Pt-592 Pharmacognosy-II Manual 18601919003

GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF PHARMACEUTICAL
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
PAPER CODE: PT- 592
LABORATORY MANUAL OF PHARMACOGNOSY &

PHYTOCHEMISTRY - II
NAME: Mousam Maity
ROLL NO.: 18601919003
STREAM: B. PHARM
REGN. NO.: 011413 OF 2019-20
SEMESTER: V
SEC: A (GROUP – A)
YEAR: 2021-22
Vision of the Institute and Department
To develop responsible citizens who would be professionally equipped to think globally and act
locally and become reformers of society to meet the challenges of future.
Mission of the Institute and Department
M1: To promote and impart sustainable development in the field of Pharmaceutical Science
M2: To provide the ambience needed for developing skills to make a mark in education and research.
M3: To ensure that developmental and administrative associates are provided with necessary
resources to excel in research and administration.
M4: To inculcate the sense of lifelong learning for achieving the marked personal standards
Programme Outcomes
1. Ability to acquire knowledge of pharmaceutical sciences.

2. Ability to design and conduct experiments, to analyze and interpret data.
3. Ability to design solutions for complex research problems to meet the specified needs with
appropriate considerations of public health.
4. Ability to provide valid conclusions from the use of research-based knowledge and research
methods.
5. Ability to use current techniques, skills, and modem tools.
6. Ability to demonstrate the understanding of societal, health, safety and legal issues related to
pharmaceutical manufacturing and pharmacy practice.
7. Ability to understand the impact of the products and processes employed on social and
environmental contexts.
8. Awareness of ethical and professional responsibilities.
9. Ability to function effectively individually and on teams, including diverse and
multidisciplinary settings, to accomplish a task.
10. Ability to develop necessary interpersonal and communication skills to be a productive
member of the team in work environment.
11. Ability to demonstrate effective planning, develop and implement plans within time frame
through proper knowledge and understanding of professional and management principles
and apply these skills to one’s own work, and also as a leader in a team.
12. A strong background and motivation to pursue life-long learning.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
1. Students are not allowed in laboratories without their teacher’s/ lab technician’s permission
2. Laboratory work is only permitted during scheduled periods.
3. Students are not allowed to work unsupervised in a laboratory.
4. Unauthorized work of any kind in the laboratories is strictly forbidden
5. Eating and drinking are NOT permitted in the laboratories.
6. LABORATORY COATS are to be worn in the laboratories at all times unless the laboratory
is being used for a seminar and no other person is working in that laboratory in this event the
statutory door notices should be covered but for the duration of the seminar only.
7. Coats, hats and other articles not requited during practical work must not be brought into
laboratories or left in corridors. Cases or bags should not be left on the floor where they can
cause an obstruction.
8. Know the location of the fire extinguishers in the laboratory where you see working and how
to operate them in an emergency.
9. Know the location of the first aid boxes and eye wash paints.
10. Many operations normally carried out in the laboratories are potentially dangerous. The
greatest care should be taken at all times to ensure your safety und that of others in the
laboratory.
11. Follow carefully the procedure given in the Schedule or instruction sheets. You should not
carry out experiments or make innovations without the approval of your supervisor. Ask if
you do net fully understand the instructions.
12. Solutions should not be pipetted by mouth, use a pipette filler.
13. Experiments involving the use of, or production of, obnoxious or toxic chemicals, or any
hazardous operation must be performed in a fume cupboard.
14. The fume cupboards or a safety screen should be used with apparatus under vacuum or
pressure.
15. Highly flammable materials must be heated in open vessels. When heating such materials
(e.g., acetone, alcohol, ether, etc.) use either an electrically heated water bath or an electric
heating plate. Ensure that any naked flames in vicinity be extinguished.
16. Clearly label ALL vessels which contain chemicals with:
(i) the name of the chemical
(ii) experimenter’s name and course
(iii) date
(iv) hazard caution – explosive, toxic, flammable, corrosive, oxidizing, radioactive or
harmful.
17. Do not leave a laboratory experiment unattended without first consulting your supervisor.
18. Do not leave water taps running unattended, particularly water vacuum pumps. Ensure that
the sink waste is not restricted by waste material, filter paper, etc.
19. Disposal of chemicals – ask the Lecturer in Charge or the Lab Technician.
20. Solid matter, water-immiscible solvents for liquid nitrogen must not be poured down sinks.
21. Waste solvents should be poured into the appropriate bottles provided, not down the sink.
Chlorinated solvents must not be mixed with other solvents.
22. Waste material, solid or paper, should be placed in the bins provided, use the specially
indicated bins only for glass
23. Do not leave broken glass in the sink or on the bench. Place it in the appropriate bin for glass.
24. Do not taste any Crude Drugs without teacher’s permission.
25. Mop up spillage of chemicals immediately
