask students to list ten commonly used metals (as
metals rather than in compounds). Then ask them
• Electron energy levels are made up of sub-levels to find them on the Periodic Table and note down
what they are used for. Most of them are likely to be
(except the first energy level). The 3rd energy level
of electrons is made up of the 3s (which holds two transition metals.
• AT The ActiveTeach has a video showing the use of 1 Looking at the transition metals Show students
a variety of transition metals in cars. samples of transition metals, e.g. chromium, copper,
gold, iron, zinc. Put them into water to show they
• Show students some samples of transition metals react very slowly, if at all.
and discuss their physical properties. Put these
metals into water to show their low reactivity Eye protection should be worn.
(Practical 1). Compare the chemical and physical 5 minutes
properties with those of the alkali metals. The
Student’s Book also gives details of this and can be Apparatus
used alongside the examples.
Chromium; copper; gold (e.g. wedding ring); iron;
• Practical 2 involves looking at some compounds zinc; beaker; eye protection.
containing alkali metals and/or transition metals.
2 Looking at compounds containing metals Place
Worksheet C3.18a can be used to deduce that
ten metal compounds around the room. Each
compounds containing transition-metal compounds
sample should be a solid and labelled with both
are coloured (usually).
name and formula. Give students Worksheet C3.18a
• Use the Student’s Book to look at other special to use to deduce that compounds containing
properties of transition metals, including their use as transition-metal compounds are coloured.
catalysts and the fact that they can form ions with
Students should not touch the compounds. Cobalt
different charges.
chloride is toxic and potassium dichromate (VI) is
• H Students should be made aware of the electronic very toxic and oxidising; both should be sealed
structure of the transition metals in Period 3. inside beakers or see-through containers. Copper
sulfate and nickel sulfate are harmful. Potassium
• For homework, Worksheet C3.18b reinforces the manganate (VII) is oxidising and harmful. Sodium
work from this lesson.
carbonate is an irritant. Eye protection should be
worn.
Plenary
15 minutes
• Ask students to prepare five quiz questions about
the transition metals and then ask those questions Apparatus
of at least one other student.
Samples (in beakers labelled with name and
Additional homework/research ideas formula) of cobalt chloride (with sealed top), copper
sulfate, iron(III) oxide, nickel sulfate, potassium
• ICT Students could find more uses of transition dichromate (VI) (with sealed top), potassium
metals as catalysts.
hydrogencarbonate, potassium iodide, potassium
manganate (VII), sodium carbonate, sodium chloride;
Worksheet C3.18a; eye protection.
C3.19 Group 7 – the halogens

C3.19a Halogen displacement reactions Classwork (write-on) 4 4
C3.19b The chemistry of astatine Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives Points to note

Students should be able to: • Many students mistakenly think that bromine is a
gas at room temperature and iodine is a liquid.
• describe the chemical and physical properties of the
halogens • Many students struggle with the idea of halogen
displacement reactions. They confuse which element
• H explain the trend in reactivity of the halogens. is displaced by the halogen. It helps to think of
these reactions as non-metal displacement reactions
Key words where a more reactive non-metal displaces a less
reactive non-metal.
displacement reaction, halogens
1 Looking at the halogens Show students a gas jar of
Starter chlorine, a sealed vial of bromine and some iodine
• Ask students to list the properties of Group 1 crystals. One crystal of iodine could be warmed
gently in a boiling tube to show the purple vapour
elements and then write a list of opposite properties.
Point out that many of the properties of Group 7 formed on heating.
elements are the opposite of Group 1 elements. The halogens should only be handled in a fume
cupboard. Chlorine is toxic and an irritant. Bromine is
Learning activities very toxic and corrosive. Iodine is harmful. Eye
• Use the Student’s Book to look at the physical protection should be worn.
properties of the halogens and reinforce this with 5 minutes
Practical 1.
Apparatus
• Use the Student’s Book to look at the chemical
properties of the halogens. This can be reinforced Chlorine gas in gas jar; bromine in sealed glass vial
by Practical 2, which involves halogen displacement (colourless glass); iodine crystals; watch glass; boiling
reactions. Worksheet C3.19a uses this to work out tube; boiling tube holder; tweezers; Bunsen burner;
the order of reactivity of the halogens. It may be heat-proof mat; matches; eye protection.
best to do this before looking at the reactivity order
in the Student’s Book. 2 Halogen displacement reactions Students react
solutions of potassium chloride, potassium bromide
• H AT Students should explain why the halogens and potassium iodide with solutions of chlorine,
become less reactive down the group. There is an bromine and iodine. They use the results to put the
animation in the ActiveTeach to help. halogens into order of reactivity. Instructions are on
Worksheet C3.19a.
• For homework, Worksheet C3.19b reinforces much
of the work from the topic, in part by predicting the Chlorine vapour is toxic. Chlorine water is an irritant
chemistry of astatine. and harmful. Bromine water is very toxic (0.06
mol/dm3) or harmful (0.006 mol/dm3). Iodine
Plenary water is harmful. Eye protection should be worn. The
• The element below astatine in the Periodic Table experiments should be done in a well ventilated
room.
has yet to be detected. Ask students to predict the
chemical and physical properties of this element. 20 minutes
Additional homework/research ideas Apparatus

• ICT Students could research the use of chlorine as a Chlorine (aq); bromine (aq); iodine (in aqueous
chemical weapon in the First World War. potassium iodide); potassium chloride (aq);
potassium bromide (aq); potassium iodide (aq);
test tubes; test tube rack; teat pipettes; Worksheet
C3.19a; eye protection.
C3.20 The development of the Periodic Table

C3.20a Mendeleev and Meyer HSW Classwork (reusable) 4 4
C3.20b The Periodic Table 3 Homework (reusable) 4 4

Starter
• describe the development of the Periodic Table,
• Select a few elements students will know little
including the work by Mendeleev and Newlands. about, for example strontium, vanadium, selenium
and xenon. Ask them to use their knowledge of the
Key words Periodic Table to list properties of these elements.
no new words
Learning activities d Elements in Group 7 get more reactive as you go
down the group. (false – they get less reactive)
• HSW ICT Students could use the internet to find
out what Newlands and Mendeleev contributed to e Non-metals are on the left-hand side of the table.
the development of the Periodic Table. Students (false – right-hand side)
could present their findings back to the class as a
f Just over three-quarters of the elements are
PowerPoint presentation.
metals. (true)
• HSW Worksheet C3.20a looks at how Meyer is g The element with the electronic structure 2,8,8,2 is
thought to have had the same ideas as Mendeleev
in Group 2. (true)
but because Mendeleev published his ideas first he
was credited with them. h The elements in Group 7 are known as the alkali
metals. (false – they are the halogens)
• HSW For homework, Worksheet C3.20b reinforces
much of the work about the whole topic of the i Transition metals have higher melting points than
Periodic Table. the alkali metals. (true)
j Melting points increase as you go down Group 7.
Plenary (true)
• AT Students decide whether a series of statements
about the Periodic Table are true or false. Suggested Additional homework/research ideas
statements are given below and on the ActiveTeach:
• ICT Students could use the internet to obtain
a Elements are listed in atomic mass order. (false copies of Meyer’s original table and compare it with
– atomic number order) Mendeleev’s.
b Newlands left gaps for undiscovered elements in
his table. (false – Mendeleev did this)
None suggested.
c Elements in Group 1 get more reactive as you go
down the group. (true)
C3.21 Solution calculations

C3.21a Solution calculations 1 Classwork (reusable) 4
C3.21b Solution calculations 2 Homework (reusable) 4

Starter
• H calculate the chemical quantities for reactions in
• Ask students to do some mole calculations based
solution. on masses (done in Unit C2). This will revisit the
equation mass=Mr 2moles so that they are well
Key words practised when needed in this topic. Students will
also need the following relative atomic masses:
titration H=1, C=12, O=16, Na=23, Cl=35.5, K=39,
Ca=40, Fe=56, Br=80). Some examples include:
Points to note a Calculate the number of moles:
72 g of H2O (moles=72/18=4)
H This spread is Higher Tier only.
8 g of Br2 (moles=8/160=0.05)
• The units mol/dm 3 are used for concentration (not M
or mol/litre). 1.43 kg of Na2CO3 (moles=1430/286=5 moles)
• The specification states that students should be able b Calculate the mass:
to do reactions of solutions with other solutions as 0.10 moles of KCl (mass=74.520.1=7.45 g)
well as with solids.
1.50 moles of Fe2O3 (mass=16021.5=240 g)
• It is best to learn how to do solution calculations
0.25 moles of Ca(OH)2 (mass=7420.25=18.5 g)
before students learn how to do titrations, so that
they can perform the calculation linked to their own
titration.
c What mass of oxygen reacts with 78 g of Plenary
potassium?
• Students could be asked the following question.
4K+O2 2K2O Calculate the concentration of sodium carbonate
solution given that 25.0 cm3 of it reacts with 28.0 cm3
(moles K=2, moles O2=0.5, mass
of 1.00 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid solution. (answer:
O2=3220.5= 16 g)
0.56 mol/dm3)
Learning activities Na2CO3(aq)+2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)
• Use the Student’s Book for worked examples of Practicals and demonstrations
calculating chemical quantities for reactions in
solution. None suggested.
• This can be reinforced by using Worksheets C3.21a

and C3.21b, which contain more practice calculations.
C3.22 Titrations
C3.22a Finding the concentration of an acid Practical (reusable) 4 4
C3.22b Titrations 1 HSW Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • H Students should do the calculation at the end
of the titration experiment on Worksheet C3.22a.
• describe how an acid–alkali titration can be carried You could also find the class mean and let students
out. compare their results to the mean.
• As an alternative, ask students one by one to give

Key words the next step in carrying out a titration. This could
be done several times.
burette, end point, indicator, pipette
HT Practicals and demonstrations
1 Finding the concentration of sulfuric acid
Lesson ideas Students perform a titration to find the
concentration of a solution of sulfuric acid. It is best
Starter to demonstrate the titration first. Instructions for the
• H Students could be asked the following question. experiment are on Worksheet C3.22a.
Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide
given that 25.0 cm3 of it reacts with 21.6 cm3 of Sodium hydroxide solution is an irritant. Eye
0.500 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid solution. (answer: protection should be worn.
0.864 mol/dm3) 50 minutes
H2SO4(aq)+2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq)+2H2O(l) Apparatus
• As an alternative, a range of apparatus for measuring 0.100 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide; approximately
volumes could be put out (e.g. 100 cm3 measuring 0.05 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid; burette stands/clamps;
cylinder, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder, 250 cm3 beaker, 50 cm3 burettes; 25 cm3 pipettes; pipette fillers;
100 cm3 beaker, burette, pipette) and students asked 250 cm3 conical flasks; small beakers; funnels for
which they think is the most accurate and why. burettes; marker pens for glassware; wash bottles
with distilled water; white tiles; methyl orange
Learning activities indicator; Worksheet C3.22a; eye protection.
• Worksheet C3.22a gives instructions for students to
do a titration. It is best to demonstrate the titration
to students before they do it themselves.
• HSW For homework, Worksheet C3.22b looks at

issues surrounding accuracy, precision and reliability
in titrations.
C3.23 Choosing indicators for titrations
C3.23a Making a pH curve Practical (reusable) 4 4
C3.23b Titrations 2 Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • Students should suggest suitable indicators for a
number of titrations, choosing from methyl orange
• choose a suitable indicator for a titration. and phenolphthalein. Suitable examples are:
sulfuric acid+potassium hydroxide (methyl orange
Key words or phenolphthalein)
no new words citric acid+sodium hydroxide (phenolphthalein)
ethanoic acid+potassium hydroxide
Points to note (phenolphthalein)
• The specification does not cover titrations between nitric acid+ammonia (methyl orange)
weak acids and weak alkalis for which there are no
nitric acid+sodium hydroxide (methyl orange or
suitable indicators.
phenolphthalein)
Lesson ideas • As an alternative, you may wish to revisit the graph

that students sketched at the start of the lesson.
Students could be asked to say what was right and
Starter what was wrong with their graphs.
• Draw two axes for a graph. Label the x-axis ‘volume
of alkali added’ and the y-axis as ‘pH’. Ask students to Practicals and demonstrations
draw similar axes and then draw a graph to predict 1 Making a pH curve Students use pH probes and
how the pH changes as a strong alkali is added dataloggers to record the pH curve for the reaction
slowly to a strong acid to excess. Students could of a strong acid and a strong alkali. Some students
also be asked to explain why they have drawn the could do curves for strong acid – weak alkali or
graph as they have. The graph may be revisited as a weak acid – strong alkali. If suitable pH probes are
plenary at the end of the lesson. not available, the experiment can be done by using
pH sticks and recording the pH every 1 cm3 of alkali
Learning activities that is added to acid. A graph can then be plotted.
• It may be best to do the experiment to produce Worksheet C3.23a has details of the practical.
a pH curve before looking in the Student’s Book.
Worksheet C3.23a has instructions for this. The Sodium hydroxide solution is an irritant. Eye
experiment is done using pH probes attached protection should be worn.
to dataloggers, but if suitable apparatus is not 40 minutes
available, pH sticks could be used and the results
recorded every 1 cm3 of alkali added. The data could Apparatus
then be plotted on a graph. 0.1 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide; 0.1 mol/dm3
hydrochloric acid; burette stands/clamps; 50 cm3
• Once students have the shape of the pH curve, use burettes; measuring cylinder (to measure 25 cm3);
the Student’s Book to look at indicators and why
they work in titrations between strong acids and wide neck 250 cm3 conical flasks; small beakers;
strong alkalis. Then examine the narrower range funnels for burettes; marker pens for glassware;
of pH change in other titrations and why not all pH probes; dataloggers; Worksheet C3.23a; eye
indicators work. protection.
• AT There is a useful animation showing how

indicators change colour during titrations.
• For homework, Worksheet C3.23b covers the whole

topic area of titrations.
C3.24 Energy transfers in reactions
C3.24a Endothermic or exothermic? Practical (write-on) 4 4
C3.24b Useful energy transfers Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • Give students some reactions for which they have to
draw suitable energy diagrams, for example:
• describe the energy changes involved in exothermic Ca+H2SO4 CaSO4+H2 (exothermic)
and endothermic reactions
ZnCO3 ZnO+CO2 (endothermic)
• draw an energy diagram to represent the energy
changes in a reaction, including the activation 2Na+2H2O 2NaOH+H2 (exothermic).
energy.
Key words 1 Endothermic or exothermic? Students carry out
a series of test tube reactions to see whether each
activation energy, endothermic, exothermic reaction is endothermic or exothermic. They feel
the outside of the test tube to judge whether it has
Lesson ideas got hotter or colder. When they have finished, ask
students to write word equations for each reaction
Starter using the symbol equation supplied.
• Students could try to draw an energy transfer Students should not hold test tubes during
diagram for burning natural gas (methane). reactions; they should be carried out in a test tube
rack. Students should feel the tubes only after the
• As an alternative, give students the two words reaction has ended. Hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
‘endothermic’ and ‘exothermic’ and ask them to write
Magnesium and zinc are highly flammable.
definitions of each of these words. You may wish to
Ammonium chloride is harmful. Calcium is highly
revisit these definitions at the end of the topic.
flammable (handle with tweezers, not hands). Do not
touch calcium with your fingers. Eye protection
Learning activities should be worn.
• It may be best to do the experiment before using 20 minutes
the Student’s Book. Students carry out some test
tube reactions and feel the tube to see if they are Apparatus
endothermic or exothermic. A simple explanation of
these terms is on Worksheet C3.24a. 2.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid; magnesium ribbon
(strips about 3 cm long); sodium hydrogencarbonate;
• Use the Student’s Book to look at the differences ammonium chloride; 0.5 mol/dm3 copper sulfate;
between endothermic and exothermic reactions in zinc powder; calcium (small granules); test tubes;
terms of energy changes and the relevant amount of bungs; tweezers (for calcium); test tube rack;
chemical energy of the reactants and products. spatulas; eye protection; Worksheet C3.24a.
• For homework, Worksheet C3.24b reinforces the
ideas from the lesson by looking at the use of
exothermic reactions in self-heating cans and of
endothermic reactions in ice packs.
C3.25 Bond energies
C3.25a Bond energies 1 Classwork (reusable) 4
C3.25b Bond energies 2 Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives • AT There is an animation on the ActiveTeach

Students should be able to: showing how to do these calculations.
• H calculate the energy change in a reaction using • Worksheets C3.25a and C3.25b provide further
bond energies. practice at bond-energy calculations.
• The reason for a reaction being endothermic or

exothermic in terms of bond energies should be
Key words discussed. In an exothermic reaction, more energy
bond energy is released forming bonds than is required to break
bonds. In an endothermic reaction, less energy is
released forming bonds than is required to break
Points to note bonds.
• Students struggle with the idea that energy is
released when bonds are made. This often is Plenary
seen when students are asked why a reaction is
exothermic in terms of bond making and breaking.
• Ask students to work out the energy change in this
reaction using bond energies. Extend this further
The commonest wrong answer is ‘the energy to by asking them to draw an energy diagram. Bond
make bonds is more than the energy to break bonds’ energies: O–H=463, O–O=146, O=O=498 kJ/mol.
rather than ‘the energy released making bonds is (answer: –206 kJ/mol)
more than the energy needed to break bonds’.
H This topic is Higher-tier only. H O
2 O O 2 H H + O O
Lesson ideas
H
Starter
• Give students some more reactions for which they
have to draw suitable energy diagrams, for example: Practicals and demonstrations
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3+H2O+CO2 (endothermic) None suggested.
2HCl+Zn ZnCl2+H2 (exothermic)

C3H8+5O2 3CO2+4H2O (exothermic).
Learning activities
• Use the Student’s Book to discuss the idea of energy
changes in terms of bond making and breaking.
This can be taken further by doing bond-energy
calculations as worked through in the Student’s
Book.
C3.26 Burning fuels
C3.26a Burning alcohols 1 Practical (reusable) 4 4
C3.26b Burning alcohols 2 HSW Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • Ask students to work out the heat released by
burning hexan-1-ol (C6H13OH) in terms of kJ/g and
• describe how simple calorimetry can be used to kJ/mol. When 0.15 g of hexan-1-ol is burned, it
measure the energy released when a fuel or food is makes 80 g of water 15 °C hotter (answers: 33.6 kJ/g
burned. and 3427 kJ/mol). Extend this further by asking why
this information would be useful.
calorimeter, calorimetry, specific heat capacity
• ICT Ask students to use the internet to find out
about bomb calorimeters, which give much more
Points to note accurate results.
• A common error in calorimetry calculations is to use Practicals and demonstrations

the mass of the fuel burned rather than the mass of
1 Burning alcohols Students burn three different
water in the equation to work out heat released.
alcohols in spirit burners under a copper calorimeter
to work out the heat released from each alcohol
Lesson ideas in terms of kJ/g and kJ/mol. Details are given on
Worksheet C3.26a.
Starter The alcohols are highly flammable. Students should
• Give students the information that it takes 4.2 J of not re-fill the burners, it must be done by the
energy to make 1 g of water 1 °C hotter. Ask them to teacher, if necessary. Methanol is toxic, ethanol and
suggest ways of finding out how much heat is given propan-1-ol are harmful. The apparatus will be very
out by 1 g of a fuel using this information. hot. Ensure safe design of spirit burners. The wick
should fit tightly in the wick holder and the wick
Learning activities holder should fit tightly in the burner. If the capacity
• Use the Student’s Book to look at the principles of the burner is large (more than 50 ml), reduce it by
partially filling with epoxy resin or glass wool or
of calorimetry and how we can measure the heat
released when a fuel is burned. Reinforce this using similar material. Eye protection should be worn.
the experiment on Worksheet C3.26a in which 40 minutes
students measure the heat released by burning
alcohols. Apparatus
• HSW For homework, Worksheet C3.26b looks methanol spirit burners; ethanol spirit burners;
propan-1-ol burners; copper can calorimeters;
further at calorimetry experiments with fuels, with
an emphasis on the experimental aspects of How stands; clamps; bosses; matches; balances
Science Works. (0.01 g sensitivity); 100 cm3 measuring cylinders;
thermometers; Worksheet C3.26a; eye protection.
C3.27 Using fuels
C3.27a Burning fuels Classwork (write on) 4 4
C3.27b Hydrogen – fuel of the future HSW Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • Ask students, in their pairs, to revisit their lists of
advantages and disadvantages of using fuels. Ask
• evaluate the social, economic and environmental them to add or delete items from their list as they
consequences of using fuels. think necessary. Again, they should be able to give a
reason for any deletion.
Key words Practicals and demonstrations
non-renewable, renewable 1 Burning fuels Demonstrate how some different
fuels burn. The fuels should be placed in a crucible in
Points to note a pipe clay triangle on a gauze. The crucible should
be no more than a third full with liquid fuels. Try
• Nuclear fuels produce heat by radioactive decay to light each one first by bringing a burning splint
rather than burning, but they are included here to near it, then by holding the burning splint against it
contribute to the general discussion of meeting the for a short time, then for a longer time, and then by
world’s energy needs. aiming a Bunsen burner directly at it. Observe how
easily each fuel lights and how smoky the flame is.
Lesson ideas Students use this information along with data on
Worksheet C3.27b to select suitable fuels for various
Starter uses. The first fuel is methane, so light a Bunsen
burner for this.
• Ask students to get into pairs. Ask one of each pair Do not use commercial petrol – its use is banned in
to list the advantages of using fuels and the other
to list the disadvantages of using fuels. After a few schools – pet. ether 60–80 is a good substitute.
minutes, ask them to swap their lists and to add or Similarly, use paraffin in place of fuel oil. Ethanol, pet.
delete items from them. They must be able to give a ether, and paraffin are flammable and harmful. Wear
reason for any deletion. eye protection.
20 minutes
Learning activities
Apparatus
• AT There is a context video on the ActiveTeach
looking at the use of fuels in cars. Ethanol; pet. ether 60–80 (labelled ‘petrol’); paraffin;
coal; Bunsen burner; heat-proof mat; splints; tripod;
• The Student’s Book gives some social, economic pipe clay triangle; crucible; eye protection.
and environmental consequences of using fuels.
Students could discuss or debate one or more of
the examples in detail or be encouraged to think
of further consequences. For example, they could
discuss in detail ways in which we could lower our
energy demands, or whether we should use nuclear
fuels or not.
• There is an experiment on Worksheet C3.27a

involving the burning of some fuels. Students are
asked to use the results to decide which fuel to use
in different circumstances, giving reasons for their
decisions.
• HSW For homework, Worksheet C3.27b explores the

possible use of hydrogen in fuel cells in the future.
C3.28 Energy in food
C3.28a HSW Burning food Practical (reusable) 4 4
C3.28b Energy in foods Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • Students should try to rank the following food
items in energy-content order (highest to lowest):
• identify types of food that contain a lot of energy chocolate biscuit, cheeseburger, bowl of cornflakes
with milk, apple, banana, turkey and salad sandwich
• explain the link between energy in food and obesity (from 1 slice of bread), packet of crisps, can of cola,
• calculate the energy stored in some foods. slice of pizza, low-fat yoghurt. The answer depends
on exact portion sizes, but typical sizes give this
answer: (1) cheeseburger (1 507 kJ, 360 kcal), (2)
Key words pizza slice (1 172 kJ, 280 kcal), (3) cornflakes with
calories, obese milk (837 kJ, 200 kcal), (4) turkey and salad sandwich
(733 kJ, 175 kcal), (5) can of Cola (670 kJ, 160 kcal),
(6) packet of crisps (628 kJ, 150 kcal), (7) chocolate
Points to note biscuit (502 kJ, 120 kcal), (8) low fat yoghurt (419 kJ,
• The calorie is the imperial unit for energy. When 100 kcal), (9) banana (377 kJ, 90 kcal) (10) apple
people refer to the calories in food, they are actually (209 kJ, 50 kcal). Once they have their order ask them
referring to kilocalories. People may say that a how they decided on it. This should give the idea
biscuit contains 80 calories when actually it contains of food types and how some food types have more
80 kilocalories (80 000 calories). The joule (or energy than others.
kilojoule) should be used as the unit for energy.
Lesson ideas • ICT Students could use food labels and the internet
to try to work out their energy intake on a typical
Starter day. This could be presented using a spreadsheet.
• Ask students to make a list of high-energy foods and Practicals and demonstrations
a list of low-energy foods. Once they have done this,
ask them to identify which food type (carbohydrates, 1 Burning foods Students burn pieces of different
fats, fibre, minerals, protein, vitamins) is in each foods under a test tube containing 10 cm3 of water
food. They should be able to identify what the high- and use the results to work out the energy released
energy foods have in common. in kJ per 100 g. Instructions are given on Worksheet
C3.28a.
Learning activities Avoid using nuts because of food allergies. Eye
• Use the Student’s Book to discuss energy in foods, protection should be worn.
including which foods are high in energy. The starter 40 minutes
can be used as a starting point for this discussion,
leading on to how eating food with too much Apparatus
energy can make us overweight or obese, and some Foods to burn (e.g. crisps, bread, mini marshmallows,
of the consequences of this. pasta, bacon, dried broad beans); mounted needles
• HSW There is an experiment on Worksheet C3.28a to hold food; teaspoons; test tubes; stands; clamps;
bosses; matches; balances (0.01 g sensitivity); 10 cm3
in which students measure the energy in some
foods by burning them and using the heat energy to measuring cylinders; thermometers; Bunsen burners;
warm up some water. They compare their results to heat-proof mats; matches; Worksheet C3.28a; eye
the correct values and are asked about the types of protection.
errors involved.
• For homework, Worksheet C3.28b looks further at

