Chapter 2.

2: Properties of Water
The Water Molecule:
Polar molecule: a molecule in which the chargers are unevenly distributed
• A water molecule is polar because there is an uneven distribution of electrons between the oxygen and
hydrogen atoms
• A molecule in which the charges are unevenly distributed is said to be “polar,” because the molecule is
like a magnet with two poles

Hydrogen bonds: the attraction between a hydrogen atom on one water molecule and an oxygen atom on another water
molecule
→ hydrogen bonds are not as strong as covalent bonds or ionic bonds
→ hydrogen bonds can occur in molecules other than water molecules

Cohesion: is the attraction between molecules from the same substance, creates surface tension which can support very
lightweight objects
→ water is extremely cohesive
Surface tension: the force caused by the strong attraction between water molecules that allows water to support lightweight
objects

Adhesion: the attraction between molecules from different substances

Example: water in glass test tube forming meniscus

Heat capacity: the amount of heat energy required to increase temperature

→ water has a high heat capacity, so it takes a lot of heat energy to increase temperature because of the multiple hydrogen bonds in
water molecules

Solutions and Suspensions:

Mixture: material composed of two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed yet not chemically combined
Water can produce:
→ Solutions: a liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is evenly distributed within the major component
(the solvent)
Solute: the substance that is dissolved
Solvent: the substance in which the solute dissolves
Saturated solution: when a given amount of water has dissolved the maximum
amount of solvent it can
→ Suspensions: a mixture in which particles are dispersed throughout the fluid yet not dissolved
Example: sand in water

Acids, Bases, and pH:

pH level: pH level determines the concentration of H+ atoms present in a mixture by the scale of most
acidic to most basic
→ pH scale ranges from 0-14
→ each step forward towards the basic side is 10x less concentration of H+ ions

Acids: Compounds with H+ ions in its solution, have pH values below 7

Bases: Basic/alkaline solutions have lower concentration of H+ ions and have pH values higher than 7
Neutral: Nor acidic or basic, has a pH level of 7
Example: pure water

Buffers: Weaker acids or bases that are used to regulate pH levels of other acids/bases
→ used to avoid sharp/sudden pH level changes
→ pH level control is essential for maintaining homeostasis in organisms

Chapter 2.3: Carbon Compounds

The Chemistry of Carbon:
• Special qualities of carbon:
1. They can easily form covalent bonds with each other and other elements because they have 4 valence electrons
2. They + some other elements (Hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus) create molecules that make up the
structure of living organisms
3. Chains of carbon atoms can form rings
4. Their bonds can be single, double, triple
5. They can form millions of complex structures because they can bond to each other

Macromolecules “Giant molecules”:

Macromolecules: Organic compounds in living cells, also known as giant molecules. They are formed by
polymerization.
Polymerization: when large compounds are built by joining monomers together
Monomers: smaller compounds that join together to form polymers

The different macromolecules are:

Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins
CHO CH CHONP CHONS
(-NH2) + (-COOH)

Carbohydrates:
→ Compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
→ usually in a ratio of 1:2:1
• Carbohydrates are used by living things as a source of energy
• Carbohydrates are bonded by a glycosidic bond
→ Complex carbohydrates = starches
Carbohydrates

Saccharides Polysaccharides
(Sugars) (Complex Sugars)
→ (Multiple sugars)
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Glycogen
(Simple sugars) (Double sugars) Starch
Glucose Sucrose Cellulose
Fructose Maltose
Galactose Lactose

Glycosidic bonding:
• Condensation is used to remove water molecules and
form a glycosidic bond by taking the H and OH atoms
• Hydrolysis is used to split a glycosidic bond by adding
water and hence returning the H and OH atoms
Examples:
Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose

Glucose: C6H12O6

Carbohydrates: are a type of macromolecule that are formed by C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio, they are used as a main source of
energy for living things and sometimes structural purposes

Lipids:
• Compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen
→ Common forms of lipids are fats, oils, waxes
Lipids are used for: biological membranes, waterproof coverings, steroids like hormones
Glycerol + fatty acid → Lipid
Lipids: are a type of macromolecule that are made of carbon and hydrogen, which are used for biological membranes,
waterproof coverings, and steroids such as hormones. They are used also for longterm storage of energy.

Saturated Unsaturated

• If each carbon atom is joined to another carbon atom with • If there is at least 1 double carbon bond and hydrogens removed
→ Polyunsaturated: more than one double carbon bond
• They are usually liquid
Ex: olive oil

a single bond

Nucleic acids:
Nucleic acids: are macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus that store and transmit genetic
information

→ made up of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus

Nucleotides (Monomers) → Nucleic acids

Nucleotides:
Capture and transfer chemical energy
1. 5-carbon sugar
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogenous base

RNA Ribonucleic acid DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

Proteins:
Amino group (-NH2) + Carboxyl group (-COOH) → Amino acids
→ They are linked together through a peptide bond

→ hydrolysis and condensation also apply to peptide bonds as well as glycosidic bonds
ADD WATER = PEPTIDE BOND vs REMOVE WATER = GLYCOSIDIC BOND

Proteins: are macromolecules built from one or more polypeptides, they are the building blocks of living things and make up
enzymes

How protein structure forms:

1. Primary Structure:
The sequence of the amino
acids of a protein

2. Secondary structure:
The sequence of amino acids are linked together
through hydrogen
bonds and form a
coiled helix or
folded pleated
sheets

3. Tertiary structure:
Helixes and pleated
sheets are attracted
and create a 3-
dimensional
arrangement of the
polypeptide chain

4. Quaternary structure:
More than one amino acid
chain, the full protein/the
whole picture, describes the
arrangement and position of
each of the
subunits in a multiunit
protein.

Macromolecules Review:
Macromoelcule Structure Function Example Definition Bon
Macromolecule Structure Function Example Bond Definition Monomer

Carbohydrates C, H, O Used as a Glucose, Glycosidic bond are a type of Monosaccharides

macromolecule that are
source of fructose (remove water) formed by C, H, and O
energy and to in a 1:2:1 ratio, they are
store it used as a main source
of energy for living
things and sometimes
structural purposes

Lipids C, H Longterm Fats, oils, Single bond: are a type of Fatty acids
macromolecule that is
storage of waxes Saturated made of carbon and
energy C-C Double hydrogen, which are
bond: used for biological
membranes, waterproof
Unsaturated coverings, and steroids
such as hormones. They
are used also for
longterm storage of
energy.

Nucleic Acids C,H,O,N,P Store and DNA, RNA Assembled by are macromolecules Nucleotides
containing hydrogen,
transmit genetic Deoxyribonuclei nucleotides oxygen, nitrogen,
information c acid, carbon, and
Ribonucleic phosphorus that store
and transmit genetic
acid information

Proteins Amino + Building blocks Hormones, Peptide are macromolecules Amino acids
built from one or more
carboxyl of living things, enzymes bonding polypeptides, they are
-NH2 -COOH make up all the (add water) the building blocks of
C,H,O,N,S enzymes living things and
makeup enzymes