energy in foods. It looks closely at the correlation
between the energy content of foods and the
amount of carbohydrate/fat.
C3.29 Reactions in solution
C3.29a Finding the energy change for a Practical (reusable) 4 4
reaction in solution HSW
C3.29b Energy changes in solution Homework (reusable) 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • Ask students what the energy change would be
when 0.02 moles of copper sulfate in 25 cm3 of
• calculate the energy change for reactions in solution. solution reacts with an excess of zinc, given that the
temperature rises by 41 °C. (∆H=–215 kJ/mol)
no new words
• ICT Students could use the internet or data books
to find the energy change for other neutralisation
Points to note reactions. For strong acids and alkalis, they are all
about the same. Students could try to explain why
• The calculation of energy changes for reactions this is the case (the same reaction takes place:
in solution is quite a high-level skill, although it is H+(aq)+OH–(aq) H2O(l)).
not indicated as Higher tier only. Most calculations
would involve the use of moles. To simplify matters, Practicals and demonstrations
you may wish to tell students the number of moles.
1 Finding the energy change for a reaction in
solution Students react hydrochloric acid with
Lesson ideas sodium hydroxide solution to calculate the energy
change for this neutralisation reaction. Instructions
Starter are on Worksheet 3.29a.
• Magnesium reacts vigorously when added to acid. Sodium hydroxide at this concentration is corrosive
The solution gets hot. You could show students and very damaging to eyes. Goggles should be worn.
this reaction to remind them of all the things that 30 minutes
happen during a reaction. Ask students to suggest
a way of measuring the energy change for the Apparatus
reaction.
Polystyrene cups and lids (with hole for
Learning activities thermometer); tripods; thermometers (sensitivity of
at least 0.5 °C, but preferably 0.1 or 0.2 °C); plastic
• Use the Student’s Book to discuss how to measure beakers (to sit the cup in); 1.0 mol/dm3 sodium
energy changes for reactions in solution. hydroxide solution; 1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid;
• HSW Material from the Student’s Book can be measuring cylinders (to measure 25 cm3); Worksheet
C3.29a; goggles.
reinforced by doing the experiment on Worksheet
C3.29a, in which students are asked to measure the
energy change for a neutralisation reaction.
• Worksheet C3.29b contains further examples of

calculations for homework.
C3.0 Answers
C3.16 The Periodic Table 2
1 2
Student’s Book 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8
1 Lists all the elements. 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8
2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2
2 Atomic number order.
3 a O, S, Se, Te or Po.
b Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, 3 a B.
Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, b Sb, Bi or Uup.
Ac, Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, Hs, Mt, Ds, Rg or Uub. c Mg.
c Al. d Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc,
d Ge, Sn, Pb or Uuq. Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg
e N, P or As. Ac, Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, Hs, Mt, Ds, Rg or Uub.
4 Group 2. 4 a
5 They have the same number of electrons in their
outer energy level (shell). Li+ O2- F-
Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ S2- Cl-

6 a Group 3.
K+ Ca2+ Br-
b Period 3.
Sr2+ I-
c 13.
Worksheet C3.16a
1 b Groups 1, 2, 3: charge=group number; Groups 6,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
7: charge=8 – group number.
1 2 c Cs+, Ba2+, At–.
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2,1
11
2,2
12
2,3
13
2,4
14
2,5
15
2,6
16
2,7
17
2,8
18 C3.17 Group 1 – the alkali metals
2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2.8.5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2 Student’s Book
1 Alkali metals.
2 Any three from: soft, low density, conductor, low
melting points.
2 Group number=number of electrons in outer
3 Li, Na, K.
energy level (shell).
4 Decrease.
3 Any five from: Group 1=metals, soft, low density, low
melting points, conductors, react with water, very 5 a Potassium bromide.
reactive, form 1+ions, react with non-metals to b Ionic.
form ionic compounds; Group 7=non-metals, toxic,
c K+.
coloured vapours, diatomic molecules, react with
metals to form ionic compounds, react with non- d White.
metals to form molecular compounds, insulators; e Dissolve to form colourless solution.
Group 0=unreactive, gases, monatomic, low
6 a Lithium+water lithium hydroxide+hydrogen.
density, colourless, used in discharge tubes.
b Lithium hydroxide is an alkali.
Worksheet C3.16b c Lithium atoms smaller than sodium atoms,
1 stronger attraction between nucleus and outer-
1 2 Key Group 1 shell electron, outer-shell electron lost less easily.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Group 7 7 Ten key facts about Group 1.
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Group 0
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Transition
metals
C3.00 Answers
Worksheet C3.17a 2 a
1 One. 250
2 Lower.
3 a Caesium+chlorine caesium chloride.
200
b White.
c Cs+.
Atomic radius (pm)

d CsCl.
150
e Ionic.
f Dissolve to give colourless solution.
4 a Caesium+water caesium hydroxide+hydrogen. 100
b More.
c Caesium atoms bigger than sodium atoms, weaker
attraction between nucleus and outer-shell 50
electron, outer-shell electron lost more easily.
d i Blue/purple.
ii Caesium hydroxide is an alkali. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Atomic number
Worksheet C3.17b
1 a b Atomic radius=around 247 pm.
3 a
200
2.5
175
150 2.0
125
Melting point (°C)
1.5
Density (g/cm3)
100
75 1.0
50
0.5
25
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Atomic number Atomic number
b Density=around 2.35 g/cm3.
b Melting point=around 27 °C. 4 Trend in density is not as clear-cut as the others.
C3.00 Answers
C3.18 Transition metals 2 a White.
b Coloured.
Student’s Book c Coloured.
1 Any three named transition metals from: scandium, 3 Transition metals=2 (gold), 3 (nickel), 4 (iron),
titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, 5 (copper), 8 (mercury); alkali metals=1 (lithium),
cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, 6 (sodium), 7 (any alkali metal).
niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium,
rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, lanthanum, Worksheet C3.18b
hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, 1
iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, actinium,
rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, Group 1 Transition metals
hassium, meitnerium, darmstadtium, roentgenium
or ununbium. • they have relatively low • they have high melting
melting points points
2 a Any two from: conduct heat, conduct electricity,
malleable, ductile. • they are very reactive • they are not very
b Any two from: higher density, higher melting • their compounds are reactive
points, stronger, harder.

white • they are useful as
• they form ionic catalysts
3 a Slowly, if at all. compounds on • their compounds are
b Much less reactive than the alkali metals. reaction with non- coloured
4 Act as catalysts, form coloured compounds, form metals
•
they form ionic
ions with different charges. • they are good compounds on
thermal and electrical reaction with non-
5 2,8,12,2.
conductors metals
6 Electrons are filling an inner electron level (shell).
7 Similarities: metals, conduct heat, conduct electricity,
• they are soft and can •
they are good
be cut with a knife thermal and electrical
solids, malleable, ductile. Differences: potassium
much more reactive, potassium has lower melting • they have a low density conductors
point, cobalt can form different ions, cobalt

and some float on •
they are strong and
water hard
compounds coloured, cobalt acts as catalyst.
• they react with water •
they have a high
Worksheet C3.18a forming an alkaline density
1
solution
•
they can form different
• they react with water ions
transition metal? (4)
releasing hydrogen gas

Does it contain an
• they form 1+ions

Does it contain a
alkali metal? (4)

Coloured (4)
2 a Does not react with water, malleable.

White (4)
Formula
b Conducts electricity, ductile.

Name
3 a Coloured compounds, act as catalysts, form ions

with different charges.
Cobalt chloride CoCl2 4 4
b As an inner energy level of electrons is being
Copper sulfate CuSO4 4 4
filled.
Iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 4 4
Nickel sulfate NiSO4 4 4 C3.19 Group 7 – the halogens
Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 4 4 4
(VI) Student’s Book
Potassium KHCO3 4 4 1 Halogens.
hydrogencarbonate
Potassium iodide KI
2 Any three from: low melting/boiling points, thermal
4 4
insulators, electrical insulators, coloured vapours.
Potassium manganate KMnO4 4 4 4
(VII) 3 Increase.
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 4 4 4 a Ionic.
Sodium chloride NaCl 4 4 b Molecular.
c Ionic.
C3.00 Answers
5 a Bromine.
b Bromine atoms are smaller, the electron gained
is closer to the nucleus, there is a stronger
attraction to the nucleus, the electron is gained
more easily.
6 a No reaction.
b Fluorine+potassium chloride
potassium fluoride+chlorine.
c Bromine+sodium iodide
sodium bromide+iodine.
7 Ten key facts about Group 7.
Worksheet C3.19a
Cl2(aq) Br2(aq) I2(aq)
KCl(aq) Is there a no Is there a no
reaction? reaction?
Word Word
equation. equation.
What it bromine is probably less What it iodine is probably less

tells us. reactive than chlorine tells us. reactive than chlorine
KBr(aq) Is there a yes Is there a no
reaction? reaction?
chlorine+potassium
Word bromide potassium Word
equation. chloride + bromine equation.
What it chlorine is more reactive What it iodine is probably less

tells us. than bromine tells us. reactive than bromine
KI(aq) Is there a yes Is there a yes
reaction? reaction?
chlorine+potassium bromine+potassium
Word iodide potassium Word iodide potassium
equation. chloride + iodine equation. bromide + iodine
What it chlorine is more reactive What it bromine is more reactive

tells us. than iodine tells us. than iodine
Order of reactivity=chlorine > bromine > iodine.
C3.00 Answers
Worksheet C3.19b b Properties repeated every eighth element.
1 a c It only works for the first few elements.

2 a Left gaps for elements yet to be discovered.
350
b He predicted the existence and properties
of undiscovered elements that were later
discovered and whose properties closely
300 matched his predictions.
3 a Atomic number.
b Some elements in wrong groups, i.e. their
200 properties were different from other elements in
Boiling point (°C)
the same group.

c Protons had not been discovered.
100
4 Newlands – if elements are arranged in atomic mass
order, properties repeat at intervals.
Mendeleev – left gaps for undiscovered elements
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
whose existence he predicted and put elements in
Atomic number atomic number order (without knowing it).
Worksheet C3.20a
-100
1 Mainly in order of atomic mass leaving gaps for
undiscovered elements.
2 Predictions about the existence of and properties of
-200
undiscovered elements were found to be correct.
b Boiling point=around 322 °C. 3 Short reports about scientific research.
2 a Solid. 4 Small booklets containing papers that are published
b At2. regularly, often monthly, by scientific organisations.
c Non-metal. 5 Reviewed by other scientists before they are
published to judge if they are scientifically sound
d Coloured.
and worthy of inclusion in the journal.
3 a Ionic.
6 a 1869.
b Ionic.
b 1870.
c Molecular.
c He might have just copied Mendeleev’s ideas.
4 a At–.
b CaAt2.
Worksheet C3.20b
5 a No reaction. 1 As / Sb / Bi.
b Chlorine (aq)+sodium astatide (aq) 2 As / Se / Te / F / At / Ar.

sodium chloride (aq)+astatine (aq). 3 F / At.
c Iodine (aq)+potassium astatide (aq) 4 Fe / Co / Ni / Pt.
potassium iodide (aq)+astatine (aq). 5 Li / Fr.
6 a Iodine. 6 Ar.
b iodine atoms are smaller, the electron gained 7 Te / Po.
is closer to the nucleus, there is a stronger
attraction to the nucleus, the electron is gained 8 Te.
more easily. 9 Ar.
10 F.
C3.20 The development of the 11 Li / Fr.
Periodic Table 12 F / At.
Student’s Book 13 Fr.
1 a Atomic mass. 14 Li.

15 F.
C3.00 Answers
16 At. 7 0.154 dm3.
17 Fe / Co / Ni / Pt. 8 0.157 dm3.
18 Al.
19 Ar. C3.22 Titrations
20 Fe / Co / Ni / Pt. Student’s Book
21 Li. 1 Experiment to measure the concentration of a
22 F / At. solution.
23 Ar. 2 a Point at which the acid/alkali is exactly neutralised.
24 Fe / Co / Ni / Pt. b When the indicator changes colour.
25 Li / Fr. 3 To improve reliability and accuracy.
4 They are more precise.
C3.21 Solution calculations 5 Flow diagram showing stages of a titration: (1)
measure out alkali (or acid) into a conical flask
Student’s Book using a pipette; (2) add some indicator; (3) put the
1 0.25 mol/dm3. acid (or alkali) into a burette; (4) add the acid (or
2 0.10 moles. alkali) dropwise until the indicator changes colour;
(5) record the reading on the burette; (6) repeat the
3 0.30 dm3. titration.
4 0.148 mol/dm3.
Worksheet C3.22b
5 0.050 dm3.
1 Burettes and pipettes measure volumes more
6 Flow diagram showing how to perform mole precisely.
calculations: step 1 – calculate moles of substance
whose quantity is known; step 2 – use equation to 2 Added acid quickly, not dropwise; did not use wash
find moles of required substance; step 3 – calculate bottle.
quantity of required substance. 3 We have measured the volume to that higher level
of precision, 23.80 cm3 rather than 23.8 cm3.
Worksheet C3.21a
5 Titration 1=23.55 cm3 ; titration 2=23.25 cm3 ;
1 a 2.0 mol/dm3. titration 3=23.50 cm3 ; titration 4=23.60 cm3.
b 0.2 mol/dm3. 6 a Yes, they are reliable.
2 a 0.25. b Three of the four results are very close together
b 0.1. (i.e. they are repeatable).
3 0.111 mol/dm3. 7 a Titration 2.
4 0.172 mol/dm3. b Random error.
5 0.0300 dm3. c Because it is different from titrations 1, 3, 4, which
6 0.031 25 dm3. are all similar to each other.
7 300 g. d May have not washed out the equipment

properly, may have misread the burette, may
8 6.5 g. have used the pipette incorrectly.
9 23.6 dm3. 8 23.55 cm3.
10 Mr=286, x=10. 9 0.212 mol/dm3.
Worksheet C3.21b 10 a Yes, it is accurate.
1 0.0167 mol/dm3. b Value measured is very close to the actual value.
2 0.0500 mol/dm3.
3 0.0400 dm3.
4 0.0225 dm3.
5 200 g.
6 6.3 g.
C3.00 Answers
C3.23 Choosing indicators for 3
titration
chemical
Student’s Book energy
CH4+2O2
1 Substance that is one colour in acid and one colour
in alkali.
2 a Has lots of different colours at different pHs.
CO2+2H2O
b It is a mixture of indicators.
3 a Methyl orange.
b Phenolphthalein. 4 a Reaction that gets colder.
c Any indicator. b Reactants have less chemical energy than
4 a It changes from one colour to another at the end products, so some heat energy is transferred to
point. chemical energy.
b It does not change from one colour to another 5
at the end point (it would change after the end
point).
chemical
Worksheet C3.23a energy
CuO+CO2
1 pH rises slowly at first, increases rapidly around the
end point, and then increases slowly after the end
point.
CuCO3
2 Any indicator (not universal indicator).
Worksheet C3.23b
1 a Methyl orange. 6 a Minimum energy needed to start a reaction.
b Any indicator. b They provide an alternative route with a lower
c Phenolphthalein. activation energy.
d Any indicator. 7 a Exothermic reactions get hotter, endothermic

reactions get colder.
2 a Phenolphthalein.
b Exothermic reaction: chemical energy transferred
b Put vinegar into conical flask, using pipette; add to heat energy; endothermic reaction: heat
indicator; add alkali from burette, dropwise, until energy transferred to chemical energy.
colour changes; record result; repeat.
c 0.900 mol/dm3. Worksheet C3.24a
3 a Methyl orange. Exothermic reactions=A, D, E
b 1.06 mol/dm3. Endothermic reactions=B, C
1 Reactants have more chemical energy than products;
C3.24 Energy transfers in chemical energy transferred to heat energy.
reactions 2 Reactants have less chemical energy than products,
so some heat energy is transferred to chemical
Student’s Book energy.
1 a Example of exothermic reaction, e.g. burning 3 A
methane, magnesium+acid.
b Example of endothermic reaction, e.g. sodium chemical
hydrogencarbonate+acid. energy
Mg(s)+2 HCI(aq)
2 a Reaction that gets hotter.
b Reactants have more chemical energy than
products; chemical energy transferred to heat
MgCI2(aq)+H2(g)
energy.
C3.00 Answers
B c Reactants have more chemical energy than
products; chemical energy transferred to heat
chemical
energy.
energy 2 a Endothermic.
NaCI(aq)+H2O(I)+CO2(g)
b
chemical
NaHCO3(s)+HCI (aq)
energy
NH4NO3(aq)
C
NH4NO3(s)
chemical
energy
NH4CI(aq)
c Reactants have less chemical energy than
products, so some heat energy is transferred
to chemical energy.
NH4CI(s)
C3.25 Bond energies
D Student’s Book
1 a 498 kJ/mol of energy is needed.
chemical b 498 kJ/mol of energy is released.
energy
Zn(s)+CuSO4(aq) 2 a N≡N.
b Br–Br.
3 a i –103 kJ/mol.
ZnSO4(aq)+Cu(s)
ii –95 kJ/mol.
b i Exothermic.
ii Exothermic.
E
4 a Flow diagram showing these three steps: (1)
calculate the energy required to break all the
chemical bonds in the reactants; (2) calculate the energy
energy
Ca(s)+2H2O(I) released making all the bonds in the products;
(3) energy change (∆H)=energy required to
break bonds – energy released making bonds.
Ca(OH)2(aq)+H2(g)
b The energy released making bonds is more than
the energy required to break bonds.
c The energy released making bonds is less than the
energy required to break bonds.
Worksheet C3.24b Worksheet C3.25a
1 a Exothermic.
1 a 678 kJ/mol.
b
b 862 kJ/mol.
c –184 kJ/mol.
chemical
energy d Exothermic.
CaO(s)+H2O(l)
e Energy released making bonds is greater than
energy needed to break bonds.
Ca(OH)2(aq)
C3.00 Answers
2 a 2238 kJ/mol. c +45 kJ/mol.
b 2610 kJ/mol. d Endothermic.
c –372 kJ/mol. e Energy released making bonds is less than energy
d Exothermic. needed to break bonds.
e Energy released making bonds is greater than 5 a 3868 kJ/mol.

energy needed to break bonds. b 3992 kJ/mol.
3 a 6482 kJ/mol. c –124 kJ/mol.
b 8162 kJ/mol. d Exothermic.
c –1680 kJ/mol. e Energy released making bonds is greater than
d Exothermic. energy needed to break bonds.

energy needed to break bonds. C3.26 Burning fuel
4 a 3625 kJ/mol. Student’s Book
b 3720 kJ/mol. 1 a 210 J.
c –95 kJ/mol. b 4200 J.
d Exothermic. c 33 600 J.
e Energy released making bonds is greater than 2 a Methane: 52.5 kJ/g; pentane: 46.6 kJ/g.
b Methane: –840 kJ/mol; –3353 kJ/mol.
5 a 6381 kJ/mol.
3 A known mass of fuel is used to heat a known mass
b 6381 kJ/mol. of water; we know how much heat is required to
c 0 kJ/mol. make 1 g of water 1 °C hotter.
d No energy change. Worksheet C3.26a
e Energy released making bonds is the same as the 2 a The alcohol.
b Categoric.
Worksheet C3.25b 3 Same calorimeter, same distance between burner
1 a 1370 kJ/mol. and calorimeter, same volume of water, heated
b 1852 kJ/mol. until the same temperature.
c –482 kJ/mol. Worksheet C3.26b

d Exothermic. 1–4
e Energy released making bonds is greater than Alcohol Butan-1-ol, Pentan-1-ol, Hexan-1-ol,
energy needed to break bonds. C4H9OH C5H11OH C6H13OH
2 a 3754 kJ/mol. Mass of spirit
110.65 g 123.36 g 108.23 g
b 4824 kJ/mol. burner at start
Mass of spirit
c –1070 kJ/mol. 111.04 g 123.70 g 108.56 g
burner at end
d Exothermic. Mass of alcohol
0.39 g 0.34 g 0.33 g
e Energy released making bonds is greater than burned
energy needed to break bonds. Mass of water 100 g 100 g 100 g
3 a 2208 kJ/mol. Temperature of
21 °C 22 °C 21 °C
water at start
b 2796 kJ/mol.
Temperature of
c –588 kJ/mol. 48 °C 47 °C 47 °C
water at end
d Exothermic. Temperature
27 °C 25 °C 26 °C
rise
energy needed to break bonds. Energy released 11.3 kJ 10.5 kJ 10.9 kJ
Energy released 29.1 kJ/g 30.9 kJ/g 33.1 kJ/g
4 a 3231 kJ/mol.
Energy released 2152 kJ/mol 2718 kJ/mol 3375 kJ/mol
b 3186 kJ/mol.
C3.00 Answers
5 Hexan-1-ol. 1 Natural gas: cheap, clean flame, ignites easily and
6 Hexan-1-ol. can be piped to the house.
7 Repeat it. 2 Coal or fuel oil: cheap and can be transported by

road.
8 The masses are quite small and that much precision
is needed to detect differences in mass otherwise 3 Natural gas: can be used in cylinder, clean flame,
significant percentage errors would arise. ignites easily and cheaper than ethanol.
9 a They show the relative amount of energy released. 4 Fuel oil: cheap, flows into engines.
b The values of energy released are inaccurate. Worksheet C3.27b

c Systematic, they are all out by a similar amount. 1 Hydrogen+oxygen water.
d Heat loss. 2 The only product is water.
3 Device in which hydrogen reacts with oxygen to
C3.27 Using fuels make electricity.
4 a Too expensive.
Student’s Book
b They will become cheaper as technology
1 To provide heat to keep us warm, to generate develops.
electricity (by heating water to make steam to
drive turbines), and to fuel cars and lorries. 5 Main method of making hydrogen (from methane)
uses a non-renewable resource and requires
2 Global warming from carbon dioxide produced. energy.
3 Carbon, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides. C3.28 Energy in food
4 a Fuel that cannot be replaced.
b Any fossil fuel. Student’s Book
5 a Fuel that can be replaced. 1 Eat food providing too much energy.
b Wood. 2 Very overweight.
6 Advantages: does not produce carbon dioxide; fuel 3 Increases risk of illness.
will last for thousands of years. 4 Eat food providing less energy.
Disadvantages: problem of storage of nuclear waste. 5 Food containing carbohydrates, fats and oils.
7 Key issues: pollution, using up fuels, lowering energy 6 a 1680 kJ per 100 g.
requirements. b 400 kcal per 100 g.
Worksheet C3.27a 7 Too much energy in food leads to people becoming
overweight, increasing risk of many illnesses.
Fuel Natural Ethanol Fuel oil Coal Petrol
gas Worksheet C3.28a
Cost
0.7 4.3 0.6 0.6 2.5 5 a No, they are a long way out.
(p per MJ)
Ease of very easy very quite very easy b Heat loss.
lighting easy hard hard
c Systematic, they are all out by a similar degree.
Cleanliness very very quite very a little
of flame clean clean smoky smoky smoky d Use a bomb calorimeter; shield the experiment
Transport by by road by road by road/ by road
set up.
pipeline tanker tanker or rail (as tanker
or (as pipeline solid) (as
Worksheet C3.28b
cylinders liquid) (as liquid) 1 Milk chocolate.
(as gas) liquid)
2 532 kJ.
3 Generally, the higher the mass of carbohydrates, the
higher the energy.
4 In many cases, the higher the mass of fat, the higher
the energy.
C3.00 Answers
5 a C3.29 Reactions in solution
Nutritional Energy (kJ) Carbohydrates
details (per +fat (g) Student’s Book
100 g) 1 –52.1 kJ/mol.
Apples 206 14.0
2 +30.8 kJ/mol.
Bran flakes 1331 80.6
3 a The heat released from (or absorbed by) a reaction
Bread (white) 1015 46.7 used to heat up (or cool down) the water in the
Carrots 172 10.1 solution; we know how much heat is required to
Cheese 1004 26.0 make 1 g of water 1 °C hotter.
Chicken (roasted) 281 8.9 b Flow diagram showing the following steps:
Chocolate cake 1541 70.3 (1) calculate the heat released/absorbed;
Cola drink 756 10.6 (2) calculate the number of moles reacting;
(3) calculate the heat released/absorbed for
Diet cola drink 2 0
one mole.
Digestive biscuits 2090 85.5
Milk 274 8.5 Worksheet C3.29a
Milk chocolate 2247 90.0 3 Moles HCl=0.025, moles NH3=0.025.
Oven chips 548 25.2 7 Repeat the experiment.
Potatoes 391 21.3 8 b Could not detect the temperature with enough
Skimmed milk 144 5.1 precision.
Sugar-coated Worksheet C3.29b
1578 87.6
corn flakes
1 –213 kJ/mol.
b 2 +28 kJ/mol.
2500
3 –367 kJ/mol.
4 –57.1 kJ/mol.
2000 5 –55.0 kJ/mol.
6 –57.1 kJ/mol.
1500
energy (kj)
C3.00 Investigative Skills

1000 Assessment (Student’s Book)
1 a 1 g. (1 mark)
500
b 1 g to 5 g. (1 mark)
0
2
0 20 40 60 80 100
carbohydrates + fat (g) Mass of zinc (g) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Temperature Experiment 1 12 23 35 38 37
c Generally, the higher the total mass of rise (°C)
carbohydrates and fat, the higher the energy. Experiment 2 11 13 34 37 38
6 High carbohydrate (sugar) content. (1 mark)
7 a Someone who is significantly overweight. 3 a Experiment 2, 2.0 g. (1 mark)
b Eating food containing too much energy. b Random error, does not fit in with other results.
(2 marks)
c Foods containing a lot of fat and/or carbohydrates.
c Less than 2.0 g of zinc used, misread thermometer,
more than 50 cm3 of copper sulfate used.
(1 mark)
4
Mass of zinc (g) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Temperature rise (°C) 11.5 23 34.5 37.5 37.5
(1 mark)
C3.00 Answers
5 Line graph. (1 mark) Section 2
6 Repeat their results more times (or get someone else 8 a 1 g. (1 mark)
to do the experiment). (1 mark) b 1 g to 5 g. (1 mark)
7 a Yes, increasing the mass of zinc beyond 4 g makes 9
no difference. (1 mark)
Mass of zinc (g) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
b Any answer in the range 3 to 4 g. (1 mark)
Temperature Experiment 1 12 23 35 38 37
c Do more experiments; rise (°C) Experiment 2 11 13 34 37 38
between 3 and 4 g (or plot a graph, see where it
(1 mark)
levels off );
10 a Experiment 2, 2.0 g. (1 mark)
correct use of at least one scientific term.
(3 marks) b Random error, does not fit in with other results.
(2 marks)
C3.00 Investigative Skills c Less than 2.0 g of zinc used, misread thermometer,
Assessment (Copymaster File) more than 50 cm3 of copper sulfate used.
(1 mark)
Table Suitable table of results with all relevant data 11
included.
Mass of zinc (g) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Columns and rows correctly labelled, units
present and correct. (2 marks) Temperature rise (°C) 11.5 23 34.5 37.5 37.5
Graph Suitable scale for mass of zinc on x-axis and (1 mark)
labelled with units. 12 Line graph. (1 mark)
Suitable scale for temperature rise on y-axis 13 Repeat their results more times (or get someone
and labelled with units. else to do the experiment). (1 mark)
Points plotted correctly. 14 a Yes, increasing the mass of zinc beyond 4 g
Suitable best fit line. (4 marks) makes no difference. (1 mark)
Section 1 b Did not use high enough masses of zinc / only

did experiments before the point at which
1 Mass of zinc and temperature rise identified as changing the mass of zinc makes no difference.
variables. (2 marks)
c Any answer in the range 3 to 4 g. (1 mark)
The link between the two must be evident to
award both marks. d Do more experiments; between 3 and 4 g (or
plot a graph, see where it levels off ); correct use
2 a Independent variable=mass of zinc. (1 mark) of at least one scientific term. (3 marks)
b Continuous. (1 mark)
3 a Any two from: volume of copper sulfate;
concentration of copper sulfate; apparatus used;
type/surface of zinc. (2 marks)
b To make it a fair test / valid as they could affect
the temperature rise / dependent variable.
(1 mark)
4 Sensitivity of the thermometer they used. (1 mark)
5 Masses being measured are less than 1 g. (1 mark)
6 Use more sensitive balance, use more sensitive
thermometer, measure copper sulfate solution with
burette / pipette, etc. (1 mark)
7 Simple correct statement=1 mark, e.g. different
masses of zinc give different temperature rises.
Amplified correct statement=2 marks, e.g. the more
zinc used, the larger the temperature rise. (2 marks)
C3 Answers
C3 Assessment exercises
1 a Correctly plotted graph. Axes labelled and units inserted. 4
b 9 g per 100 g of water. 1
c Solubility of solids increase with increasing temperature. 1
d Solubility of gases decreases with temperature. 1
e 62–63 °C. 1
f 17.5 g. 1
Total 9
2 a Calcium. 1
b Carbonate. 1
c CaCO3. 1
d Decomposition of calcium hydrogencarbonate. 1
e Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)+H2O(l). 2
Total 6
3 a A proton donor. 1
b Arrhenius said that acids split up into hydrogen ions in 2
water. Brønsted and Lowry’s theory explained that water is
not necessary.
c An alkali that is only partially ionised in water. 1
Total 4
4 a 1.32 g carbon dioxide=1.32 × 12/44=0.36 g carbon. 3
0.54 g water=0.54 × 2/18=0.06 g hydrogen.
Moles carbon=0.36/12=0.03 moles.
Moles hydrogen=0.06.
Empirical formula=CH2.
b Mass spectrometer. 1
Total 4
C3 Answers
5 a Atomic number order. 1
b Predicted the properties of new elements, 2
which were then discovered and fitted his predictions.
c Group 4. 1
Total 4
6 a Alkali metals. 1
b i More reactive. 1
ii Potassium atoms are bigger so the outer-shell electron is 3
further from the nucleus,
weaker attraction between the nucleus and outer-shell
electron,
outer-shell electron is easier to lose.
Total 5
7 a B. 1
b i Being significantly/very overweight. 1
ii Taking in more energy from food than we use up. 1
iii A. 1
Total 4
8 a Non-renewable fuels. 2
Any air pollution issue (e.g. CO2 contributing to global
warming, CO is toxic, SO2 causes acid rain / respiratory
problems, NOx causes acid rain / respiratory problems).
b Only H2O formed. 1
Total 3
9 a Any indicator, e.g. methyl orange or phenolphthalein (except 1
universal indicator).
b To improve accuracy/reliability. 1
c Moles HCl=0.061 3
moles NaOH=0.061
concentration NaOH=2.44 mol/dm3.
Total 5
10 a q=mc∆T 2
9600 J.
b 64.4 kJ/g. 1
Total 3
47 Marks
C3 Answers
C3 Unit test
1 a Magnesium or calcium. 1
b i Nichrome wire is cleaned by dipping it in concentrated 3
hydrochloric acid and then holding it in a blue flame. When
clean, the wire is dipped into the sample and held in a flame.
ii Magnesium ions. 1
c Iodide ions. 1
d Magnesium iodide. 1
e MgI2(aq)+2AgNO3(aq) 2AgI(s)+Mg(NO3)2(aq). 2
Total 9
2 a Soap reacts with calcium ions and magnesium ions in the 1
water to form scum.
b Permanent hardness. It was not removed by boiling. 2
c In an ion-exchange column, the calcium ions and 2
magnesium ions are exchanged by sodium ions.
d Calcium ions in hard water are good for health (bones, teeth 2
and heart). Sodium ions in softened water can lead to high
blood pressure and heart disease.
Total 7
3 a Arrhenius. 1
b i A weak alkali is only partially ionised in water, while a strong 1
alkali is fully ionised in water.
ii NaOH or KOH. 1
c It is accepting protons (H+) from the hydrogen chloride. 1
Total 4
4 a C 2H 4O 2. 1
b Mass spectrometer. 1
c Infrared spectroscopy. 1
Total 3
C3 Answers
5 a Pipette is more accurate. 1
b Phenolphthalein. 1
c Sodium hydroxide in burette; add until colour changes; note 5
reading; repeat; accuracy mark (e.g. drop wise near end, use
a white tile).
d Moles of CH3COOH=0.0235; concentration of CH3COOH= 2
0.94 mol/dm3.
Total 9
6 a i Elements with similar properties in same column/group / 1
grouped together.
ii Copper does not have similar properties to other elements 1
in group/column.
b Undiscovered elements. 1
c Predicted the existence / properties of undiscovered 2
elements; properties of those elements matched his
predictions when discovered
Total 5
7 a 2252 kJ/mol 1
b 2328 kJ/mol 1
c –76 kJ/mol 1
d Exothermic. 1
e Energy released forming bonds is more than energy needed 1
to break bonds.
Total 5
8 a C=36.7, D=25.3 1
b C, there is some uncertainty due to poor reliability of 2
results / food A produced a bigger temperature rise in one
experiment.
c i 1483 J 1
ii 3.71 kJ/g 1
Total 5
47 marks
P3
Physics
Topic Learning outcomes and codes
1 H 13.1.2 To calculate the size of a force, or its distance from an axis of

rotation, acting on a body that is balanced
13.1.4 The turning effect of a force is called the moment.
13.1.5 The size of the moment is given by the equation:
moment=force × perpendicular distance from the line of action of the
force to the axis of rotation
perpendicular distance from the

moment = force × line of action of the force to the
axis of rotation
(newton metre, Nm) (newton, N) (metre, m)
H 13.1.9 If a body is not turning, the total clockwise moment must be

exactly balanced by the total anti-clockwise moment about any axis.
2 13.1.1 To describe how to find the centre of mass of a thin sheet of a
material.
13.1.6 The centre of mass of a body is that point at which the mass of the
body may be thought to be concentrated.
13.1.7 If suspended, a body will come to rest with its centre of mass
directly below the point of suspension.
13.1.8 The centre of mass of a symmetrical body is along the axis of
symmetry.
3 H 13.1.3 To analyse the stability of bodies by considering their tendency

to topple.
H 13.1.10 Recognise the factors that affect the stability of a body.
H 13.1.11 If the line of action of the weight of a body lies outside the
base of the body there will be a resultant moment and the body will tend
to topple.
4 13.2.1 To identify which force(s) provide(s) the centripetal force in a given
situation.
13.2.2 To interpret data on bodies moving in circular paths.
13.2.3. When a body moves in a circle it continuously accelerates towards
the centre of the circle. This acceleration changes the direction of motion
of the body, not its speed.
13.2.4 The resultant force causing this acceleration is called the
centripetal force.
13.2.5 The direction of the centripetal force is always towards the centre of
the circle.
13.2.6 The centripetal force needed to make a body perform circular
motion increases as:
– the mass of the body increases
– the speed of the body increases
– the radius of the circle decreases.
5 13.3.1. To interpret data on planets and satellites moving in orbits that
approximate to circular paths.
13.3.2 The Earth, Sun, Moon and all other bodies attract each other with a
force called gravity.
13.3.3 The bigger the masses of the bodies the bigger the force of gravity
between them.
13.3.4 As the distance between two bodies increases the force of gravity
between them decreases.
13.3.5 The orbit of any planet is an ellipse (slightly squashed circle), with
the Sun at one focus.
13.3.6 Gravitational force provides the centripetal force that allows planets
and satellites to maintain their circular orbits.
13.3.7 The further away an orbiting body is the longer it takes to make a
complete orbit.
13.3.8 To stay in orbit at a particular distance, smaller bodies, including
planets and satellites, must move at a particular speed around larger
bodies.
6 13.3.1 To interpret data on planets and satellites moving in orbits that
7 13.3.9 Communications satellites are usually put into a geostationary orbit
above the equator.
13.3.10 Monitoring satellites are usually put into a low polar orbit.
8 13.10.1 To explain how stars are able to maintain their energy output for
millions of years.
13.10.5 Stars form when enough dust and gas from space is pulled
together by gravitational attraction. Smaller masses may also form and be
attracted by a larger mass to become planets.
13.10.6 Gravitational forces balance radiation pressure to make a star
stable.
9 H 13.10.2 To explain why the early Universe contained only hydrogen but
now contains a large variety of different elements.
13.10.3 Our Sun is one of the many billions of stars in the Milky Way galaxy.
13.10.4 The Universe is made up of billions of galaxies.
13.10.7 A star goes through a life cycle (limited to the life cycle of stars of
similar size to the Sun and stars much larger than the Sun).
H 13.10.8 Fusion processes in stars produce all naturally occurring
elements. These elements may be distributed throughout the Universe by
the explosion of a star (supernova) at the end of its life.
10 13.4.1 To construct ray diagrams to show the formation of images by
plane, convex and concave mirrors.
13.4.5 The normal is a construction-line perpendicular to the reflecting/
refracting surface at the point of incidence.
13.4.6 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
13.4.7 The nature of an image is defined by its size relative to the object,
whether it is upright or inverted relative to the object and whether it is
real or virtual.
13.4.8 The nature of the image produced by a plane mirror.
plane, convex and concave mirrors.
13.4.4 To calculate the magnification produced by a lens or mirror using
the formula:
image height
magnification=
object height
13.4.9 The nature of the image produced by a convex mirror.
13.4.10 The nature of the image produced by a concave mirror for an
object placed at different distances from the mirror.
12 13.4.11 Refraction at an interface.
13.4.12 Refraction by a prism.
diverging lenses and converging lenses.
13.4.3 To explain the use of a converging lens as a magnifying glass and in
a camera.
13.4.4 To calculate the magnification produced by a lens or mirror using
the formula:
image height
magnification=
object height
13.4.13 The nature of the image produced by a diverging lens.
13.4.14 The nature of the image produced by a converging lens for an
object placed at different distances from the lens.
14 13.4.15 The use of a converging lens in a camera to produce an image of
an object on a detecting device (e.g. film).
15 13.5.1 To compare the amplitudes and frequencies of sounds from
diagrams of oscilloscope traces.
13.5.2 Sound is caused by mechanical vibrations and travels as a wave.
13.5.4 Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
13.5.5 The pitch of a note increases as the frequency increases.
13.5.6 The loudness of a note increases as the amplitude of the wave
increases.
13.5.7 The quality of a note depends upon the waveform.
13.5.8 Sound waves can be reflected and refracted.
16 13.5.3 Sounds in the range 20–20 000 Hz can be detected by the human
ear.
H 13.6.1 To compare the amplitudes and frequencies of ultrasounds from
diagrams of oscilloscope traces.
H 13.6.2 To determine the distance between interfaces in various media
from diagrams of oscilloscope traces.
13.6.3 Electronic systems can be used to produce ultrasound waves that
have a frequency higher than the upper limit of hearing for humans.
13.6.4 Ultrasound waves are partially reflected when they meet a
boundary between two different media. The time taken for the reflections
to reach a detector is a measure of how far away such a boundary is.
13.6.5 Ultrasound waves can be used in industry for cleaning and quality
control.
13.6.6 Ultrasound waves can be used in medicine for pre-natal scanning.
17 13.7.1 To explain how the motor effect is used in simple devices.
13.7.2 When a conductor carrying an electric current is placed in a
magnetic field, it may experience a force.
13.7.3 The size of the force can be increased by:
– increasing the strength of the magnetic field
– increasing the size of the current.
13.7.4 The conductor will not experience a force if it is parallel to the
magnetic field.
13.7.5 The direction of the force is reversed if either the direction of the
current or the direction of the magnetic field is reversed.
18 13.8.2 If an electrical conductor ‘cuts’ through magnetic field lines, an
electrical potential difference is induced across the ends of the conductor.
13.8.3 If a magnet is moved into a coil of wire, an electrical potential
difference is induced across the ends of the coil.
13.8.4 If the wire is part of a complete circuit, a current is induced in the
wire.
13.8.5 If the direction of motion, or the polarity of the magnet, is reversed,
the direction of the induced potential difference and the induced current
is reversed.
13.8.6 The generator effect also occurs if the magnetic field is stationary
and the coil is moved.
13.8.7 The size of the induced potential difference increases when:
– the speed of the movement increases
– the strength of the magnetic field increases
– the number of turns on the coil increases
– the area of the coil is greater.
19 H 13.8.1 To explain from a diagram how an a.c. generator works, including

the purpose of the slip rings and brushes.
20 13.9.1 To determine which type of transformer should be used for a
particular application.
13.9.2 The basic structure of the transformer.
13.9.3 An alternating current in the primary coil produces a changing
magnetic field in the iron core and hence in the secondary coil. This
induces an alternating potential difference across the ends of the
secondary coil.
H 13.9.4 The potential difference (p.d.) across the primary and secondary
coils of a transformer are related by the equation:
p.d. across primary = number of turns on primary
p.d. across secondary number of turns on secondary
13.9.5 In a step-up transformer the potential difference across the
secondary coil is greater than the potential difference across the primary
coil.
13.9.6 In a step-down transformer the potential difference across the
secondary coil is less than the potential difference across the primary coil.
13.9.7 The uses of step-up and step-down transformers in the National
Grid.
P3.0
Forces and energy in space

Overview
This unit looks first at moments, centre of mass and stability, and then at the forces involved
in circular motion. The latter is then applied to the Solar System, where gravity provides
the centripetal force. The unit concludes by looking at how stars can produce energy for
billions of years, and at the life cycle of stars.

The ISA for Unit P3.0 is set in the context of moments. In the Student’s Book, data is
presented to the students and then they are asked a number of questions about the
investigation. The Copymaster File provides questions for students to answer based on their
own investigation into centripetal force. Practical 1 in Topic P3.4 gives instructions for this
investigation.
P3.0 Context page

Students should know and understand: The context for this unit is forces and energy in space.
• how to calculate the moment of a force

• what the centre of mass of a body is, and how to Learning activities
find the centre of mass for a thin sheet of material • AT The context for this unit is introduced via a
video on the ActiveTeach.
• H the factors affecting the stability of an object
• that circular motion involves a centripetal force, • The AfL questions are intended to help students to
recall some of their Key Stage 3 work on forces and
and how to identify the centripetal force in various
the Earth in space. Students’ answers could be used
situations
for formative assessment.
• the factors affecting the size of the centripetal force
• the factors affecting the size of a gravitational force
• how the period and speed of an object in orbit
depend on its distance from the parent body
• different types of orbit for satellites and why they

are used
• how the Sun and the planets were formed

• the life cycles of stars
• H that new elements are formed in stars.
P3.1 Moments
P3.1a Moments 1 Classwork (reusable) 4 4
P3.1b Moments 2 Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives • H Practical 3 suggests that students make a

Students should be able to: balance to find the weight of small or large objects.
This will help to reinforce the idea that objects that
• recall that the turning effect of a force is called the are not turning have balanced moments, and will
moment give students practice in calculating forces.
• use the equation: moment=force2perpendicular Plenary
distance from the line of action of the force to the
axis of rotation • Ask students to write a set of three bullet points to
summarise the lesson. Give them a few minutes to
• H explain why, if a body is not turning, the total do this, and then ask for contributions to make a
clockwise moment must be exactly balanced by the class summary.
total anti-clockwise moment about any axis
• H calculate the size of a force, or its distance from Additional homework/research ideas
an axis of rotation, acting on a body that is balanced. • Ask students to design a mobile. If necessary, show
them an example and sketch one. Ask them to
produce a drawing that is approximately to scale,
Key words showing how each arm of the mobile would be
moment, newton metre balanced by the arms or objects suspended from it.
Points to note Practicals and demonstrations

1 Demonstrating turning forces Ask for a volunteer
• Moments were covered in Key Stage 3, so much of from the class, and ask them how many stacking
this topic should be revision. masses they think they can hold in an outstretched
• Students will not be required to recall equations for hand. Allow them to test their prediction by asking
them to hold out their hand and then gradually add
assessment purposes. Rearrangement of equations is
Higher Tier only. small masses until the student can no longer keep
their arm level. Then ask them to hold one end of a
metre rule, and gradually add masses to the other
Lesson ideas end. See how many masses can be added before the
student can no longer hold the ruler horizontal. Ask
Starter what would need to be done to allow more masses
• Use Practical 1 as a starter. to be supported, and elicit the idea that the turning
force depends on the number of masses applied and
Learning activities also on how far they are from the turning point (the
student’s hand).
• Follow up the starter by asking students to suggest 10 minutes
applications of turning forces. They should be able
to suggest things such as spanners, door handles,
etc. Ask why a longer spanner is more useful for Ensure that masses cannot fall on feet or break
applying a large turning moment. metre rule.
Apparatus
• Use Practical 2 to demonstrate that the moment of a
force depends on the perpendicular distance to the Metre rule; stacking masses.
axis of rotation.
2 Perpendicular distances Ask students to devise a
• AT H ActiveTeach provides an equation triangle way of demonstrating that the distance used in the
that will help Higher-tier students to rearrange the moment equation must be perpendicular to the line
moment equation. of action of the force. This could be done by using
a set-up such as that shown below and pulling on
the forcemeter at different angles, noting the force
needed to hold the metre rule balanced in each
case and also measuring the distance between the However, this will be more a challenging activity if
forcemeter and pivot point, as shown. students are challenged to use the apparatus to find
wooden block
the weight of something heavier than the weight
with G-clamp of the masses available, or much lighter than the
fastening it forcemeter
to the bench nce smallest mass available. They can do this by putting
r dista
ndicula the known masses and the unknown objects at
perpe
different distances from the pivot, and calculating
the weight of the unknown object from the weight
weights hanging
bench from metre rule of the masses used and the distances from the pivot
when the ruler is balanced.
20 minutes
Note that this method will ignore the mass of the
Ensure that masses cannot fall on feet. metre rule itself, so you may wish to revisit it after
students have studied the next topic.
30 minutes
2 metre rules; wooden block; G-clamp; forcemeter;
stacking masses. Ensure that masses cannot fall on feet.
3 H Make a balance Challenge students to make a Apparatus (per group)
balance to find the weights of various objects. At its Metre rule; triangular block to act as pivot; masses;
simplest, this could just be a metre rule balanced unknown objects to weigh.
in the middle, with the object to be weighed on
one side and known masses on the other (remind Optional: card, sticky tape, etc. to make a ‘pan’
students that a mass of 100 g has an approximate on which to put masses or objects to be weighed.
weight of 1 N). At this level, the activity will reinforce
the idea that objects that are not turning have
balanced forces on them.
P3.2 Centre of mass

P3.1a Balancing acts Classwork (reusable) 4 4
P3.1b Centre of mass Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives causes no problem, as the centre of gravity is only in

a different place to the centre of mass for objects so
Students should be able to: large that the force of gravity varies from one part of
it to another. If you were to try to find the centre of
• recall that the centre of mass of a symmetrical body gravity of Ben Nevis, for example, it would be slightly
is along the axis of symmetry
below its centre of mass.
• describe how to find the centre of mass of a thin • Centre of mass and stability are looked at in more
sheet of a material
detail in Topic P3.3.
• recall that the centre of mass of a body is that point
at which the mass of the body may be thought to be
concentrated Lesson ideas
• explain that, if suspended, a body will come to rest Starter
with its centre of mass directly below the point of
suspension. • Make a cut-out shape from cardboard, such as the
parrot shown on Worksheet P3.2a, and ask a student
to try to get it to balance on a finger. Add a lump of
Key words Plasticine to the tail, and show them that the object
now balances. Ask for suggestions for why adding
centre of mass the Plasticine helps.
Points to note Learning activities

• The terms ‘centre of gravity’ and ‘centre of mass’ are • Show students that you can balance a ruler on a
finger by putting your finger under the centre of the
often used interchangeably. For most purposes, this
ruler. Repeat this with an object whose mass is not
symmetrical about its centre, such as a rounders or Additional homework/research ideas
baseball bat. Ask students why you have to balance
this with your finger/hand nearer to the wide end, • Ask students to sketch five different objects at home,
and to indicate the centre of mass of each one.
and elicit the idea that there is more mass near that
end of the bat.
• Practical 1 allows students to find the centre of mass 1 Centre of mass of a thin sheet Ask students to
of a sheet of card, and Practical 2 demonstrates find the centre of mass of an irregular-shaped
ways of finding the centre of mass of other objects, piece of card. You could provide them with the
illustrating the fact that a centre of mass could be at shapes, or students could cut out their own
a point where there is no material. You could extend shapes, ensuring that they do not have any lines of
Practical 1 by asking students to find the centre of symmetry. Possible shapes could be an approximate
mass of symmetrical card shapes, and to confirm outline of mainland UK (or any other country), the
that the centre of mass lies on lines of symmetry. outline of a footballer in action or an animal in an
• Practical 3 (and Worksheet P3.2a) show a number unsymmetrical position. Students could follow the
method shown in the Student’s Book, or more able
of other ‘balancing tricks’ that rely on adjusting the
position of the centre of mass of objects. If time students may be able to work the method out for
is short, the worksheet can be used alone, and themselves before using the textbook if you discuss
students just asked to explain why each object will the fact that objects hang with their centre of mass
balance. below the point of suspension.
15 minutes
• H You may wish to reinforce the learning from
Topic P3.1 by talking about a balanced object Apparatus (per group)
having equal turning forces in each direction
about the centre of mass. You could also revisit Card; scissors; plumb line (string and weight); cork
Practical 3 in Topic P3.1 and ask students to repeat mounted in a clamp stand; pin.
the calculations for any balances they made and 2 Centre of mass of objects Ask students to work
used that did not have the pivot in the centre of out the approximate positions of the centres of
the ruler, taking into account the centre of mass of mass for various objects. For example, use a cup or
the ruler. mug and hang it by the handle from a finger. The
centre of mass must lie somewhere along the axis
Plenary of symmetry that goes through the handle, and
• Set up the apparatus below, and show students that students should be able to see that a vertical line
the funnels appear to move uphill. You may need down from their finger would intersect the plane of
to test this beforehand, to make sure you have the symmetry somewhere in the hollow inside of the
sticks at a suitable angle. Ask them to explain what is cup. A similar process can be used for other objects,
happening. although if using heavy items, such as chairs or
stools, you may wish to demonstrate rather than risk
students dropping them on their feet.
15 minutes
Ensure heavy objects cannot drop on feet and that

the objects have no sharp points.
Selection of objects of different shapes.
Optional: plumb line.
3 Balancing acts Worksheet P3.2a shows a number of
different balancing ‘tricks’ that students can set up.
• Alternatively, show students a metre rule balanced In each case, ask them to explain why the objects
on two fingers, with one finger at each end. Bring
your hands together, and they will always meet in will balance, although at first glance most look as if
the middle of the ruler. Ask students to use ideas they will not. Students could also be encouraged to
about centre of mass and moments to explain invent their own tricks. If time is available, students
what is happening. The explanation is that if one could invent their own animal shapes similar to the
hand gets closer to the centre than the other, there parrot and decorate them.
will be a higher proportion of the weight of the Alternatively, you could give students items such
ruler resting on that finger and so the friction will as the potato, toothpick, beaker and forks from B
increase and allow the other finger to get nearer to on the worksheet, and challenge them to make it
the centre. balance. In this case, the worksheet could be used
as a source of possible solutions to the problems.
10–30 minutes C: String tied between 2 fixed objects; toy holding
bent wire (see worksheet – you may be able to use
figures from a Lego set, or make the toy out of thin
A: Card; scissors; Plasticine or Blu-Tack. wood or thick card); lumps of Plasticine.
B: Beaker; potato; 2 forks; toothpick. D: Ruler; hammer; string or rubber band.
P3.3 Stability
P3.3a Aeroplane stability Classwork (reusable) 4
P3.3b Centre of mass and stability Homework (reusable) 4

Students should be able to: • H Challenge students to balance a pencil vertically
on the end of one finger. Some may be able to
• H analyse the stability of bodies by considering manage it for a few seconds if they move their
their tendency to topple hands to attempt to keep their finger beneath the
centre of mass of the pencil. Ask students to explain
• H recognise the factors that affect the stability of a what is happening in terms of centre of mass.
body
• H explain that if the line of action of the weight of • H In this topic the stability of bodies is approached
a body lies outside the base of the body, there will by considering whether the centre of mass remains
be a resultant moment and the body will tend to above part of the base. Stability can also be assessed
topple. by determining whether a movement of the body
would raise or lower the position of the centre of
mass. If the centre of mass is lowered when the body
Key words is displaced, the body is unstable. Raising the centre
of mass takes work, so objects where this would
H stable, unstable
happen are stable. You may wish to discuss this
aspect of stability with some more able students.
Points to note • AT H ActiveTeach provides an animation
• H The content of this whole topic is suitable for illustrating stability and toppling.
Higher-tier students only.
• H Worksheet P3.3a looks at the stability of aircraft
• H Students are not required to recall the details of as an application of the ideas in this topic. Students
aircraft stability on the classwork sheet. will not be expected to recall this information.
Plenary
Lesson ideas
• H Ask students to modify their explanations for
Starter the starter activity, if necessary, and then ask some
students to read out their explanations.
• H Ask for a volunteer who wants to earn £5 (or
£1 if you only have coins available). Tell them they Practicals and demonstrations
can have the money if they can pick it up without
touching the floor with their hands or raising their None suggested.
heels from the floor. The only other condition is that
they have to stand with their back to a wall with
their heels against it. Place the coin about 10 cm
in front of their toes. It is impossible to pick up an
object in such a position without falling over (and
therefore putting a hand on the floor). Ask students
to try to explain why the money cannot be picked
up – their explanations can be jotted down on scrap
paper to be revisited later.
P3.4 Circular motion
P3.4a Factors affecting centripetal force Practical (reusable) 4 4
P3.4b Centripetal forces Classwork (card sort) 4 4
P3.4c Moving in circles Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives • Worksheet P3.4b provides a set of scenes showing

Students should be able to: circular motion. Students can sort them into order
of the size of the centripetal force involved. There
• identify which force(s) provide(s) the centripetal may be some they have to guess at, but they should
force in a given situation explain their reasoning for any they do put in order.
Students can also be asked to suggest how the
• interpret data on bodies moving in circular paths centripetal force is being provided in each situation.
• recall that when a body moves in a circle it • AT Students can then use the spreadsheet provided
continuously accelerates towards the centre of the
circle. This acceleration changes the direction of on the ActiveTeach to calculate the centripetal force
motion of the body, not its speed in each case.
• describe what centripetal force is and the direction • AT The spreadsheet could also be used by students
in which it acts in place of the practical activity to produce enough
data to plot graphs of mass, speed and radius
• explain that the centripetal force needed to make against centripetal force, and so determine the
a body perform circular motion increases as the relationship between the different factors and the
mass of the body increases, as the speed of the body force needed. Note that students are not expected
increases and as the radius of the circle decreases. to use or recall the equation for calculating
centripetal force.
Key words Plenary
acceleration, centripetal force, velocity
• Ask students to finish off the sentence ‘Centripetal
force …’ in as many different ways as they can.
Points to note
• The term ‘centrifugal force’ is often used, but 1 Factors affecting circular motion Instructions for
actually the force does not exist. What we feel as
an investigation are provided on Worksheet P3.4a.
‘centrifugal force’ are the effects of momentum. For
More able students can be encouraged to gather
example, if we are in a car moving around a sharp
results for a range of values of each factor and
bend, momentum would tend to make us travel in a
to plot graphs to determine whether or not the
straight line. As the car is turning, we feel as if we are
relationships they find are linear. They should find
being pushed outwards. You may wish to discuss this
that the centripetal force needed is proportional to
with some students as a way of revising momentum.
the mass of the object, proportional to the velocity
squared, and inversely proportional to the radius of
Lesson ideas the circle.
30–60 minutes, depending on depth of investigation
Starter
Eye protection should be worn. Ensure sensible
• Ask students to define velocity and acceleration, behaviour and allow enough space for swinging the
and ask them to explain the factors that affect the
acceleration of an object. This will allow you to bungs. It may be best to do this practical out of
assess how much they recall from work on forces doors or in a hall, to allow for plenty of space
and movement from earlier units. between different groups.
Learning activities
Hollow tube about 30 cm long; 3 rubber bungs
• Practical 1 asks students to investigate the factors with holes; 1.5 m string; forcemeters; crocodile clip;
that affect the size of the centripetal force required stopwatch; metre rule; eye protection.
to keep an object moving in a circle. This practical
can be used as the basis of the Investigative Skills
Assessment.
P3.5 Gravity and the Solar System
P3.5a Orbits, speeds and times Classwork (reusable) 4 4
P3.5b A new planetary system Homework (reusable) 4 4

Students should be able to: • Show students how to draw ellipses using a loop of
string around two pins (the foci). More able students
• recall that the Earth, Sun, Moon and all other bodies could be asked to find out what the terms ‘semi-major
attract each other with a force called gravity axis’, ‘semi-minor axis’ and ‘eccentricity’ mean, and
what the values of these are for the orbit of the Earth
• recall that the bigger the masses of the bodies, the or one of the other planets. Note that it is the semi-
bigger the force of gravity between them, and that,
as the distance between two bodies increases, the major axis that is normally quoted as the distance of
force of gravity between them decreases a body from the Sun. Students will not be required
to recall this information, but it should help them to
• recall that the orbit of any planet is an ellipse understand what is meant by an ellipse, or by the
(slightly squashed circle), with the Sun at one focus ‘eccentric’ orbits of dwarf planets such as Pluto.
• explain that gravitational force provides the The ActiveTeach activities discussed below should
centripetal force that allows planets to maintain be used before students work through the material
their orbits in the Student’s Book.
• explain that the further away an orbiting body is, the • AT ActiveTeach provides an animation explaining
longer it takes to make a complete orbit what an ellipse is, and also illustrates how the
elliptical orbits of the planets are almost circular.
• explain that, to stay in orbit at a particular distance,
smaller bodies, including planets, must move at a
particular speed around larger bodies
• AT H The final part of the animation shows how
the speed of a body changes during an elliptical
orbit – students are not required to know about
• interpret data on planets moving in orbits that this, but it will be useful to show more able students
how the assumption of a circular orbit is actually
simplifying the situation.
Key words
• AT ActiveTeach provides a spreadsheet that allows
elliptical, focus, gravity students to put in the masses of two objects and
the distance between them, and to work out the
gravitational force. This can be used before students
Points to note work through the material in the book to illustrate
• The Solar System has been considered to have that the force increases if either of the two masses
nine planets since the discovery of Pluto in 1930. increases, and to show that the force decreases with
However, in 2006 Pluto was reclassified as a ‘dwarf distance. It can also be used to calculate the weight of
planet’, as was Ceres and a body orbiting beyond different masses on the Earth, the Moon or one of the
Pluto informally known as Xena. At the time of inner planets, by entering the radius and the mass of
writing, other Solar System bodies were being the relevant body. This is a good place to reinforce the
considered for inclusion in the category of dwarf idea of centre of mass – when working out the weight
planets. of a 1 kg mass on the surface of the Earth, the distance
needed is the distance between the centres of mass
of the two bodies. Note that Foundation-tier students
Lesson ideas may need help understanding the scientific format in
which the data about the planets is presented.
Starter
• Ask students to draw concept maps to show what • AT H More able students can use the spreadsheet
they recall about the Solar System from Key Stage 3 to work out the force between two bodies at
work or from Module P1. This will allow you to assess different distances and plot a graph of force against
how much they recall from earlier work. Students distance. Students are not required to recall that the
could keep their maps and add to them as they work force decreases with the square of the distance, but
through the next few topics to form a record of what knowing this will help them to understand how the
they have learnt. speed of an object in orbit changes with distance
(see below).
between distance from the Sun, speed and orbital
• H You may wish to show more able students period. The questions on the worksheet provide
Newton’s equation for gravitational attraction:
Gm1m 2 more help for students.
F= r 2 , where m1 and m2 are the masses of the
two objects, and r is the distance between them. This Plenary
should help students to understand that the force
of gravity depends on the masses of both bodies
• Ask students to alter their concept maps to reflect
what they have learnt during this topic.
involved, and that the force decreases with the
distance squared. Students will not be expected to • Alternatively, ask students to write a statement
recall these details. about gravity or the Solar System that is wrong in
some way. Ask students to read out their sentences,
• AT ActiveTeach provides a second spreadsheet that in turn, and ask the rest of the class what is wrong
allows students to enter the distance of an orbiting with each one.
body from the body around which it is orbiting. The
spreadsheet returns its speed and period. There Additional homework/research ideas
are also fields for the masses of the bodies to be
entered, demonstrating that the orbital period or • Gravity also controls the orbits of moons around
other planets. Ask students to find out about the
speed does not depend on the mass of the orbiting
other planets in our Solar System that have moons,
body.
and suggest how the forces of gravity between
• Worksheet P3.5a also allows students to work out these planets and their moons compare with the
for themselves the approximate speed at which gravity between the Earth and the Moon, and
each planet moves around its orbit, if access to the between the Sun and the planets.
ActiveTeach is not possible. More able students
could be given just the top portion of the worksheet Practicals and demonstrations
that contains the data, and asked to work out the None suggested.
speed and plot graphs to show the relationships
P3.6 Changing ideas

P3.6a What are nebulae? HSW Classwork (reusable) 4 4
P3.6b Reverseword Homework (reusable) 4 4

Starter
• HSW distinguish between models based on
• Ask students to suggest how we know how the Solar
evidence and those based on non-scientific ideas System is arranged and how the planets move. Collect
• HSW explain that hypotheses or scientific models ideas and note them down for discussion later.
can be used to make predictions that can be tested
Learning activities
• HSW explain that, if the theories and models we • ICT Either before or after using the Student’s Book,
have available to us do not completely match our
ask students to use the internet or reference books
data or observations, then we need to check the
to find out more about Ptolemy, Copernicus, Galileo,
validity of our observations or data, or amend the
Brahe, Kepler and Newton. Students could be asked
theories or models.
to find out brief biographical details, but the main
focus of their research should be on the evidence
Key words that each one gathered or used, how (or whether)
evidence led them to adapt or change existing
model models of the Solar System, and whether any part of
their model was based on non-scientific ideas (for
Points to note example, Copernicus still considered that the planets
must move in circles).
• The content of this topic illustrates the aspects of
How Science Works listed above. Students will not • Students could also be asked to find out more
be required to recall details of changing ideas about about why ideas such as those of Copernicus were
the Solar System, or the material on Worksheet P3.6a. not accepted immediately, including the role of the
Catholic Church.
• Worksheet P3.6a looks at a later controversy in Additional homework/research ideas
astronomy – a debate that took place in 1920 about • Ask students to find out more about ways of
the nature of nebulae and the size of the galaxy. measuring distances to the stars. They could be
asked to research the parallax method, or to find
Plenary out more about Cepheid variables and why they are
• Ask students to write definitions of the following useful for distance measurements.
words: observations, evidence, experiment,
hypothesis, theory, model, prediction. If necessary, Practicals and demonstrations
discuss the meanings with the class and how they None suggested.
apply to the material in this topic.
P3.7 Satellites
P3.7a Orbits and distances Classwork (reusable) 4 4
P3.7b Satellites and orbits Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives list, or ask students to jot their ideas down on scrap

paper for use later.
• interpret data on satellites moving in orbits that Learning activities

approximate to circular paths • AT ActiveTeach provides an animation showing
different types of orbits, illustrating their periods
• recall that, the further away an orbiting body is, the and coverage of the surface of the Earth.
longer it takes to make a complete orbit
• explain that, to stay in orbit at a particular distance • Help students to draw a scale diagram of Earth, the
orbit of a satellite in low Earth orbit, and the orbit of
smaller bodies, including satellites, must move at a a geostationary satellite (or part of its orbit, at least).
particular speed around larger bodies Worksheet P3.7a provides the necessary data and
• recall that communications satellites are usually put instructions.
into a geostationary orbit above the equator and
monitoring satellites are usually put into a low polar • ICT The NASA website provides a Java applet that
shows the orbits of various satellites. For more
orbit. information see www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
The view shows real-time positions or can be
Key words speeded up to show the satellites moving. Particular
satellites can be selected and tracked, and data
communications satellite, geostationary orbit, obtained about them, including their ground track.
monitoring satellite, polar orbit, satellite Students could be asked to find (for example) what
the orbits of GPS satellites are like, the names of
Points to note some satellites in geostationary orbits and what
they are used for, the names and uses of some
• ICT Geostationary orbits are sometimes referred satellites in polar orbits, etc.
to as geosynchronous or just synchronous orbits.
Students may come across these terms if looking for • ICT Students could look into the uses of satellites,
information on the internet. for example by using Google Earth to look at
satellite mapping imagery. Alternatively, the NASA
• Monitoring satellites usually follow a Sun Earth Observatory has a huge collection of satellite
synchronous orbit, which is an almost polar orbit imagery that students may be interested to look at,
whose altitude is chosen so that the satellite will including the ability to create animations showing
always fly over a particular location at the same local how things such as snow cover change throughout
time, so the Sun angle is always the same. the year. For more information see www.longman.
co.uk/AQAScience. Encourage students to relate the
Lesson ideas data to the sensors needed on satellites to gather
the data, and to the type of orbit the satellites would
Starter have needed to be in.
• Ask students to give as many different uses for

satellites as they can. Collect ideas to make a class
• AT ActiveTeach provides a selection of images for Additional homework/research ideas
use if access to the internet is difficult. • ICT Ask students to find out about the kind
of equipment needed on satellites. For more
Plenary information see www.longman.co.uk/AQAScience.
• Revisit the list that students made for the starter Practicals and demonstrations
activity, and ask them to expand the list of uses if
necessary. Ask them to note what kind of orbit each None suggested.
satellite has.

P3.8a Solar System story Classwork (card sort) 4 4
P3.8b Space true or false? Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives • AT ActiveTeach provides an animation showing the

Students should be able to: nebular hypothesis of how the Solar System formed.
• explain how stars are able to maintain their energy • ICT Worksheet P3.8a provides a set of cards
output for millions of years showing diagrams and explanations of various
stages in the formation of the Solar System for
• describe how stars form when enough dust and students to match up and put into order. More
gas from space is pulled together by gravitational able students can be given only the diagrams and
attraction, and how smaller masses may also form asked to write the accompanying descriptions
and be attracted by a larger mass to become planets themselves. Students could also use the drawings (or
coloured images from the internet) to make posters
• recall that gravitational forces balance radiation illustrating how the Solar System was formed.
pressure to make a star stable.
Plenary
Key words • Ask students to finish off the sentence ‘The Sun …’
fuse, nebular hypothesis, nuclear fusion reactions, in as many different ways as they can. Give them a
nucleus, radiation pressure, star few minutes to think of some sentences, then go
round the class asking for examples.

Starter • Ask students to find out how many planets have
been discovered around other stars, what these
• Ask students to give three reasons why the Sun is planets are like, and some information about how
important. Possible answers include providing light they were detected (they cannot be seen directly
to enable us to see, providing heat, and providing through telescopes).
light for photosynthesis, without which we would
not have any food. Practicals and demonstrations
None suggested.
Learning activities
• ICT An animation illustrating the formation of the
Solar System can be downloaded from the internet.
For more information see www.longman.co.uk/
AQAScience.
P3.9 Life cycles of stars
P3.9a Eyewitness account Classwork (reusable) 4 4
P3.9b A sunny story Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives if they wish, or they could find images from the

internet. The ‘life stories’ could be made into posters,
Students should be able to: or students could use the information provided to
make PowerPoint presentations to tell the life story
• recall that our Sun is one of the many billions of of the Sun.
stars in the Milky Way galaxy and that the Universe
is made up of billions of galaxies • ICT Students could also be asked to find images
from the internet to illustrate their ‘life story’
• describe the life cycles of stars of similar size to the posters or presentations. Key words to use in
Sun and stars much larger than the Sun
searches include ‘protosun’, ‘Solar System formation’,
• H explain that fusion processes in stars produce ‘planetesimal’ and ‘moon formation’.
all naturally occurring elements. These elements
may be distributed throughout the Universe by the • Discuss how astronomers know about the life
explosion of a star (supernova) at the end of its life cycles of stars, as this is something they cannot
experiment on directly, and the timescales are far
• H explain why the early Universe contained only too long actually to observe a star through its life
hydrogen but now contains a large variety of cycle. Information is gathered about many different
different elements. stars, and astronomers look for links between the
brightness and composition of stars, together with
other information they can use to deduce what
Key words happens as the star ages. This is backed up with
black hole, galaxy, life cycle, neutron star, planetary theoretical calculations about the nuclear reactions
nebula, red giant, supernova, Universe, white dwarf going on inside the star.
Points to note Plenary

• Ask students to work in groups to decide on a set
• The term ‘life cycle’ as used for stars does not imply of key facts – for example, three key facts about the
reproduction/rebirth in the same way that this word current topic, or ten key facts about the unit as a
does when used for living things. It might be worth whole. If time permits, students could then share
emphasising this point to students. their ideas and produce an agreed class list of key
facts.
Starter • Ask students to find out how massive (compared
with the Sun) a star has to be for it to become a red
• Put a set of initial letters on the board for the key supergiant rather than a red giant, and how massive
words from the last topic (or from earlier topics
in the module as well, if you wish). Ask students it has to be to end up as a black hole. (Stars of above
to suggest what the words might be, and to give about eight stellar masses become red supergiants,
meanings for them. if what is left after the supernova explosion is
greater than around two stellar masses, it is likely to
Learning activities become a black hole.)
• AT ActiveTeach provides an animation illustrating Practicals and demonstrations

the life cycles of stars of different masses.
None suggested.
• ICT Worksheet P3.9a asks students to imagine they
have a time machine, and asks them to write an
‘eyewitness’ account of the life of the Sun and of a
star more massive than the Sun. Some illustrations
are included for students to use in their accounts
P3.0 Answers
P3.0 Forces and energy in space e It will be the same. The perpendicular distance
between the line of the force and the hinge
Student’s Book will be less when the door is further up, but
the distance between the line of action of the
1 Concept maps should include types of force, and weight and the hinge will be reduced in similar
how forces can affect the movement of objects. proportion.
2 Bullet points should include the names of the 3 Clockwise moment from Holly’s weight is
planets and what they are made of, the Sun as a 1.5 m×200 N=300 Nm.
light source, a description of what a moon is, and
Dad must be applying a 300 Nm moment if she is
details of days/nights/years. A very good answer
stationary.
would also describe solar and lunar eclipses.
Force= moment =300 Nm=120 N.
3 It provides the energy needed to keep the Earth distance 2.5 m
warm enough for life, and the light needed for 4 a The moment would be greater for a given force (or
photosynthesis, without which we would not have
a smaller force would be needed for the same
any food.
moment, because the distance would be greater).
b The arms would be too long, or similar answer.
P3.1 Moments
Worksheet P3.1b
Student’s Book 1 a Moment – Nm; force – N; distance – m.
1 If you push close to the hinges, the perpendicular
b The distance between force and pivot, at right
distance between the force from your hand and
angles to the line of action of the force. Students
the hinge is small, so the moment is small.
should include a diagram in their answer.
2 The force you apply is further from the pivot so the
2 a 500 N×0.5 m=250 Nm.
moment is bigger.
b 750 Nm.
3 Moment=20 N×0.5 m=10 Nm.
c 0.8 m×800 N=640 Nm.
4 At the ends of the handles/bars, so the distance
between force and pivot will be as big as possible, 3 a 50 N×2 m=100 Nm.
to make the moment as big as possible. b The weight of B and C, and their distances from
5 Moment from load=100 N×0.2 m=20 Nm the pivot.
20 Nm c The anti-clockwise moment from B (and part
Force on handle= =20 N
1.0 m of C) almost balances the clockwise moment
6 Ben’s moment is 600 Nm. Jill’s distance needs to be
due to the weight of the bridge and the part
600 Nm/300 N=2 m.
of arm C above it, so that only a little additional
7 a With a longer spanner, the force can be applied force on the left-hand side is enough to
further from the pivot, so the moment is bigger. unbalance it in the other direction, so the bridge
b Pick a place for one person to sit, and work out will rise.
their moment by multiplying their weight (in N) d Less force will be needed, because the moment
by their distance from the pivot (in m). Divide due to B (and the left-hand part of C) will be
this by the weight of the second person to larger.
find out how far they should sit from the pivot.
4 a Force marked along the direction of the rope.
Accept any similar explanation.
b Pivot marked at the bottom of the vertical post.
Worksheet P3.1a c Distance marked from pivot, perpendicular to the
1 The tube effectively extends the spanner, so the line of the force.
force he/she applies will be at a greater distance
from the nut, so the moment for a given force will P3.2 Centre of mass
be greater.
2 a 86 cm – it is the perpendicular distance between Student’s Book
the force and the hinge. 1 The point at which we can think of all the mass of an
b 150 N × 0.86 m=129 Nm. object being concentrated.
c They are equal and in opposite directions. 2 a Point marked in centre of square.
d Force=moment/distance=129 Nm/0.43 m= b The centre is where the lines of symmetry
300 N. cross, and there is the same mass either side of
each line of symmetry. Accept any equivalent
explanation.
P3.0 Answers
3 a Suspend the object from any point on it, and use 3 b
a plumb line to mark the line of the vertical.
Suspend the object from a different point, and
mark the vertical again. The centre of mass is
where the two lines cross. centre of mass
b A suspended object will hang with its centre

of mass below the point of suspension, so the
centre of mass must be somewhere on each of c
the vertical lines drawn.
4 A hexagon is a regular shape, so its centre of mass
can be found by drawing lines of symmetry to find
the centre of the shape.
5 a Point marked in centre of plate. centre of mass
b Point marked in centre of doughnut (i.e. in the
hole in the middle).

c d
centre of mass
centre of mass

6 The shopping has been put in with all the heavy
things to one end. The centre of mass is towards
one end of the basket. It hangs with the centre
of mass below the handle, which it is why it is
hanging at an angle. P3.3 Stability
Worksheet P3.2a Student’s Book
In all cases the centre of mass of the balancing object
1 The base of the pencil is very narrow when it is
is below the point of suspension.
standing on end, so the pencil does not have to
be tilted very far before the line of action of the
Worksheet P3.2b weight passes outside the base.
1 a Centre of the circle. 2 With a wider base, the object has to be tilted further
b Centre of the shape. before the line of action of the weight passes
c Centre of the cross bar of the H. outside the base, so it is harder to tip over.
d Centre of the square. 3 The centre of mass is to the left of the point where
the stone is supported, and the mass of the people
In all cases, the centre of mass is where lines of is not enough to move the centre of mass to the
symmetry cross. right of the support.
2 a 4 a An unstable bus could topple over when going
round a corner and injure people.
b On the bottom deck, as this will keep the centre
of mass as low as possible.
5 a A, D or F
b C or E
c Glasses A, D and F are more stable because their

centres of mass are low compared to their
b It will hang with the centre of mass below the bases. Glasses C and E have high centres of mass
suspension point. compared to their bases.
6 A full glass will be less stable than an empty glass,
because the mass of the liquid will make the
overall centre of mass higher.
P3.0 Answers
7 Answers depend on the objects students suggest. control surfaces. This kind of system can prevent
Explanations should involve wide bases and/or stalling (when the aircraft loses lift) or other
low centres of mass, as both these features mean manoeuvres that may be dangerous. For military
that the object has to be tilted a long way before aircraft, the system can also supply continuous
the line of action of the weight passes outside the corrections to maintain the flight conditions
base. without bothering the pilot, so the airframe can
be designed to be unstable (and hence more
Worksheet P3.3a manoeuvrable).
1 The force on the fin would produce a moment about Examples of fly-by-wire aircraft include many of the
the centre of mass, and turn the aircraft back to Airbus passenger aircraft, and most recent military
face in the original direction. fighters.
2 It is further from the centre of mass, and therefore
produces a bigger moment for a given force. Worksheet P3.3b
3 You can think of the aeroplane as being ‘suspended’ 1 a Sketch of Bunsen burner.
by the upwards force from the wings. When it is b If it got knocked over while lit, it could start a
flying level, the anti-clockwise moment from the fire/be dangerous.
weight is balanced by the clockwise moment from c The base is wide, which increases stability. The
the down force on the tailplane. base is also the heaviest part of the burner, so its
If the front of the aeroplane pitches up, there is centre of mass is low.
less down force on the tailplane, so the clockwise 2 If the top drawer is filled and the bottom drawers
moment is no longer enough to balance the are empty, the centre of mass of the cabinet will
anti-clockwise moment from the weight, and the be very high. The centre of gravity will move when
aircraft returns to its original position. the drawer is opened and may not stay above the
Note that: base, so the cabinet may tip over. Even if all the
• clockwise and anti-clockwise refer to the diagram drawers were filled properly, having (say) the two
top drawers open at once could move the centre of
as given on the worksheet
mass beyond the base of the cabinet.
• the situation is actually more complicated than 3 Adults can sit still on a chair, so the line of action
this, as pitching up will also change the amount
of lift from the wing, and move the centre of of their weight will normally stay within the base
pressure. of the chair or stool. Babies do not usually sit very
still, and often rock themselves or move around. If a
4 It is further from the centre of mass, and therefore high chair did not have a base wider than the seat,
produces a bigger moment for a given force (or a it might be possible for a baby to tip the chair over
bigger reduction in moment for a given reduction and hurt themselves.
in force).
4 a Tom’s centre of mass will be in his body
5 If the nose pitches down (which means the tail will somewhere. Dick’s centre of gravity will be
go up), the downwards force from the tailplane will below the level of the wire.
increase, producing a moment that will pull the tail
down again. Suitable diagram. b Dick – as he (and the weights) are effectively
suspended from the wire (because the centre
6 A stable aircraft is harder to turn or manoeuvre than of mass is below the wire) rather than being
an unstable one. This is an advantage for passenger balanced on top of it. Tom has a high centre
aircraft, where steady level flight is the norm. of mass
inflatable toy above a very narrow base, and so is
However, a fighter aircraft needs to be able to turn unstable.
quickly, so inherent stability is not an advantage.
5 The centre of mass is very low because of the water
7 ‘Fly-by-wire’ aircraft use computers to control the in the base. Tilting the toy will result in the line of
aircraft. The pilot uses a stick (as in normal aircraft) action of the weight not being above the point of
to signal to the computer the need to climb/ contact with the floor, and the resulting moment
dive/turn, etc., but the computer converts these will return the toy to the upright position.
commands into electronic signals sent to the
point of contact
P3.0 Answers
P3.4 Circular motion 3 a The man, because he has a bigger mass.
b The car doing the catching up, because it is
Student’s Book moving faster.
1 A force that makes things move in a circle. It acts c The one going round the sharp bend, because the
towards the centre of a circle. radius is smaller.
2 Yes. They are accelerating because they are changing d The ones on the faster roundabout.
direction. e You can’t say without further information. The one
3 Force in the cables/ropes. sitting near the middle has a smaller radius of
turning circle, but the one on the outside is
4 a It would be greater.
moving faster. It depends on the exact speeds
b It would be less. and distances available. The children may also
c It would be greater as the mass would be greater. have different masses.
5 The lorry, because it has the bigger mass. 4 If the track is banked, the reaction force from the
track will be pointing partly towards the centre
6 a The greater the mass, the greater the centripetal
of the turning circle, and so will contribute to the
force needed.
centripetal force. This means that cars can go round
The greater the speed, the greater the centripetal the corners faster without exceeding the amount
force needed. of friction needed from their tyres to provide the
The greater the radius, the less the centripetal force centripetal force.
needed. 5 The article should mention that the force required to
b Any three examples, such as: road vehicle, turn a car depends on the sharpness of a turn and
friction from tyres; aeroplane, force from the the speed; so if the turn is sharper, the speed needs
wings; fairground ride, force in the structure of to be reduced. It should also point out that this
the ride. force comes from friction between the tyres and
the road, which will be less if there is water on the
Worksheet P3.4b road, and so a slower speed will help to ensure that
The centripetal forces on each object are: the friction limit is not exceeded.
Card Force (N)

P3.5 Gravity and the Solar
A 220 000
B 180 000
System
C 720 000 Student’s Book
D 360 000 1 a An ellipse.
E 1920
b Because the orbit is almost circular.
F 960
2 Gravity.
G 4320
3 Between the Earth and the Sun, because the Earth
H 2160
has a bigger mass than the Moon.
I 2600
4 a Neptune.
J 520
b The further the planet from the Sun, the longer
K 4680
the year.
L 12 000
5 a 200 years or more.
M 2400
b 7 years (accept any answer between about 3
N 21 600
years and 10 years).
(The actual orbital periods are 248 years for Pluto
Worksheet P3.4c and 4.6 years for Ceres. Note that both of these
1 a It is changing direction. bodies have much more elliptical orbits than
most of the planets.)
b Friction between the tyres and the road.
6 a Mars and the Earth have different masses, and they
2 a Friction between the snow and the skis. are also different distances from the Sun.
b Force from the track. b Mars moves more slowly than Earth, and takes
c Force in the structure of the roundabout. longer to complete one orbit, because the orbit
of Mars is further from the Sun.
P3.0 Answers
Worksheet P3.5a 3 Copernicus. His idea was based on trying to make
the model match actual observations. The Church’s
1 to 3 idea was based on what was written in their
Planet Distance Length Distance (km) Time (h) Speed scriptures.
from Sun of year (km/h)
4 He saw moons around Jupiter, which demonstrated
(km) (Earth
days) that not everything revolved around the Earth (as
was then thought).
Mercury 57 900 000 88 363 796 429 2112 72 252
1
5 a He said the orbits of the planets were ellipses, not
Venus 108 200 000 225 679 840 650 5400 25 896
1
circles.
Earth 149 600 000 365 939 964 522 8760 107 302
b It made the model match actual observations.
Mars 227 900 000 687 1431 937 932 16 488 86 847
c It provided lots of data that he could use to work
Jupiter 778 300 000 4332 4 890 203 125 103 968 47 036
out and to test his model against.
Saturn 1 427 000 000 10 760 8 966 105 433 258 240 34 720
6 It continues to match observations of the
Uranus 870 000 000
2 30 685 18 032 741 832 736 440 24 486
movements of the planets. Since Newton’s work, we
Neptune 4 497 000 000 60 190 28 255 484 326 1 444 560 19 560 also have an explanation of why the planets move
in the way they do.
4 Suitable graph. Give marks for drawing suitable
scales, labelling the axes, plotting points correctly 7 a Ptolemy’s, Copernicus’ or Kepler’s models were
and joining them with a smooth curve. all based on evidence, although with varying
degrees of accuracy.
Worksheet P3.5b b The Church’s idea that the Earth was in the
1 a centre of the Universe.
Planet Distance from Speed of Time for c Copernicus’ change to Ptolemy’s model, or Kepler’s
change to Copernicus’ model.
Alzog planet one orbit
(million km) (m/s) (Earth days) Worksheet P3.6a
Alzog 1 100 36 440 200 1 We see stars as points of light; we can see fuzzy
Alzog 2 250 23 047 790 patches called nebulae; some nebulae are
Alzog 3 500 16 296 2230 collections of stars; we can see a band of light
across the sky, which we can see is made of a
Alzog 4 1000 11 523 6310
concentrated area of stars; Cepheid variables vary
Alzog 5 4000 5762 50 500 in brightness.
b The closer the planet is to the star, the faster it 2 a The band of light we can see across the sky, which
goes, and the shorter the time it takes for one can be explained if we are part of a disc. When
orbit (or vice versa). we look ‘along’ the disc, we see the band of
concentrated stars; when we look ‘out of’ the
2 Gravity. disc, there are fewer stars.
3 a W. It is the furthest from its planet. b We need a telescope to see that the band of
b X and Z. They are the closest to their planets. light is actually caused by millions of stars.
c Z. It is close to its planet, and it is bigger than 3 Other galaxies like our own; smaller clusters of stars;
X so will have more mass. gas clouds.
4 a Curtis. 30 000 light years was the size he suggested
P3.6 Changing ideas for our galaxy, and he suggested that some
nebulae were beyond our galaxy, so some would
Student’s Book be found to be more than 30 000 light years
1 We can see them apparently moving. away.
2 a The Earth was in the centre, with the planets and b Shapley. He suggested that the whole Universe
the Sun moving around it. was 300 000 light years across, and so any
objects within it must be less than 300 000 light
b The positions of the planets on future dates years away.
could be predicted.
5 a The current estimate is about 100 000 light years in
c No. Epicycles were added to try to make Ptolemy’s diameter, and 1000 light years thick.
model a better match for observations, but the
revised model was still inaccurate. b It is a spiral galaxy (similar to the photo on page
144 in the Student’s Book). The Sun is in one of
the spiral arms.
P3.0 Answers
6 Shapley was partly right because he said the Sun b If the orbit is not tilted, the satellite stays above
was not in the centre of the galaxy. Curtis was the same point on the Earth all the time.
partly right because he said that some of the 2 Echostar 10 and Insat 4A 1440 minutes is 24 hours.
nebulae were beyond our galaxy.
3 About 98 minutes, as it is at approximately the same
Worksheet P3.6b altitude as IKONOS, which takes 98 minutes.
ny sensible clues for the words given. The clues
A 4 More time; it is higher.
should be related to the content of this unit. 5 a IKONOS, Iridium 12 and SSETI Express.
b Monitoring, because it can cover all the Earth
P3.7 Satellites over a series of orbits.
Student’s Book 6 a Echostar 10 and Insat 4A.

b Broadcasting TV programmes or other
1 a It takes 24 hours to complete one orbit, so it stays
communications tasks.
over the same point on the Earth (as long as its
orbit is not tilted).
b Geostationary orbit.
c Satellite dishes, etc. will always point to the Student’s Book
satellite once set up properly (or similar answer).
1 About 4.5 billion years ago.
2 a Less time.
2 Nuclear fusion reactions.
b The one in the lower orbit.
3 It will run out of hydrogen for fusion.
3 a You can get more detail in photos without needing
4 a Radiation pressure.
zoom lenses (or similar answer).
b Gravity.
b So it can cover all places on the Earth over a
series of orbits. 5 a Gas and dust was pulled together into a disc when
the Sun was formed, and the dust gradually
4 a It can continuously monitor the same part of the
clumped together into bigger and bigger lumps
Earth.
until planets were formed.
b It could monitor weather over all parts of the
b Because it cannot be tested, so it cannot be
Earth (although the records would not be
called a theory.
continuous).
6 Fact sheets / web pages should include all the key
5 a A polar orbit, so it can overfly the poles to take
points given in the answer to question 5.
pictures.
b A geostationary orbit, so satellite dishes will Worksheet P3.8a
always be pointing at it. E–L
c Either answer is acceptable as long as it is C–J
explained. A geostationary orbit, so continuous
pictures can be taken, or a polar orbit, if the A–K
country is not near the equator or if better D – G, P, N, M
pictures can be obtained from a lower orbit. F–H
Worksheet P3.7a B – O, I
1 To get them from the orbit of the shuttle to higher Worksheet P3.8b
orbits. (Some also have thrusters to allow them
to adjust their orbit or maintain their position in 1 True.
orbit.) 2 False. The force of gravity between two bodies gets
2 Geostationary, because it has to be positioned bigger if one of the masses gets bigger.
furthest from Earth. 3 False. The force of gravity between two masses
3 The geostationary satellite, because it is further decreases as the distance between them increases.
away. 4 False. Gravity provides the centripetal force that
keeps planets orbiting around the Sun (or that
Worksheet P3.7b keeps moons orbiting around planets.
1 a An orbit where the satellite takes 24 hours to 5 True.
complete one orbit.
6 False. The Sun is at one focus of the Earth’s orbit.
P3.0 Answers
7 True. Worksheet P3.9b
8 False. The force of gravity between Jupiter and the 1 B, as the Sun is expected to end its life cycle as a
Sun is smaller than the force of gravity between white dwarf.
the Earth and the Sun.
2 a A.
9 True.
b It would be more massive.
10 False. Jupiter moves slower in its orbit than the
Earth, because it is further from the Sun. 3 a Star in both charts. (Some hydrogen is still being
converted in the red giant phases, but students
11 False. Mars has a longer year than Earth because it are not expected to know this.)
is further from the Sun than the Earth.
b Red supergiant and red giant (both charts).
12 False. A satellite in a geostationary orbit is above
the equator. c Neutron star (chart A).
13 True. d Star stage in both charts.
14 False. Stars shine because nuclear fusion reactions e Planetary nebula (chart B).
inside them release lots of energy. f Red supergiant and red giant stages in both charts.
15 True. g Protostar stage in both charts.
16 False. The planets formed when a cloud of dust h Red supergiant in chart A.
and gas clumped together. i Supernova in chart A.
4 In biology, ‘life cycle’ refers to a continuous cycle of
P3.9 Life cycles of stars birth to death that also includes reproduction. For
stars, there is no reproduction involved.
Student’s Book
1 a A collection of stars. P3.0 Investigative Skills
b Milky Way. Assessment (Student’s Book)
2 a A star that has swelled up after using up most of its
1 a Type of wall. (1 mark)
hydrogen fuel.
b Categoric. (1 mark)
b A cloud of dust and gas thrown off by a red
giant. c The distance of the weight from the wall. (1 mark)
c What is left after a red giant has thrown off a d The weight at which the shelf failed. (1 mark)
planetary nebula. e Continuous. (1 mark)
3 A red supergiant exploding. f Bar chart. (1 mark)
4 It does not have enough mass. 2 a No. (1 mark)
5 a Helium and all the elements up to oxygen in the b The results are all very similar. (1 mark)
Periodic Table.
3 It is the moment at the fixing that causes the fixing
b In larger stars or in supernova explosions. to fail (1 mark)
6 a and b Flow charts similar to Diagram D in the and the moment is greatest when the weight is
Student’s Book. furthest from the wall (1 mark)
7 Hydrogen was present at the beginning of the and so they are testing the worst case. (1 mark)
Universe. Elements up to oxygen could have been
4 Ask another team to test the same shelves. (1 mark)
formed in Sun-sized stars or bigger ones. Elements
up to iron could have been formed in bigger stars, 5 a Kilograms are a unit of mass, not of weight
and elements heavier than iron would have been (or equivalent answer). (1 mark)
formed in supernova explosions. b A kilogram has a weight of 10 N on Earth, so the
management are effectively giving the same
Worksheet P3.9a information, and most people are not used to
1 Eyewitness accounts should include the basic facts using newtons as a unit of weight. (2 marks)
about the life cycle of the Sun.
Quality of written communication. (1 mark)
2 Students should explain the differences in the life
cycle of a star the size of the Sun and a bigger
star, including the formation of a red supergiant,
a supernova explosion, and the formation of a
neutron star or black hole.
P3.0 Answers
P3.0 Investigative Skills Section 2
Assessment (Copymaster File) 11 a Type of wall. (1 mark)

b Categoric (1 mark)
Section 1
c The distance of the weight from the wall. (1 mark)
1 Clear statement of question to be investigated.
(2 marks) d The weight at which the shelf failed. (1 mark)
2 a Correct dependent variable, e.g. mass, radius e Continuous. (1 mark)

of circle. (1 mark) f Bar chart. (1 mark)
b Correct dependent variable, e.g. force. (1 mark) 12 a No. (1 mark)
3 Correct classification of independent variable. b The results are all very similar. (1 mark)
(1 mark) 13 It is the moment at the fixing that causes the fixing
4 Explanation of how range was chosen, e.g. did a trial to fail (1 mark)
run to see what lengths of string were practical. and the moment is greatest when the weight is
(1 mark) furthest from the wall (1 mark)
5 a Forcemeter or stopclock/stopwatch named. and so they are testing the worst case. (1 mark)
(1 mark)
14 Ask another team to test the same shelves. (1 mark)
b Correct variable named (e.g. force or time).
(1 mark) 15 a Kilograms are a unit of mass, not of weight (or
equivalent answer). (1 mark)
6 Either: any anomalous results circled,
b A kilogram has a weight of 10 N on Earth, so the
or: correct statement that no results looked management are effectively giving the same
anomalous. (1 mark) information, and most people are not used to
7 Conclusion consistent with student’s own results. using newtons as a unit of weight. (2 marks)
(2 marks) Quality of written communication (1 mark)
8 Either: yes, with a valid reason, such as having
repeated results, or having compared results with
other groups,
or: no, with explanation that repeating results or
comparing results would improve reliability.
(1 mark)
9 Suitable table of results with all relevant data
included, (1 mark)
columns and rows correctly labelled, (1 mark)
units present and correct. (1 mark)
10 Correct choice of bar chart or graph, (1 mark)
suitable scales chosen and labelled, (1 mark)
correct plotting. (1 mark)
P3.00
Investigating space
Overview
This unit covers aspects of optics, including plane and curved mirrors, refraction, and
converging and diverging lenses. Students learn how to construct ray diagrams to show the
formation of images. The unit goes on to look at how sounds can be described, and at how
ultrasound is used in medicine and industry. The final section of the unit looks at the motor
effect and electromagnetic induction, including transformers.

The ISA for Unit P3.00 is investigating the effect of tension in a string on the wavelength of
the sounds produced by the string. In the Student’s Book, data is presented to the students
and then they are asked a number of questions about the investigation. The Copymaster
File provides questions for students to answer based on their own investigation into factors
affecting the size of an induced potential difference (suggested in Topic P3.18).
B3.00 Context page

Students should know and understand: The context for this unit is using light to explore space.
This is extended to look at how sound waves are used
• how light is reflected and refracted by plane and to investigate things that cannot be seen, and linked
curved mirrors and by lenses
to motors and generators that are needed to provide
• how to construct ray diagrams to show image electricity to control scientific equipment.
formation by mirrors and lenses
• how to calculate the magnification of an image Learning activities

• that sounds can be described in terms of frequency, • AT The context for this unit is introduced via a
amplitude and waveform, and how to interpret video on the ActiveTeach.
oscilloscope traces
• The AfL questions are intended to find out how
• how ultrasound can be used in medical imaging, much students recall of work on light, sound and
cleaning and manufacturing quality control electromagnetism from Key Stage 3 work. Note that
the last question is not intended to elicit details of
• H how to determine the distances between how series and parallel circuits work, although there
interfaces in various media from oscilloscope traces
is no harm in students doing this as well if you have
• how the motor effect is used in electrical devices sufficient time.
• the factors affecting electromagnetic induction
• H how induction is used to generate electricity
• how transformers work and why they are used.
P3.10 Plane mirrors
P3.10a Ray diagrams Classwork (write-on) 4 4
P3.10b Images and plane mirrors Homework (write-on) 4 4
Objectives Key Stage 3, but it is worth repeating, emphasising

the need for accuracy when marking the rays and
Students should be able to: measuring angles.
• recall that the normal is a construction line • HSW Even the most careful students will have
perpendicular to the reflecting/refracting surface at inaccuracies in their measurements of angles. You
the point of incidence could use the opportunity to discuss the source
of the errors, and whether they are random or
• recall that the angle of incidence is equal to the systematic errors. You could also ask students
angle of reflection
to explain why they were asked to make several
• explain that the nature of an image is defined by its measurements at different angles.
size relative to the object, whether it is upright or
inverted relative to the object and whether it is real • Practicals 2 and 3 allow students to discover some of
or virtual the properties of images in plane mirrors.
• describe the nature of the image produced by a • Help students to remember what a virtual image is
plane mirror by relating it to ‘virtual reality’, which is a reality that
is not physically there.
• construct ray diagrams to show the formation of • Worksheet P3.10a gives students practice in
images by plane mirrors.
drawing accurate ray diagrams. Students will need a
protractor to help them to draw the angles correctly.
Key words
angle of incidence, angle of reflection, image, normal,
Plenary
object, plane, ray diagram, real image, upright, virtual • Give students a list of some of the key words in
image this topic, and tell them that these are the answers
to questions. Ask them to suggest one or more
questions that would lead to the ‘answers’ given.
Points to note
• The law of reflection and some of the properties of Practicals and demonstrations
images in mirrors were covered in Key Stage 3. 1 Angles of incidence and reflection Remind
students (if necessary) how to set up a ray box and
mirror to investigate the relationship between the
Lesson ideas angles of incidence and reflection. Explain that such
angles are always measured from the normal, and
Starter emphasise the need for accuracy in plotting the rays
• Ask students to draw a diagram showing how they and measuring the angles. Students should draw a
can read a book in a room lit only by a reading lamp. line along the back of the mirror, so they can replace
Students should show light radiating in straight it in the same place if it gets moved (if the silvering
lines from the lamp, reflecting from the book and is on the rear surface, this line will represent the
entering the eyes. This should allow you to detect plane at which the light rays are reflected). Use of a
any misconceptions about the propagation of collimating lens in the ray box will allow a narrower
light and how we see. Follow this up by reminding beam and help students to mark the rays accurately.
students that we see all non-luminous objects by Students should measure rays at several different
reflected light, but mirrors and other shiny surfaces angles.
reflect light evenly and allow us to see images. 15 minutes
Learning activities Ensure sensible behaviour if the room is darkened

• Practical 1 asks students to plot incident and and keep floor area clear.
reflected rays for a plane mirror. Students are likely Apparatus (per group)
to have carried out a practical activity such as this in
Ray box, slit, lens and power supply; mounted plane
mirror; A4 plain paper; pencil, ruler and protractor.
2 Nature of image Give each student a plane mirror, 10 minutes
and ask them to use it to answer questions such as
‘where does the image appear to be?’ and ‘if you
close your right eye, which eye closes on the image?’. Plane mirror and mounting; 2 Bunsen burners, or 2
10 minutes pencils and Plasticine or Blu-Tack; ruler.
4 The candle trick Mount a sheet of glass vertically
Apparatus (per student)
on the bench. Take two candles and place them at
Plane mirror. equal distances on either side of the glass. Light
one candle and show students that, when viewed
3 Distance of image Set up a plane mirror mounted
through the glass, the other candle also appears
vertically on the bench. Use a Bunsen burner, or a
to be lit. This activity further demonstrates that an
pencil mounted vertically in Plasticine or Blu-tack,
image is the same distance from the mirror as the
as the object, and set up a similar item behind the
object. Students could follow this up by drawing ray
mirror. Get students to move the item behind the
diagrams to explain what they have seen.
mirror until it appears to be an extension of the
image in the mirror. Check that the image and the 10 minutes
item behind the mirror still appear to be in the same
Make sure no one’s hair gets too close to the candle.
place when the student moves their head. Explain
Ensure sensible behaviour if the room is darkened
that the item behind the mirror is therefore in the
and keep floor area clear.
same position as the image in the mirror. Measure
the distance from the mirror to the object in front Apparatus
of the mirror, and also from the mirror to the item
Sheet of glass; G-clamps or other means of mounting
behind the mirror.
the glass vertically; 2 candles.
pencil mounted in
Plasticine behind
mirror
P3.11 Curved mirrors

P3.11a Mirrors and rays Practical (reusable) 4 4
P3.11b Using curved mirrors Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives Key words

Students should be able to: concave, converge, convex, diminished, diverge, focal
length, focus, inverted
• describe the nature of the image produced by a
convex mirror
• describe the nature of the image produced by a Points to note

concave mirror for an object placed at different
distances from the mirror
• The curved mirrors discussed in this topic are
spherical or cylindrical mirrors. You may wish to
discuss the difference between spherical/cylindrical
• calculate the magnification produced by a lens or and parabolic mirrors with more able students.
mirror using the formula: magnification=image
height/object height • The practical activities and the classwork sheet
introduce the principles of ray tracing for curved
• construct ray diagrams to show the formation of mirrors, and are best used before students use the
images by convex and concave mirrors.
Student’s Book.
Lesson ideas • You could link the work in this topic to the context
for this unit by asking students to find out about
Starter the mirrors used in reflecting telescopes. Note
• Use Practical 1 as a starter. that astronomical telescopes have wide apertures
to collect more light – a function as important as
Learning activities magnification.
• Practical 2 asks students to use ray boxes and mirrors Plenary
to trace rays, and introduces the three primary rays
used in constructing ray diagrams for curved mirrors. • Ask students to work in small groups and to make
a table with ‘plane’, ‘concave’ and ‘convex’ as the
• Follow this up by asking students to draw ray headings, and to put uses of the different types of
diagrams on graph paper to help them to answer mirror in the columns. Uses could include make-
the following questions. The sizes and distances up/shaving (plane), focusing light in spotlights
have been chosen so that the scale drawing will fit (concave), and mirrors at blind bends in roads
on a piece of A4 graph paper. Some groups may find (convex). Share ideas, and ask some students to
this work easier if they can also use ray boxes and explain why they have chosen a particular type of
mirrors to check their work. mirror for a particular use.
a A 1 cm object is placed at 18 cm from a concave
mirror with a focal length of 10 cm. Additional homework/research ideas
i How big is the image formed? (1.2 cm) • Ask students to find out what a parabolic mirror is.
Ask them to explain how they are different from
ii Where is the image formed? (22.5 cm from the a concave mirror, and to suggest some uses for
mirror) parabolic mirrors.
iii What is the magnification of the image? (1.2)
b A 2 cm object is placed 5 cm from a convex mirror 1 Images in curved mirrors Give students a spherical
with a focal length of 10 cm. (Students will need concave and a spherical convex mirror (or a plastic
to mark the axis and focal point behind the mirror curved mirror that is reflective on both sides), and
to help them to draw their rays.) check that they know what concave and convex
i How big is the image formed? (1.3 cm) mean. Ask them to describe the images in terms of
which way up they are, whether they are magnified
ii Where is the image formed? (approx 3.2 cm or not, and at what distance from the mirror they
behind the mirror) appear to be.
iii What is the magnification of the image? 10 minutes
(1.3/2=0.65)
Apparatus (per student)
• Note that it is not necessary to draw the shape of a Concave mirror; convex mirror.
concave mirror accurately for the ray diagrams, as
the positions of the rays are worked out by reference 2 Ray tracing with mirrors Instructions are provided
to the F and 2F points. Students will find the ray on Worksheet P3.11a, asking students to find the
diagrams easier to draw on graph paper, and can focal point of a cylindrical convex and a cylindrical
answer most of the questions by drawing only the concave mirror, and to use ray tracing to work out
ray passing through F and the ray parallel to the axis. the position and magnification of an image in a
• You may also wish to point out that a ray along the concave mirror.
axis of the mirror will be reflected back along the 30 minutes
axis, which is why all ray diagrams are generally
drawn with one end of the object on the axis so Ensure sensible behaviour if the room is darkened
that only rays from the top of the object need to be and keep floor area clear.
drawn. Apparatus (per group)
• AT The ActiveTeach provides software that draws Ray box, collimating lens and slits; concave mirror;
ray diagrams to show students how the different convex mirror; plain paper; ruler and pencil.
images are formed in curved mirrors. However,
students should still produce some diagrams of their
own using pencil, paper and ruler, to ensure that
they can do this if they need to in an examination.
P3.12 Refraction
P3.12a Refraction effects Classwork (write-on) 4 4
P3.12b Refraction questions Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives Plenary
Students should be able to: • Give students the statement ‘light should not
change direction as it goes from one material to
• describe how light is refracted when it passes from another’ and ask them to think of a positive point,
one material to another a minus point and an interesting point related to
• describe how light is refracted by a prism. the statement. Possible answers are: P – we would
be able to see clearly underwater, M – spectacles/
telescopes/microscopes would not be possible,
Key words I – how much of today’s scientific knowledge would
disperse, interface, refraction, spectrum we have if lenses had never been developed?

Points to note 1 Refraction effects Stand a pencil in a beaker of
• Students will have studied refraction in Key Stage 3, water, and ask students to suggest why the pencil
appears to be bent.
although not in terms of waves. Students will not be
expected to recall the explanation for refraction in Put a coin in a mug touching the side of the mug,
terms of waves in an examination. and ask a student to move their head so they can
only just not see the coin – see the diagram on
Lesson ideas Worksheet P3.12a. Ask the student to keep their
head still while you add water to the mug, and ask
Starter them what has changed. They should now be able
to see the coin. Ask students to suggest why this has
• Have a pencil standing in a beaker of water for happened.
students to look at (or have several around the
room), or show them the coin trick – see Practical 1. 10 minutes
Ask students to explain why the pencil appears to
Clear up spills.
bend as it comes out of the water, in as much detail
as they can, or to explain why adding water to the Apparatus (per group)
mug allows them to see the coin. This exercise will
Beaker; pencil; mug (or other opaque container); coin.
help you to find out how much they recall of Key
Stage 3 work on refraction. 2 Refraction ray tracing Ask students to trace the
path of a ray through a glass block. Show them how
Learning activities to do this if necessary, but if they have completed
• Help students to understand how changing speed practical work in the preceding topics they should
be able to work out how to do this for themselves.
at a wavefront can cause a change of direction by
discussing what would happen if a car ran into a Ask students to draw around the block first, and to
muddy field at an angle. The wheel that went into mark the rays going into and out of the block. They
the mud first would slow down, and the car would can then remove the block and mark where the ray
turn towards that side. travelled through it. Students should be able to work
out whether the ray bends towards or away from the
• AT ActiveTeach provides an animation illustrating normal at each interface. Note that the mathematical
refraction. relationship between the angles of incidence and
• Practical 2 asks students to trace rays to find out refraction involves sines, and is beyond the scope of
this specification (although sines are in the maths
what happens as light passes through a glass or
Perspex block. GCSE (Higher)).
15 minutes
• Worksheet P3.12a asks students to construct ray
diagrams to explain various phenomena connected Ensure sensible behaviour if the room is darkened.
with refraction. Although this work is not explicitly
required by the specification, it will help to develop Apparatus
students’ skills in drawing ray diagrams to explain Ray box, collimating lens, slit and power supply;
phenomena. glass or Perspex block; plain paper.
P3.13 Lenses
P3.13a Telescopes Practical (reusable) 4 4
P3.13b Using lenses Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives • As with mirror ray diagrams, the Student’s Book

Students should be able to: describes three rays that can be used to locate the
image formed by a lens. In practice, only two are
• describe the nature of the image produced by a needed, but drawing three rays can act as a check
diverging lens on the accuracy of the drawing; if they all cross at a
single point, the drawing is likely to be accurate.
• describe the nature of the image produced by a
converging lens for an object placed at different
distances from the lens
• Ask students if the magnification can be worked
out by comparing the distances of the object and
image, and ask them to justify their answer. They
• construct ray diagrams to show the formation of can do this by drawing some ray diagrams to scale
images by diverging lenses and converging lenses
and comparing the magnification worked out
• explain the use of a converging lens as a magnifying using image sizes with that calculated using image
glass distances, or they could use arguments involving
similar triangles and the ray of light that goes
• calculate the magnification produced by a lens using through the centre of the lens to demonstrate that
the formula magnification=image height/object
height. both methods will yield the same answer.
• AT The ActiveTeach provides an animation to show

what happens as light passes through lenses from
Key words objects at different distances.
converging, diverging, lens
• H With some students, you may wish to discuss the
problem of chromatic aberration, although they will
Points to note not be required to recall this. Remind students that
prisms can be used to split white light into different
• Students are not required to recall details about the colours, and ask them to suggest what effect this
use of lenses in telescopes.
might have on the image seen through a lens. Link
• Long refracting telescopes were built in an attempt this work to reflecting telescopes (which students
to reduce chromatic aberration (the fringes of may have researched in Topic P3.11) – using a
coloured light formed because the different curved mirror to gather light instead of a lens avoids
wavelengths in visible light are refracted by different the problem of coloured fringes around images.
amounts). Chromatic aberration was less if thinner
lenses were used, but this necessitated a longer Plenary
telescope. These telescopes were very unwieldy and
difficult to use, and became redundant with the
• Revise some of the terms connected with refraction
and lenses by writing up the initial letters of key
invention and development of reflecting telescopes. words on the board. Ask students to suggest what
the words are, and to write definitions for them.
Lesson ideas Suitable words include: angle of incidence, angle of
refraction, converge, diverge, focal length, focus, lens,
Starter normal, refract.
• Use Practical 1 as a starter. Additional homework/research ideas

Learning activities • Ask students to find out what astigmatism is, what
causes it and what the symptoms are. This is best
• Revise the work on prisms from the last topic by done after students have completed the homework
asking students to think of a lens as two prisms with sheet (Worksheet P3.13b), which looks at correcting
bases together (for a converging lens) or with points long and short sight.
together (for a diverging lens). Draw these models
on the board and ask students to suggest how rays Practicals and demonstrations
of light will be affected when they pass through the
lens. 1 Images in lenses Give students a spherical
converging and a spherical diverging lens, and ask
them to describe the images formed by the lenses Students can then be asked to draw ray diagrams for
(in terms of magnified/diminished, upright/inverted the situations described in Table D in the Student’s
and real/virtual). For the last option, they should Book, using their ray boxes and lenses to show that
see if they can form an image on a piece of card. If the ray diagrams do show what really happens.
necessary, prompt students to move the object they 30 minutes
are looking at to different distances from the lens
to see how this affects the image formed. Students Ensure sensible behaviour if the room is darkened
could jot down their findings for later comparison and keep floor area clear.
with the information in the Student’s Book or with
the findings from the practical activities below.
10 minutes Ray box, collimating lens and slits; power supply;
concave mirror; convex mirror; plain paper; ruler and
Apparatus (per student) pencil.
Converging spherical lens; diverging spherical lens; 3 Telescopes Students use two lenses to make a
card. telescope, and draw ray diagrams to help them to
understand how it works. Instructions are provided
In addition, several lamps may be needed around
on Worksheet P3.13a. You can save some time
the room to act as objects.
by telling students what the focal lengths of the
2 Ray tracing for lenses Use cylindrical lenses and ray two lenses are (so they can omit step A on the
boxes to produce ray diagrams for converging and worksheet).
diverging lenses. 30 minutes
Start by asking them to find the focal lengths of the
lenses they are using by shining parallel rays of light
towards the lens and seeing where they converge, 2 spherical lenses, one with a longer focal length
then ask them to find out what happens to: than the other; metre rule; Blu-Tack or Plasticine;
graph paper.
a a ray aimed at the centre of the lens
b a ray parallel to the axis of the lens
c a ray aimed at the lens through the focal point.
P3.14 Cameras
P3.14a Pinhole cameras Practical (reusable) 4 4
P3.14b Light reverseword Homework (reusable) 4 4

Students should be able to: • Practical 1 allows students to work out for
themselves why lenses are needed in cameras, and is
• explain the use of a converging lens in a camera best used before students study the material in the
to produce an image of an object on a detecting textbook. Students may have used pinhole cameras
device (e.g. film). when studying light in Key Stage 3, but the practical
is still worth repeating as it can be extended to
incorporate ideas about the focal length of lenses.
Key words
no new words • Students may be more used to digital cameras than
cameras using film, so it may be useful to show them
a film, plus developed negatives.
Lesson ideas • Photo D in the Student’s Book shows an image
of colliding galaxies taken by the Hubble Space
Starter Telescope. Images such as this need a long exposure
• Ask students to work in small groups to list as many time to gather enough light to form an image
different uses and types of camera as they can. Share – several hours in this case. Revise earlier parts of
the ideas, and then ask students to suggest what Unit P3.0 by asking students to suggest possible
all cameras have in common. The main common problems with this approach – the main one being
features are a light-proof box with a lens set into that the direction in which the telescope is pointing
an opening, and a means of recording light (film or has to be continually changed to allow for the
electronic sensors).
movement of the Earth (or the movement of the Practicals and demonstrations
satellite, if taken by the Hubble Space Telescope). A
1 Pinhole cameras Worksheet P3.14a asks students a
further point is that cameras can be used with filters
set of questions that they can answer with the aid of
to take pictures at different wavelengths to show up
a pinhole camera. This is best done before using the
features that would not be visible to the human eye
Student’s Book. Some darkening of the room will be
(even if the eye could take in enough light).
necessary, and you will need a bright source against
• ICT Interested students could look for images on a dark ground.
the Hubble Heritage website, which gives exposure 20 minutes
times and other details about how the photographs
were taken. For more information see www.longman. Ensure sensible behaviour if the room is darkened
co.uk/AQAScience. and keep floor area clear. Do not put the camera too
close to the filament bulb.
Plenary Apparatus (per group)
• Ask students to write an exam question worth Pinhole camera; pin; access to filament lamp or other
4 marks on any part of the work they have done on
light, mirrors and lenses. They should also write a bulb to be used as an object; selection of converging
mark scheme. When this is done, ask some students and diverging lenses (one converging lens should
to read out their questions and challenge the rest of have a focal length similar to the length of the
the class to answer them. pinhole camera, so it can be used to focus the image
from a large hole).
P3.15 Sound waves

P3.15a Oscilloscope traces Classwork (card sort) 4 4
P3.15b Sound questions Homework (reusable) 4 4

Starter
• recall that sound is caused by mechanical vibrations,
• Ask students to write three questions for a quiz
travels as a wave, and cannot travel through a on sound, and to also jot down the answers. Give
vacuum them a few minutes for this and then collect
• recall that sound waves can be reflected and questions from the class, challenging others to
answer them. This should allow you to assess
refracted
how much Key Stage 3 work on sound the class
• explain the link between frequency and pitch, and remembers.
between amplitude and loudness
• compare the amplitudes and frequencies of sounds Learning activities

from diagrams of oscilloscope traces • Practical 1 demonstrates that sound does not travel
through a vacuum.
• explain that the quality of a note depends upon the
waveform. • Practical 2 introduces students to the use of an
oscilloscope to visualise sound waves, and reinforces
the material on pitch, loudness and quality of
Key words sounds.
amplitude, frequency, hertz (Hz), medium, pitch,
qualaity, vibrate, waveform • Worksheet P3.15a gives students practice with
interpreting oscilloscope traces. There are some
questions on the sheet, but you could extend
Points to note the activity by asking further questions similar to
questions 5 and 6.
• Much of this topic is revision of material originally
studied in Key Stage 3. • AT The ActiveTeach provides an animation
that illustrates aspects of sound waves and their
• Refraction of sound is difficult to demonstrate. Note description.
that when we hear sound but are not in the line
of sight to the source of the sound, this is usually
because of diffraction, not refraction.
Plenary 2 Oscilloscope demonstrations Set up an
oscilloscope and microphone. Use a signal generator
• Play true/false by asking students to make and loudspeaker to show students the shape of the
statements about sound. As you go round the
oscilloscope trace produced by a single frequency.
class, say ‘true’ or ‘false’ to each student – they then
Vary the pitch and loudness of the sound and
have to make a statement that is true or false, as
relate this to the changes in the waveform on the
appropriate. For false statements, ask the rest of the
oscilloscope screen.
class to suggest a true version. If you have mixed
abilities, it is best to limit the ‘false’ requests to more Follow this by demonstrating how the waveform
able students, to avoid possible confusion. changes with other sources of sound. If any musical
instruments are available, you could play the
Additional homework/research ideas same notes on several different instruments to
• Ask students to find out the range of frequencies demonstrate the different waveforms. Note that it
is very difficult to hold a steady trace because of
that humans can hear, and how this changes with
age (this looks forward to the next topic). varying phase(s).
Students will also be interested to see the waveform
Practicals and demonstrations produced when they speak, whistle or sing. Reinforce
1 Sound and vacuum Demonstrate that sound does ideas about the relationship between pitch and
not travel through a vacuum by using a vacuum frequency, and between loudness and amplitude by
pump to remove the air from a bell jar with a showing them a wave on the screen and challenging
working electric bell suspended inside it. them to whistle or sing a note with a higher/lower
5 minutes frequency or higher/lower amplitude.
20 minutes
Apparatus
Apparatus
Bell jar and stand; vacuum pump; electric bell; elastic
suspension for bell; power supply/cells; connecting Oscilloscope; microphone; signal generator;
wires. loudspeaker.
P3.16 Ultrasound
P3.16a Calculating distances Classwork (reusable) 4
P3.16b Ultrasound questions Homework (reusable) 4 4

Students should be able to: ultrasound
• recall that sounds in the range 20–20 000 Hz can be

detected by the human ear Lesson ideas
• recall that electronic systems can be used to Starter
produce ultrasound waves, which have a frequency
higher than the upper limit of hearing for humans. • Use Practical 1 as a starter. Start by asking students
to define amplitude and frequency, and ask them to
• compare the amplitudes and frequencies of explain which one determines the pitch of a note.
ultrasounds from diagrams of oscilloscope traces
• explain that ultrasound waves are partially reflected Learning activities

when they meet a boundary between two different
media; the time taken for the reflections to reach
• Ask students what they know about ultrasound.
Most will have heard of ultrasound scans for
a detector is a measure of how far away such a pregnant women, and even seen scans from family
boundary is members. Ask students to suggest how it works;
prompt them with ‘echoes’ if necessary. Note that
• recall that ultrasound waves can be used in industry there is a photograph of a fetal scan on page160 of
for cleaning and quality control, and in medicine for
pre-natal scanning
• H determine the distance between interfaces in • You could ask students to find out about other
medical applications of ultrasound (such as breaking
various media from diagrams of oscilloscope traces.
up kidney stones).
only hear sounds in a particular range (typically
• AT The ActiveTeach illustrates the use of ultrasound 20 to 20 000 Hz). Start at a frequency higher than
in fetal scanning and also explains how oscilloscope
20 000 Hz and gradually reduce the frequency. Ask
traces can be used to work out the distance between
students to put their hands up when they can hear a
interfaces.
sound. You may wish to explain that the highest note
• H Worksheet P3.16a provides further practice for that can be heard gets lower with age; demonstrate
students in interpreting oscilloscope traces. this by also holding up your own hand when you can
first hear a noise.
Plenary Demonstrate that sound is still being made below
• Ask students to compile a list of five key points on 20 Hz by letting students see or feel that the
sound and ultrasound, summarising the content of loudspeaker cone is still vibrating. You can also
this topic and the last. Share ideas and compile a demonstrate that sound is still being made above
class summary. the range of hearing using a microphone linked to an
oscilloscope, but check first that the microphone is
Additional homework/research ideas sufficiently sensitive in the very high frequency range
• Find out the hearing ranges of other animals, and to produce a reasonable signal on the oscilloscope.
explain what ‘dog whistles’ are and why they work. 10 minutes
Practicals and demonstrations Make sure the volume is not too high.
1 Demonstrating hearing range Use a signal Apparatus
generator and loudspeaker to make sounds of
varying frequencies. Explain that sounds can be Signal generator; loudspeaker; microphone;
made at different frequencies, but that humans can oscilloscope; dog whistle.
P3.17 Electric motors

P3.17a Make a motor Practical (reusable) 4 4
P3.17b Electric motors Homework (reusable) 4 4

Students should be able to: • Students will not be expected to recall Fleming’s Left
Hand Rule, or the detail about commutators given in
• recall that when a conductor carrying an electric the Student’s Book.
current is placed in a magnetic field, it may
experience a force
• recall that the size of the force can be increased Lesson ideas
by increasing the strength of the magnetic field or
increasing the size of the current Starter
• explain that the conductor will not experience a • Ask students to make a concept map showing what
they can recall about electricity and magnetism.
force if it is parallel to the magnetic field Keep the concept maps for use in the plenary.
• recall that the direction of the force is reversed if Learning activities
either the direction of the current or the direction of
the magnetic field is reversed • Ask students to make a list of electrical appliances
that include motors, and to say what the motor is
• explain how the motor effect is used in simple used for. For example, a CD or DVD player needs a
devices.
motor to spin the disc.
Key words • You could follow this up by asking students what

they think the essential parts of a motor are.
magnetic field, motor effect Students could jot down their answers and revisit
them later in the lesson to amend or correct as
H commutator
necessary.
• Practical 1 demonstrates the motor effect. You may Practicals and demonstrations
wish to show students how to use Fleming’s Left 1 The motor effect Set up a horseshoe magnet and a
Hand Rule to work out the direction of movement of simple circuit as shown in diagram A in the Student’s
the wire, but note that students will not be expected Book; demonstrate what happens when the switch
to recall this. (The first finger points along the is pressed. Ask students to suggest what will happen
direction of the magnetic field, from the north to the if the magnet is turned so the magnetic field goes in
south pole; the second finger points in the direction the opposite direction, and what will happen if the
of conventional current, from + to –, and the thumb connections to the cell or power supply are reversed,
points in the direction of movement.) then demonstrate to check their answers.
• Students can build their own simple motors using a 10 minutes

kit. See the notes for Practical 2.
Apparatus
• AT An animation on the ActiveTeach explains how Horseshoe magnet; wire; switch; cells or d.c. power
a motor works.
supply.
• H ICT In practice, most electric motors are more
2 Make a motor Worksheet P3.17a provides
complicated than the diagram shown in the book.
instructions for students to assemble the
Overviews of the different types of motor and
components of a standard motor kit (sold by most
discussion of how real motors work can be found
equipment manufacturers). Common sources of
on the internet. For more information see www.
difficulty are having the magnets misaligned (they
longman.co.uk/AQAScience. More able students may
should be attracting each other) and the wires used
be interested to see the different types of motor,
as brushes not making good contact with the bared
although they will not be required to recall any of
ends of the wire from the coil.
the details.
20 minutes
Plenary Low voltages should be used with insulated wires, as
• Ask students to amend or redraw their concept many types readily overheat and may melt the
maps to concentrate on the parts of it specifically insulation. Ensure good ventilation as the plastic
relevant to electromagnetism and motors. insulation gives off fumes when overheated. Warn
students not to put their faces too close to the
Additional homework/research ideas motors as the model commutators may produce
• Ask students to make a list of appliances in their sparks.
homes that have motors in them, and to identify
what the motors are used for.
Motor kit (base, 2 split pins, axle, mounting for coil,
insulated wire, small rubber bands, 2 flat magnets,
steel yoke, pins); wire strippers; sticky tape; power
pack; Worksheet P3.17a.
P3.18 Making electricity

P3.18a Bigger voltages Practical (reusable) 4 4
P3.18b Electricity from movement Homework (reusable) 4 4
Objectives • explain that a current is induced in the wire if it is

Students should be able to: part of a complete circuit
• recall that if an electrical conductor cuts through • explain that if the direction of motion, or the
magnetic field lines, an electrical potential difference polarity of the magnet, is reversed, the direction of
is induced across the ends of the conductor the induced potential difference and the induced
current is reversed
• recall that if a magnet is moved into a coil of wire, an
electrical potential difference is induced across the
ends of the coil, and that this effect also occurs if the
magnetic field is stationary and the coil is moved
• recall that the size of the induced potential • H If you have discussed Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
difference increases when: for the motor effect with students, you could now
introduce the Right Hand Rule for induction. Note
a the speed of the movement increases
that students will not be required to recall this rule.
b the strength of the magnetic field increases
c the number of turns on the coil increases
Plenary
d the area of the coil is greater.
• Ask students to add to the concept maps they made
at the end of the last topic.
Key words Practicals and demonstrations

1 Making electricity Demonstrate (or allow students
electromagnetic induction, induce to test) a number of different ways of moving a
magnet relative to a coil of wire, and ask students
Points to note to note the direction of the induced potential
difference. A demonstration may be better if you
• It is the relative motion between magnetic field do not have enough moving-coil meters that will
and conductor that results in an induced voltage register a voltage with the coils and magnets
– it does not matter whether it is the magnetic field available.
or the conductor that is moving. In components
such as transformers (in Topic P3.20), the changing Situations that could be demonstrated are:
strength of the magnetic field induces a current
• the north pole of a magnet entering a coil
without any physical movement.
• the magnet stationary inside the coil
• The main energy transformations involved • the north pole leaving the coil
in generating electricity were looked at in • the magnet stationary outside the coil
Key Stage 3, and again in Module P1a of this • the south pole of a magnet entering a coil
course. This topic looks at how generators work. • the south pole leaving a coil
• a coil moving towards the north pole of a magnet
Lesson ideas • a coil stationary on the magnet
• a coil moving away from the north pole of a
magnet
Starter • a coil moving towards the south pole of a magnet
• Ask students to jot down all the different ways in • a coil moving away from the south pole of a
which they used electricity during the previous day. magnet.
Ask them to split their list into things that rely on 10–15 minutes
batteries, and things that use mains electricity. They
should include things that they use only indirectly Apparatus (per group)
(central heating pumps, washing machines,
Coil of wire wound on a cardboard or plastic tube
etc.). Then ask them what they know about how
– 100 turns of closely wound 0.1 mm insulated
electricity is generated.
wire; strong bar magnet; moving-coil meter or
galvanometer; connecting wires.
Learning activities
• Use Practical 1 to allow students to discover some 2 Rotation and induced voltage Demonstrate that
rotation also induces an alternating voltage by
basic points about inducing voltages.
placing a strong magnet on a turntable. Suspend a
• AT The ActiveTeach includes an animation that coil above the magnet, connected to a centre-zero
illustrates the effects of reversing the polarity on the galvanometer. Spin the magnet and observe the
induced voltage; it also demonstrates that it does pointer on the galvanometer changing direction
not matter whether the magnet or the coil is moved. continuously as the magnet rotates. If possible, the
This could be used in place of Practical 1. coil could be connected to an oscilloscope to show
• Practical 2 demonstrates that rotational movement students the way the voltage varies with time in a
more visual manner.
between a coil and a magnetic field can also induce
a voltage. This demonstration helps to set the scene
for the work on generators in the next topic. G
• Practical 3 offers an opportunity for students to vary G

different factors and discover their effects on the
induced voltage. This practical could be used as the
basis for a coursework investigation for training or
assessment.
N S
S N
10 minutes a can be taken to be 10 m/s2 and s is the distance
fallen) and asked to work out the actual speeds of
Apparatus
the magnet when it enters the coil.
Coil of wire wound on a cardboard or plastic tube
Note that the ‘number
– 100 turns of closely wound 0.1 mm insulated
of turns’ on the coil is
wire; strong horseshoe magnet or ceramic bar cotton thread
turns per unit length
magnets (bar magnets are likely to be cheaper);
– not just a coil with
demonstration centre-zero galvanometer or ‘Edspot’ cardboard tube
more turns because it
galvanometer; connecting wires. magnet is longer, so care must
Optional: CRO. be taken in providing
suitably wound coils.
3 Bigger potential differences Worksheet P3.18a coil
The old style school
leads students through a series of simple practical
magnets made with
activities to discover the factors that can increase
steel are usually very
the size of the induced voltage. Alternatively, ask
weak and are often
students to plan their own investigations into the foam
unsatisfactory. Small
factors that affect the induced voltage, based on the
ceramic magnets and
prompt in the Student’s Book. In this case you may
the very strong neodymium–iron–boron discs stuck
wish students to make their own coils with different
to a wooden dowel provide a suitable way of varying
numbers of turns.
the field strength. The core to the coil should be soft
When investigating the effect of speed of movement, iron rather than steel, but either will have an effect.
students could just move the magnet faster by hand.
However, a more quantitative approach is to drop 20–40 minutes
a magnet through the coil from different heights
– the longer the drop, the faster the magnet will be
moving when it enters the coil. This can be done by 2 coils with different numbers of coils per unit
fitting a long cardboard tube inside the coil of wire length labelled with the number of turns (or a reel
to act as a guide, and standing the apparatus on of suitable insulated wire and a cardboard tube to
foam to absorb the impact if the magnet hits the wrap it around); 2 magnets of different strengths;
bench. The magnet should be attached to a length of iron core material (a bundle of thick iron nails will
cotton thread. The height from which the magnet is work); wooden core material (pencils should work);
dropped can be measured by measuring the length cardboard tube wide enough to take the magnets
of cotton pulled up out of the top of the tube. Note but narrow enough to fit inside the coils; clamp and
that the speed at which the magnet enters the coil stand; cotton thread; sticky tape; foam; connecting
does not vary linearly with height, and the magnet wires; moving-coil voltmeter; paperclips; Worksheet
will continue to accelerate while falling More able P3.18a.
students can be given the equation v2=2as (where
P3.19 Generators
P3.19a Generator diagrams Classwork (write-on) 4
P3.19b Generator designs Homework (reusable) 4

Students should be able to: • Students are not required to recall the details of
generators in power stations.
• explain from a diagram how an a.c. generator works,
including the purpose of the slip rings and brushes.
Lesson ideas
Key words Starter
alternating current, brush, slip ring
• Ask students to spend a few minutes jotting down
what they know about direct and alternating current
(covered in Topic P2.25 in Additional Science), then
ask for points to compile a summary list on the board.
Learning activities Additional homework/research ideas
• Practical 1 demonstrates the difference between a.c. • Ask students to make a list of the different ways in
and d.c. This demonstration was suggested in Topic which a generator can be turned to generate mains
P2.25, but is worth repeating here to remind students electricity (e.g. steam turbines, wind turbines, etc.).
of earlier work.
• Students should be able to see that a.c. is easier to 1 Oscilloscope demonstration Connect an
produce as it is produced by rotating generators.
Students may also ask why a.c. is easier to transmit oscilloscope to a small generator or bicycle dynamo.
– this is at least in part because transformers can be Have the various gains set to produce an alternating
used with a.c. but not d.c. (see the next topic), so the wave that shows the output, and ask students to
voltage can be easily changed from that produced suggest what the trace is showing. This should
by the generators to the higher voltages used in remind them of work on alternating current in
transmission lines and then back to the low voltages Unit P2.
needed in households or by other users. Follow this up by asking them what they think the
• AT The ActiveTeach animation explains how a oscilloscope will show if a cell is connected across
the oscilloscope terminals, then demonstrate. Note
generator works.
that a cell must be used, rather than the d.c. output
Plenary of a power supply, as the latter is often rectified and
smoothed a.c., and so will not show a straight line.
• Worksheet P3.19a provides unlabelled diagrams that 5 minutes
students can use to make their own summaries of
how generators work.
Apparatus
• Alternatively, students could continue to add to the
Oscilloscope; generator or dynamo; cell or battery in
concept maps they started in Topic P3.17.
holder; connecting wires.
P3.20 Transformers
P3.20a Transformers and energy Classwork (reusable) 4 4
P3.20b Transformer calculations Homework (reusable) 4 4

Students should be able to: step-down transformer, step-up transformer,
transformer
• describe the basic structure of the transformer
• recall that an alternating current in the primary Points to note
coil produces a changing magnetic field in the iron
core and hence in the secondary coil, and that this
induces an alternating potential difference across
• Many power cables of the kind shown in
photograph A in the Student’s Book include diodes
the ends of the secondary coil to convert the current from a.c. to d.c. in addition to
a transformer.
• explain that in a step-up transformer the potential
difference across the secondary coil is greater than
the potential difference across the primary coil Lesson ideas
• explain that in a step-down transformer the Starter
potential difference across the secondary coil is less
than the potential difference across the primary coil • Help students to recall previous work on induction
by asking them to complete a sentence starting
• determine which type of transformer should be used ‘Electromagnetic induction …’. They should be
for a particular application encouraged to complete the sentence in several
• describe the uses of step-up and step-down different ways, working alone or in groups, before
sharing ideas. This is also a chance to correct any
transformers in the National Grid
misconceptions that show up in their responses.
• H recall and use the equation for calculating the
potential differences in a transformer.
• AT The video on the ActiveTeach shows X talking 1 Transformer demonstration A demountable
about using mains power to recharge the yacht’s transformer (called a ‘dissectible’ transformer in
batteries, and to power the electrical equipment on some equipment catalogues) is best, as students can
the yacht when it is moored in a marina. It points then see that there are no electrical connections
out the need to convert the 230 V a.c. mains supply between the two coils, or between the coils and the
into a lower-voltage d.c. supply for the equipment to core. What demonstrations are possible will depend
use. [Note that students may have already seen this on the type of transformer you have available, but
video when studying Unit P2.] could include:
• Emphasise that current does not flow through the • using the transformer to convert mains voltage to
iron core. If you have demonstrated a transformer 12 V, and connecting it to a torch bulb (explaining
(Practical 1) point out that the coils are made from that the mains voltage would have blown the
insulated wire, so there is no way of electricity bulb)
getting into the core. • removing the top of the core (if this is in a U-
shape with a separate bar across the top) or
• Students could investigate for themselves the effects separating the two halves (if it is two U-shaped
of changing the number of coils on the primary
pieces) when the supply to the primary coil is
and secondary coils in a ‘home-made’ transformer.
switched off. Attempt this again with the supply
Encourage them to compare their findings with the
on, and show that the parts of the core cannot be
theoretical voltages calculated using the equation.
separated, demonstrating that there is a strong
• AT The ActiveTeach includes a spreadsheet that will magnetic field in the core.
help students to work out which kind of transformer • adding a ‘home-made’ secondary coil to the
is needed for a particular application. core, and using this to power a torch bulb. The
advantage of this is that the coil can be very
• Some students may think that if a transformer loosely wound, demonstrating again that there is
doubles the voltage you will get twice the energy/
no electrical connection between the coil and the
power. This is not the case as the current halves
core.
when the voltage doubles. Similarly, a step-down
transformer produces a lower voltage but a higher Beware of creating a step-up transformer by
current. There are also energy losses due to heating, connecting the equipment the wrong way round.
so in all cases the useful energy obtained from a
Apparatus
transformer is less than the energy put in. This is
looked at in more detail on Worksheet P3.20a. It Demountable transformer; torch bulb; voltmeters.
may be best to work through the sheet with some
2 Make a transformer The ‘Westminster’
groups, although more able students should be able
electromagnetic kit contains C-cores that can be
to work through it alone or in small groups.
used as transformer cores. Students can make their
own transformers by winding coils onto the core
Plenary and investigating the effect of different numbers of
• Ask students to write down three key points about turns of wire in the primary and secondary coils.
electricity generation. Give them a few minutes, then
ask for suggestions and compile an agreed class list Students should use laboratory power supplies that
of four or five points. can deliver the current needed at low voltages, and
must never attempt to connect their transformers to
Additional homework/research ideas the mains supply. Ensure that the voltages/currents
used do not overheat the insulation on the wires,
• Ask students to list all the transformers they can find which can melt and/or give off fumes if overheated.
at home, and note the output voltages (note that
Warn students to switch off immediately if this
most of these will mention d.c., so you may wish to
happens and stand back. Keep the room well
discuss the fact that the ‘boxes’ in the cables or plugs
ventilated.
include components to convert a.c. to d.c.). Students
could also be asked to suggest suitable ratios of Apparatus (per group)
primary to secondary coils for all the transformers
Power supply; 2 C-cores and clamp; insulated wire;
they find.
2 voltmeters; connecting wires and crocodile clips;
mounted bulb.
P3.00 Answers
P3.00 Investigating space 2 Students should have drawn a ray diagram showing
how the person can see from the top of their head
Student’s Book to their feet, like this:
1 a and b
Student’s list could include words such as light,
luminous, dark, shadow, eclipse, reflection, mirror
refraction, colour, lens, mirror, with definitions
of each. 1.7m
2 Concept maps should include key words such as:

sound, vibration, air, medium, vacuum, loud, quiet,
amplitude, wave, wavelength, frequency, pitch,
high, low. The key words should be correctly linked.
a 0.85 m (i.e. half the height of the person).
3 The bullet points should include ideas about sources Students could arrive at this answer by drawing
of electricity, conductors and insulators, the need a scale diagram, or by reasoning that the two
for a complete circuit, energy transformations by rays shown reflecting from the mirror form
components such as bulbs or motors, measurement symmetrical isosceles triangles, and the points at
of current and voltage, and resistance. which they reflect are half way from the eyes to
the feet, and halfway from the eyes to the top of
P3.10 Plane mirrors the head, so the total length of mirror between
the two extreme rays shown is half the height of
Student’s Book the person.
1 a A line at right angles to the mirror at the point b The top of the mirror needs to be level with the
where a ray of light hits it. person’s eyes.
b The angle between the normal and a ray of light c No, the same reasoning would apply.
reflected from a mirror.
Worksheet P3.10b
c The picture of something that you can see in a
mirror. 1 Ray drawn so that the angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence.
d Flat.
2 Labels correctly placed.
2 Rays of light pass through / come from a real image,
but only appear to come from a virtual image. 3 Same size – the image appears to be the same size
as the object.
3 a 8 cm tall.
Upright – the image is the same way up as the
b 10 cm. object.
4 a Virtual – rays of light appear to come from the
draw dotted image, they do not actually pass through the
version of
light bulb image.
here
4 a Area of underside of car found by drawing rays of
light that reflect from the mirror.
b Further under the car, just behind the front
wheels.

b Answers will vary, but should include the following:
plane mirror, normal, angle of incidence, angle of
reflection, incident ray, reflected ray, virtual image.
Worksheet P3.10a
1 Ray drawn from bottom of tree reflecting off both
mirrors, and the final rays extended to show where
the image appears to be.
P3.00 Answers
P3.11 Curved mirrors 3 a Correctly drawn ray diagram using the
measurements given in the question.
Student’s Book
1 Similarities: both are virtual and upright. mirror
object
Differences: The image in a plane mirror is the same
size as the object, the image in a convex mirror is
diminished. The image in a plane mirror is the same F
distance behind the mirror as the object is in front,
this is not necessarily the case for a convex mirror.
2 a See cars coming from around a corner. image
b It gives a wider field of view.
3 a All mirrors can produce virtual images.
b 5 cm image, so the magnification is 2.5 times.
b A concave mirror does not always produce
a virtual image, as the nature of the image c Real, the rays of light pass through the image.
depends on the distance of the object from the 4 For a 10 cm focal length, the magnification is
mirror. 0.66. For a 5 cm focal length the magnification is
4 a Correctly drawn ray diagram with focal points approximately 0.23, so the image is bigger for the
marked, showing an image that is real, inverted, longer focal length.
magnified and further from the mirror than the 5 Students will need to draw a series of ray diagrams
object. to help them to answer this question.
As the object moves towards the 2F point (20 cm)
F
the image gets bigger and further from the mirror.
When the object reaches 2F, the image is the same
2F
size as the object and at the same position as the
object. As the object moves from 2F towards F
it continues to get bigger and further from the
mirror. At F there is no image (the rays do not
b Answers will vary, depending on exactly where converge), and then the image becomes virtual and
the object has been placed. magnified, getting smaller and closer to the mirror
5 The aim is to see a magnified upright virtual image as the object approaches the mirror.
in the mirror, so you would have to hold your face
less than one focal length from the mirror. P3.12 Refraction
6 Concept maps should include all the information on
the Student’s Book pages Student’s Book
Worksheet P3.11b 1 The change of speed and direction that occurs when
light passes from one material to another.
1 a Plane, so the driver can see how far behind other
2 The greater the change of angle, the greater the
vehicles are.
difference in speed. As light slows down when
b It allows a wider field of view. it enters water or glass, it must slow down more
c It makes a vehicle seen in it seem further away, so when it goes into glass than when it goes into
the driver could misjudge where the vehicle is. water, so light must travel more slowly in glass than
in water.
2 a Image A is magnified, upright, virtual.
Image B is diminished, upright and virtual. 3 a Violet.
b A is a concave mirror, and B is a convex mirror, b It bends more than red light, so it must have
because of the way they have reflected the rays. slowed down more.
4 a The spreading out of the different colours in white
light when it passes through a prism.
b The different colours in white light are slowed
down by different amounts, so they bend by
different angles.
P3.00 Answers
5 Windows have two parallel interfaces between air 3
and glass, so the dispersion effects caused when
the light goes into the glass are counteracted when glass b
writing on paper
the light leaves the glass again.
6 a Diagram of light passing through a glass block,
with normals and angles correctly labelled.
angle of
incidence angle of
refraction
normal glass block
writing on paper
normal
angle of
refraction
angle of
incidence
b Diagram of light passing through a prism, with 4 Diagram similar to that in Q3, showing the apparent
suitable explanatory labels. depth of the water.
Light bends towards Light bends away from the

Worksheet P3.12b
the normal as it enters normal as it leaves the glass.
the glass. Violet light Violet light is bent more than 1 Diagram correctly labelled.
is bent more than red light
red light 2 a From air to glass, as the change in speed is greater.
The colours in b Diagram showing light refracting away from the
white light have normal as it leaves the glass.
spread out to
form a spectrum 3 a The normals.
b X marked at the two points where light is
entering glass.
Worksheet P3.12a c Y marked at the two points where light is leaving
1 glass.
d
water
coin
coin is invisible you can see the coin

4 Students’ drawings may vary slightly, but the key
2 point is that each ray of light is bent towards the
normal as it enters the prism, and bent away from
eye
the normal where it leaves.
P3.00 Answers
P3.13 Lenses 2 a B – between 1 and 2 focal lengths from the lens.
b 6/4=1.5.
Student’s Book 3 a Correctly drawn scale diagram.
1 The rays of light do not actually pass through the b Virtual, as the rays of light do not pass through
image, they only appear to come from it. the lens.
2 Correctly drawn diagram with focal points marked c Student’s diagrams should give a magnification of
and rays drawn accurately to show an image that is around 2.
real, inverted, magnified, and located beyond 2F.
4 a Converging.
b Diverging.
F 2F
c A person with long sight needs lenses that will
2F F make the light from near objects converge more
so they meet at the retina.
A person with short sight needs lenses to make
3 Virtual. the light rays diverge, so that when they are
converged again by the eye they do not meet in
4 Magnification=image size/object size.
front of the retina.
5 a An object placed beyond 2F will form a real,
Suitable diagrams should accompany the
diminished image.
explanations.
6 Beyond 2F the image is real, inverted and
diminished, and is between F and 2F on the far side
of the lens. The image gets bigger as the object
P3.14 Cameras
gets closer to the lens, until at 2F it is the same size
as the object. The image continues to get bigger
Student’s Book
as the object moves towards F. Once the object is 1 Real.
closer than one focal length to the lens, the image 2 a More light can get into the camera through a
becomes vertical, upright and magnified. The bigger hole.
image gets bigger as the object gets closer to the
b Light from one part of the object can reach
lens.
more than one place on the screen.
7 The advert should summarise the key points from
3 The focal length should be the same as the length
this topic.
of the camera (i.e. the distance from the pinhole to
Worksheet P3.13a the screen).
1 Magnified, inverted, virtual. 4 Ray diagram similar to the first part of diagram B in
2 a Stars and galaxies do not really have a top and
bottom (or similar answer). 5 To allow the camera to focus on objects at different
distances.
b The light from stars is very faint, and would
be swamped by brighter light from the 6 a Make the aperture (opening) smaller, or have the
surroundings. shutter open for a shorter length of time.
3 a The objective lens, as the light rays going through b If the lighting is very bright the amount of light
this lens pass through the image it forms. reaching the film needs to be reduced.
b The eyepiece lens. 7 The explanation should include the need to let
enough light in to register on a film, with the
Worksheet P3.13b resultant need to focus light rays coming through a
1 a The rays should diverge, as if all coming from a bigger hole.
single point to the left of the lens. Worksheet P3.14a
b The light rays should converge to a point.
1 a Inverted, smaller than the object, very dim.
c The ray should pass through without changing
b Suitable ray diagram showing rays from the top
direction.
and bottom of the object passing through the
d The rays should emerge parallel to the axis. pinhole.

P3.00 Answers
2 a Three separate images, all the same size (but 4 An instrument produces a mixture of frequencies,
smaller than the object), inverted and dim. not just one. A trumpet and a violin produce
b Light coming through each pinhole forms a different mixtures of frequencies.
separate image. 5 Smooth sine wave drawn and amplitude correctly
3 a The image should still be inverted and smaller than marked.
the object, but will be brighter and less sharp amplitude
than before.
b Students could explain the larger hole as like 0
lots of small holes run together, each part of
which will produce a separate image, resulting in
a brighter image (because more light gets into
the camera) but one that is less sharp as there
are effectively lots of separate images together. 6 a The peaks would be closer together.
The ray diagrams should be similar to the
second part of diagram B in the Student’s Book. b The waves would not be as tall.
c There would be a complicated wave shape, not a
4 Converging. The rays of light spreading out from the
smooth curve.
object have to be brought together to form a sharp
image. 7 Suitable waves added to the answer to question 5.
5 a Depends on the lenses available and the size of the Worksheet P3.15a
pinhole camera.
1 A and F; B and I; C and G; D and E; H and J; K and L.
b The focal length is similar to the length of the
2 A and B; C and H; D and L; E and F; G and J; I and K.
pinhole camera.
3 E, F, G, J.
6 The hole in a camera needs to be quite large to let
in enough light, but a large hole gives a blurred 4 C, H, I, K.
image, so the lens is needed to give a sharp image. 5 C.
Worksheet P3.14b 6 H, I.
Any sensible clues for the words in the grid. The words Worksheet P3.15b
are:
1 Sound needs a material to travel through. Space is
Across mostly vacuum, so sound cannot travel in space.
prism; 5 focus; 6 incidence; 10 reflection;
2 2 Amplitude should be marked as half the total height
14 magnification; 15 lens; 16 converge. of the wave (i.e. from the centreline to either a crest
Down or a trough).
plane; 3 spectrum; 4 normal; 7 dispersion; 8 focal
1 3 a 100 Hz.
length; 9 concave; 11 refraction; 12 virtual; 13 diverge. b 15 000 Hz.
c 66.6 Hz.
P3.15 Sound 4 a C – it shows the fewest waves in the time
Student’s Book represented on the oscilloscope screen, so the
frequency is lowest.
1 a Both travel as waves, both can be reflected and
b B – it shows the most waves, so the frequency is
both can be refracted.
the highest.
b Sound needs a medium to travel through, light
c C – the amplitude is lowest.
does not. Sound can travel through all solids,
light can only travel through transparent ones. 5 a A and D.
Accept other answers, such as the different b They have different waveforms (they are
speeds. mostly one frequency, but there are also other
2 25 Hz. frequencies present that will make the notes
sound different even though they are the same
3 a Wave drawn that has a higher amplitude and lower
pitch and loudness).
frequency than the original.
b Wave drawn that has a smaller amplitude and
higher frequency than the original.
P3.00 Answers
P3.16 Ultrasound 3 Reflections from the bottom of the steel, the bottom
of the polythene and the bottom of the aluminium.
Student’s Book 4 Thickness=(0.59 cm/ms×8 ms)/2=2.36 cm.
1 Sound too high for humans to hear / sound of 5 a 19 ms.
frequencies above 20 000 Hz. b 8 ms.
2 Animals such as bats, or electronic machines. c 11 ms.
3 a Visible light cannot pass through the skin or body d Thickness=(0.27 cm/ms×11 ms)/2=1.485 cm.
tissues and so cannot be used to form an image
e It took the ultrasound 25 ms to return from
of the inside of the body.
the base of the aluminium, with 6 ms of
b X-rays can cause damage to tissues, so are not this being taken to travel in the aluminium.
used if there is a safer alternative, or if the risk of Thickness=(0.63 cm/ms×6 ms)/2=1.89 cm.
using them is greater than the possible benefit
of having the scan. Worksheet P3.16b
4 Ultrasound waves are sent into the body, and are 1 a Probe.
partially reflected each time they pass from one b Gel.
material to another. The probe detects the echoes.
It measures the time between the original signal c Computer.
and the echo and a computer then works out d Ultrasound waves.
where the echo came from and displays all the e Screen.
echo information as an image.
2 The machine sends an ultrasound pulse into the
5 It removes dirt gently so it does not damage the material, and detects the sound reflected from the
object. back surface of the sheet. It uses the time between
6 Ultrasound could be sent through the plate. Some the pulse and the echo to work out the thickness.
will reflect from the back surface of the plate, and 3 Thickness=(0.27 cm/ms × 3.6 ms)/2=0.486 cm.
the echo can be detected. The thickness of the
plate can be calculated from the time it takes for 4 a Too thick. The sound has taken more time to travel
the echo to return to the probe. than it should.
7 a 2 ms. b Thickness=(0.27 cm/ms × 3.8 ms)/2=0.513 cm.

Error=0.027 cm.
b Distance=speed × time=0.632 cm/ms × 2
ms=1.264 cm. 5 Shorter. If the sheet is thinner, the ultrasound has a
shorter distance to travel, so it will not take as long.
c 0.632 cm.
6 Thickness=(0.63 cm/ms × 2.2 ms)/2=0.693 cm.
d Time for second echo to return is 5 μs, so
the distance is 0.632 cm/ms × 5 ms=3.16 cm. 7 There may be a crack within the steel that is
Thickness of plate is half this, so is 1.58 cm. reflecting some of the sound.
8 a Any frequency above 20 000 Hz. The depth of the crack from the top surface is
(0.63 cm/ms × 0.5 ms)/2=0.1575 cm.
b Medical scanning, cleaning, quality control.
c Measure the time taken for the echo from each P3.17 Electric motors
boundary to return, and use the speed of sound
in the material to calculate the distance the Student’s Book
sound has travelled. As an echo travels both
ways, the actual distance is half the distance 1 a Any five machines that include motors, such as CD
travelled by the sound. or DVD player, washing machine, computer (for
the cooling fan), etc.
Worksheet P3.16a b Answers depend on the responses in part a.
1 a 7 ms. 2 a The force/movement will be downwards.
b Distance=0.59 cm/ms×7 ms=4.13 cm. b The force will be bigger.
c 4.13 cm/2=2.065 cm. c The force will be weaker.
2 a Thickness=(0.27 cm/ms×7.5 ms)/2=1.013 cm. 3 Nothing. The wire has to be running across the field
b Thickness=(0.63 cm/ms×5 ms)/2=1.575 cm. lines, not along them.
4 More turns of wire would give a bigger turning force.
P3.00 Answers
5 a A movement caused when an electric current flows 4 Advantages: no cost of replacing or recharging
through a wire in a magnetic field. batteries, you will never be left without lights
b Use stronger magnets or a bigger current. because the batteries are flat.
c Reverse the direction of the current or the direction Disadvantages: it makes the bicycle harder to ride,
of the magnetic field. the lights will be dim when going uphill (or at any
other time the bicycle is moving slowly), the lights
Worksheet P3.17b will not work at all when stopped at a junction.
1 a Down. The current is flowing in the opposite 5 Use a weaker magnet, move the magnet more
direction to that in the first diagram. slowly, have fewer turns on the coil.
b Up. The magnetic field is reversed compared 6 Students’ own answers should include all the key
with a (or both field and current are reversed points from the topic.
compared with the original diagram, so the two
changes cancel each other out). Worksheet P3.18b
c It will not move. No current is flowing. 1 a Opposite direction, because the magnet is being
moved in the opposite direction.
2 a Magnet.
b Same direction, as the magnet is reversed but it
b Cell or battery. is also being moved in the opposite direction, so
c Coil. the two changes will cancel each other out.
d Brush. c Opposite direction, as the magnet and coil are
3 a Provides a magnetic field. moving away from each other instead of
towards each other.
b Provides a current in the coil.
d There will be no current, as the two objects
c Carries the current through the magnetic field. are moving at the same speed and there is no
d Makes electrical contact between the coil and relative motion between them.
the circuit. 2 a It goes into the coil and then comes out of it again.
4 a The motor would run faster / produce more force, b It will increase as the magnet starts moving and
because there are more pieces of wire carrying then decrease as it comes to a stop inside the
current in the magnetic field. magnet. It will increase in the opposite direction
b The motor would run the other way, as the as the magnet starts to move out, and decrease
current would flow in the opposite direction. to zero when the magnet is right out of the coil
c The motor would run more slowly / produce less and stops moving.
force, as the magnetic field would be weaker. c
+
d The motor would run slower / produce less force,
because there are fewer pieces of wire carrying
Voltage
0
current in the magnetic field. Time
e The motor would run faster / produce more force, –

because a greater current produces a greater
motor effect.
f The motor would turn in the opposite direction, P3.19 Generators
because the magnetic field would be pointing
the opposite way. Student’s Book
1 a The induced potential difference (and hence the
P3.18 Making electricity current) would be less.
b The induced potential difference would be
Student’s Book greater.
1 Electromagnetic induction. c The induced potential difference would be weaker.
2 Make the wire part of a complete circuit. 2 They would get twisted and eventually would stop
3 a Downhill. the coil turning.
b The bicycle is likely to be going faster when 3 a Direct current always flows in the same direction.
going downhill, so the dynamo would spin Alternating current changes direction many
faster. times each second.
P3.00 Answers
b Cells produce d.c. Generators and dynamos 4 Vp Np 230 V=192 12V
produce a.c. = Ns=192×
Vs Ns 12 V Ns 230V
4 Accept any explanation that covers the key points,
such as: at b the left-hand part of the coil is moving =10 turns.

in one direction relative to the magnetic field, and 5 Vp Np
by the time it has rotated half a turn (at d) it is =
moving in the opposite direction relative to the Vs Ns
field, so at this point the induced current will flow
1500
in the opposite direction. 20 000 V =
Vs 30 000
5 a They are cheaper.
b To induce a very high potential difference. Vs=20 000 V× 30 000
1500
6 The bullet points should describe all the main =400 000 V (or 400 kV).
features of generators, including the slip rings and
brushes. 6 Suitably labelled diagram.
Worksheet P3.19b Worksheet P3.20a

1 a B, A, D, C. 1 The transformers increase the voltage of the
electricity produced. At the same time, the current
b B has no core, only one magnet, and only has is reduced, so the overall energy supplied remains
50 turns in the coil; A is missing the core and a the same as it would if the transformers had not
magnet, but has 100 turns; D has two magnets been used. A good answer might also comment on
and 100 turns on the coil, but no iron core; C has energy lost as heat in the transformers.
100 turns on the coil, two magnets, and an iron
core. 2 a Some energy from the electricity is wasted as heat,
and this is the electricity Bill is paying for but not
2 Turn it faster, put even more turns of wire on the coil, using.
or use stronger magnets.
b The transformer reduces the voltage, but will
3 A power station generator uses electromagnets, has also increase the current so the energy supplied
bigger coils with more turns on them and produces is the same (apart from the energy wasted as
a much higher potential difference. Students may heat).
mention other differences, such as having more
than one coil of wire in the generator, or details of 3 Statement A is true. The total energy given out /
bearings, etc. transformed by any machine is equal to the energy
it takes in / uses.
P3.20 Transformers Statement B is false. The electrical energy supplied
by the transformer is slightly less than the energy
Student’s Book supplied to it, because some of the energy supplied
is converted to heat energy.
1 a Because alternating current is used in the coil,
which means that the direction of the current is Worksheet P3.20b
continuously changing, and the direction of the
1 Correctly drawn diagram, with primary and
magnetic field depends on the direction of the
secondary coils and iron core labelled.
current.
2 Vp is the input voltage / the voltage across the
b The changing magnetic field will induce a
primary coil.
changing potential difference in the secondary
coil. Vs is the output voltage/the voltage across the
secondary coil.
2 Direct current will induce a constant magnetic
field, and a changing magnetic field through the Np is the number of turns on the primary coil.
secondary coil is needed to induce a current there. Ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil.
3 a Step-down. The laptop needs less than 230 V to 3 a Vs is biggest.
charge its battery, so the mains voltage must be
b Vp is biggest.
reduced.
4 a 368 V.
b 230 V, because it is connected to the mains
supply. b 163.
5 144 V.
P3.00 Answers
P3.00 Investigative Skills 7 Conclusion consistent with student’s own results.
(2 marks)
Assessment (Student’s Book) 8 Either: yes, with a valid reason, such as having
1 a Tension. (1 mark) repeated results, or having compared results with
b Continuous. (1 mark) other groups,
c Length and mass per unit length of wire. (2 marks) or: no, with explanation that repeating results or
comparing results would improve reliability.
d Frequency. (1 mark) (1 mark)
e Continuous. (1 mark) 9 Suitable table of results with all relevant data
2 a There is no check for reliability. (1 mark) included, (1 mark)
b Accept any answer between 3 and 5. (1 mark) columns and rows correctly labelled, (1 mark)
3 Accept any answer that explains what units present and correct. (1 mark)
proportionality means (in terms of one factor 10 correct choice of bar chart or graph, (1 mark)
doubling if the other does, or in terms of a straight
line on a graph) and that these results do not fit suitable scales chosen and labelled, (1 mark)
that pattern. (2 marks) correct plotting. (1 mark)
(1 mark for a clear, ordered answer) Section 2
4 a 180 N. (1 mark) 11 a Tension. (1 mark)
b Accept any answer between 60 N and 80 N. b Continuous. (1 mark)
(1 mark)
c Length and mass per unit length of wire. (2 marks)
5 a Find the point on the graph corresponding to
247 Hz, and read the tension from the vertical d Frequency. (1 mark)
axis. (2 marks) e Continuous. (1 mark)
b The tension should be 44 N, but allow for the 12 a There is no check for reliability. (1 mark)
limitations of the scales used on the graph. b Accept any answer between 3 and 5. (1 mark)
(1 mark)
13 Accept any answer that explains what
proportionality means (in terms of one factor
P3.00 Investigative Skills doubling if the other does, or in terms of a straight
Assessment (Copymaster File) line on a graph) and that these results do not fit
that pattern. (2 marks)
Section 1 (1 mark for a clear, ordered answer)
1 Clear statement of question to be investigated. 14 a 180 N (1 mark)
(2 marks)
b Accept any answer between 60 N and 80 N
2 a Correct independent variable, e.g. speed of (1 mark)
movement, number of turns of wire. (1 mark)
15 a Find the point on the graph corresponding to
b Correct independent variable, e.g. potential 247 Hz, and read the tension from the vertical
difference. (1 mark) axis. (2 marks)
3 Explanation of how range was chosen, e.g. did a trial b 44 N. (1 mark)
run to see the minimum number of coils needed to
produce a detectable potential difference. (1 mark)
4 a Voltmeter. (1 mark)
b Potential difference (accept voltage). (1 mark)
5 Either: any anomalous results circled,
or: correct statement that no results looked
anomalous. (1 mark)
6 Either: yes, with a valid reason such as wanting
improved reliability / checking anomalous results,
or: no, with explanation that plotting a series of
results on a graph is a way of checking reliability.
(1 mark)
P3 Answers
P3 Assessment exercises
1a At the point where the lines cross. 1
b A plumb line (or equivalent) 1 mark for each point. 2
and a means of suspending the card. Accept any sensible
apparatus for doing this.
c She suspended the card 1 mark for each point. 3
she used the plumb line to mark a vertical line
and then repeated this process twice more.
d A suspended card will always hang with its centre of mass Accept equivalent 1
below the point of suspension explanations.
so when it is suspended from two or more different places, 1
the centre of mass must lie where the lines cross.
e Ravi. 1 mark for name; 1 mark for 2
His lines all cross at one point, whereas on the other cards explanation.
the lines form a triangle, so they must have been inaccurate.
f Random. 1
Any explanation that either rules out a zero error (as no 1
instruments requiring zeroing are involved), or a statement
that a systematic error would always be an error in the same
direction, which is unlikely in this kind of activity.
Total 12
2 a Acceleration depends on speed and direction, and its 1
direction is constantly changing.
b The centripetal force depends on the mass of the object 1
moving in a circle
so the notice is to ensure the maximum mass in the carriage 1
is not too big for the strength of the arm to cope with. (Or
equivalent explanation.)
c The arm will need to be stronger because there is a greater 1
force when the radius of the circle is smaller. 1
Total 5
3 a That there may be life on Mars. 1
b That they would see other built objects – e.g. buildings, etc. Accept any equivalent 1
suggestions.
c Polar orbit 1 mark for each point. 2
because it could eventually survey/photograph the whole
surface of the planet.
Total 4
4 a Hydrogen and helium. Both needed for the mark. 1
b Fusion reactions 1
inside stars (or in supernova explosions) create other 1
elements.
Total 3
P3 Answers
5 a Continuous. 1 mark for each point. 2
A mirror could be made with any radius.
b The magnification. 1
c Accurately drawn base for diagram (i.e. object correct size 1 mark for base; 2 marks for 3
and distance from the mirror, with focal point marked rays
correctly).
Two rays drawn accurately to show location of image (the
image should be inverted, and twice the size of the object).
d 2. 1
e The magnification of a particular mirror depends on where 1
the object is located.
Total 8
6 A real image can be projected on a screen. 1 mark for each point. 2
A virtual image cannot.
Total 2
7 a It did not fit the pattern of the other results. 1
b It makes it easier to spot results that may be incorrect. 1 mark for each point. 2
When making a calculation based on results, readings can be
taken from a line of best fit rather than an individual result,
making the final result more reliable.
c Values from graph substituted correctly 1 mark for values, 1 mark for 2
final answer=20 final answer.
d A. 1 mark for answer, 1 mark for 2
Any valid calculation or explanation for the choice. reasoning.
Total 7
8 a Some ultrasound is reflected when it goes into a different 1 mark for each point. 2
medium and the time between sending the sound and
receiving the echo can be used to work out how far into the
material the echo came from.
bi The bottom one. 1
ii The first peak is caused by the join between the two pieces 1
of material, and the second is caused by the far side of the
bottom piece of material.
Total 4
45 marks
© Pearson Education Limited 2007 AQA GCSE Extension Science Teacher’s Guide 169
P3 Answers
P3 Unit test
1 a Centre of mass marked in the centre of the post. 1
b The centre of mass is on the lines of symmetry in a Accept equivalent 1
symmetrical body. explanations.
c At point P. 1
d Line drawn from P that is perpendicular to the rope. 1
e C. 1
f The perpendicular distance between P and rope is the 1
greatest.
Total 6
2 a i Io. 1
ii It is closest to Jupiter. 1
b i Io is the closest to Jupiter. Accept equivalent 1
ii Ganymede has the greatest mass. explanations. 1
iii The greater mass of Ganymede might be offset by its greater 1
distance from Jupiter.
c The surface appears to be similar to ice-covered oceans on 1
Earth.
d A hole drilled in the ice should eventually come to liquid 1
water.
e Any two from: 1 mark for each point. 2
The drill may have gone through a place where there is no
ocean beneath.
The drill may not be able to go far enough through the ice.
There may be no water beneath the ice at all.
Total 9
3 a [5] Planetary nebula. All correct for the mark. 1
[1] Cloud of dust and gas.
[2] Nuclear fusion reactions start.
[6] White dwarf.
[4] Red giant.
[3] Star converts hydrogen to helium.
b There will be a supernova explosion instead of a red giant. 1 mark for each point. 3
A very large star will then form a black hole.
A smaller star will form a neutron star.
c A ring of dust and gas thrown off by a red giant before it 1
becomes a white dwarf.
d Radiation pressure balances gravity. 1
Total 6
P3 Answers
4 a Two correct construction lines drawn, as shown. 1 mark for each correct 4
construction line; 1 mark
for lines crossing at top of
image; 1 mark for image.
F F 2F
Lines traced to cross at top of image.

Image drawn in correct plane and upright.
b Eye drawn in correct position, as shown above. 1
c Correct substitution of 1.2 (±0.1)/2 1 mark for each point. 2
correct evaluation (0.6 ±0.1).
d One from: security mirror in shop, mirror allowing view of 1
concealed bend, or any other valid response.
Total 8
5 a Any two from: 1 mark for each point. 2
Turn it faster.
Increase magnetic field.
More turns on coil.
Bigger area of coil.
b They allow contact between the coil and the rest of the 1 mark for each point. 2
circuit; without the wires becoming tangled
Total 4
6 a Material. 1
b Categoric. 1
c Amount of refraction. 1
d Wavelength of light. 1
e More results for each material allows him to compare/ 1 mark for each point. 2
average his results (or spot outliers); so his results will be
more reliable.
f i The beam will be narrower after refraction/the material will 1
refract different wavelengths by different amounts.
ii He would need to check his results are valid for all 1

wavelengths, or a comment about spectacles needing to
work for all wavelengths of visible light.
Total 8
7 a Trace should have a lower amplitude 1 mark for each point. 2
and a lower frequency/longer wavelength
b Each instrument also produces a number of different 1 mark for each point. 2
frequencies;
and the additional frequencies are different with different
instruments / which produces different waveforms.
Total 4
45 marks

Nigel English-Longman Science For AQA (AQA GCSE Science) Teacher's Guide-Longman (2007)

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Nigel English-Longman Science For AQA (AQA GCSE Science) Teacher's Guide-Longman (2007)

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Longman Science

Series Editor: Nigel English

© Pearson Education Limited 2007

First published 2007

ISBN 978 1 405 86187 8

Production and illustration eMC Design Ltd, www.emcdesign.org.uk

Illustration Peters & Zabransky (UK) Ltd

The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.

Dr Peter Borrows, Director, CLEAPSS

John Tranter, Senior Adviser, CLEAPSS

B3.0 Exchange and balance C3.0 Water

P3.0 Forces and energy in space

P3.00 Investigating space

• Learning Objectives These

• Key scientific words have been

• Higher tier Content directly

• ActiveTeach icon Any links in

• How Science Works Material on

• Questions can be found

• Summary exercise The answer

• points to note such • higher tier, how • a guide to running practicals

• Homework sheets Each topic is accompanied by a Homework sheet. The worksheets do

Foundation and Higher tiers

Good laboratory practice

Exchange and balance

Investigative Skills Assessment

B3.0 Context page

• different methods for treating kidney failure.

Objectives This will help you decide what needs covering in

• Worksheet B3.1a is a revision sheet about diffusion

B3.2 Gas exchange in the lungs

Objectives breathing. Then ask them to place one hand on their

Key words Y tube

abdomen, alveolus, bronchi, capillary, diaphragm, bell jar

B3.3 Absorbing food

Objectives • explain how the adaptations of the small intestine

• describe other adaptations of the small intestine Key words

Objectives different shapes to explore the effect of shape on

• AT The ActiveTeach includes an animation that

B3.5 Movement of water through plants

Objectives Lesson ideas

If potometers are not available, a simpler set-up is

Objectives • Worksheet B3.6a can be completed alongside

B3.7 Travelling in the blood

Objectives this should include oxygen, carbon dioxide, products

B3.8 Exercise and the body

Objectives Lesson ideas

• Ask students to plan and possibly carry out an

Objectives may already be aware that they occasionally use

B3.10 Healthy kidneys

Objectives Lesson ideas

glomerulus, tubule, urine Learning activities

indicate. Yellow food colouring can be added in varying

B3.11 Dialysis treatment

Objectives • explain why dialysis has to be carried out at regular

• describe how substances, including urea, are Key words

Practicals and demonstrations

B3.12 Kidney transplants

Objectives • HSW evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of

• explain that a person with kidney failure may be Key words

• explain why the patient is treated with drugs to

b Movement should be a random, zigzag path b Diffusion, because it is a small, non-ionic

3 If alveoli are filled with liquid, they cannot exchange

Objectives g Temperatures above 40 °C speed up yeast’s

• protection of forests • income from power sales