26. Mop up spillage of water on the bench or on the floor immediately, this can be a serious
safety hazard. If help is required ask the technician.
27. Students are responsible for the cleanliness of their work benches, which should be left clean,
dry and free from apparatus at the end of the practical period. Students should not write or
draw anything on the bench.
28. All chemicals and apparatus should be returned to the proper place after use.
29. Used glassware must be rinsed with water before it is handed in for cleaning, thereby
ensuring that the glassware cleaners are not exposed to any risk
30. Always wash your hands after working in the laboratory. It is important to wash hands both
before and after going to the toilet after working in a laboratory.
31. Condenser or cooling water tubing must be secured by wire or clips to the tap and to the
apparatus, and the drain tube securely located in the sink or waste pipe. Alternatively,
suitable air condensers may be used.
32. Microscopes, weighing balance and any other instruments should be used as per supervisor’s
and SOP instructions.
Safety Guidelines
1. Always wear lab coats and gloves when you are in the lab. When you enter the lab switch on
all the exhaust fan and makes sure that all the reagents required for the experiment is
available if it is not available prepare the reagent using components for the reagent
preparation
2. Care should be taken while handling caustic acid like concentrated sulfuric acid(H2SO4),
nitric acid (HNO3) hydrochloric acid (HCl). This as it should be open and used in
FUMEHOOD only. Accidental spillage of these acids will cause several burns and itching.
Wash the spilled area with cold water and inform the lab assistant immediately.
3. When sodium hydroxide is prepared make sure that it is handled with care air as the sodium
hydroxide solution is caustic in nature.
4. Always check the water level in the water bath and if it is up to the level (nearly half the
volume) switch on the water but and adjust to the required temperature. Take care while
using the water bath for the boiling step in the experiment. Hold the test tube using a test tube
holder.
5. There should be a proportion between the reagents added and the test solution to obtain a
good result within the time mention. The dropper used should not be mixed between the
reagents always use individual droppers for each reagent.
6. The colour formed will depend upon the quality of the reagent. So, care should be taken
while preparing the reagent. If commercially available reagents are used, assure that it is not
kept open for long time.
7. Clean the test tube and glassware which soap and distilled water. Recap the reagent bottle
once the experiment is completed. The water bath and the exhaust fans should be switched
off.
Emergency Procedures
1. If chemical is spilled:
 If certain chemicals are spilled on someone, immediately call for help from inspector.
Portions of your body or clothing that have been in contact with the chemicals should
immediately be flushed thoroughly with water. Use the safety shower if the spill is extensive.
An eye wash is available in the laboratory.
 Work with instructor to clean up spills on the bench or floor. Notify students nearby of the
presence of broken glassware and/or chemicals and keep people from walking through the
area until cleaning is complete.
2. In case of fire:
 Call for help from instructor. If clothing is burning slowly walk to the fire blanket and wrap it
around yourself, and roll on the floor to extinguish the flames or slowly walk to the safety
shower and pull the cord.
 A fire on the bench top or floor may be put out with a fire extinguisher. Call for help from
instructor.
3. Wash minor cuts or burns with cold water and get band aids or burn ointments from the
stockroom.
Disposal Policies
1. Dispose of broken glassware in the marked cardboard box container. Broken glass containers
are ONLY to be used for broken glass. Always use a broom and dust-pan if asked to clean up
broken glassware.
2. Biohazardous wastes must be disposed in a biohazard waste container. Preserved materials
(e.g., cat tissues) are not considered biohazardous waste and can be disposed in the regular
trash. Your instructor will inform you which disposal containers are to be used with which
type of biohazardous waste (metal sharps, glass and non-sharps).
3. Uncontaminated gloves can be disposed of in the regular trash. Contaminated gloves mist be
disposed of in a biohazard waste container. Examination gloves used in dissections are not
considered to be biohazard waste and can be disposed of in the regular trash.
 COVID-19 safety protocols:

1. Analyse the number of people that the laboratory space can realistically and safely accommodate
while maintaining social distancing.
2. Assess the flow of personnel traffic. Where possible, design one-way paths for staff to walk
through the laboratory space.
3. Assess procedures for cleaning and sanitizing commonly shared equipment and areas—for
example, counters, benchtops, and desks—to ensure clean surfaces and equipment for all users.
4. Always everybody should wear mask and gloves compulsorily.
5. Be careful not to touch eyes, nose, or mouth when removing a face covering. Wash hands
immediately after removing.
6. Hands should be washed before and after the laboratory work with soap and water for at least 20
seconds.
7. An alcohol-based hand sanitizer containing at least 70% isopropanol can be used when soap and
water are not available.
8. Everyone must interact with maintaining social distance.
 Hazard symbols:
INDEX
Date Serial Experiment Name of Experiment Page No.
No. No.
Morphology of Crude Drugs
08/09/2021 1 1.1 Morphology of Cinnamon Bark. 10-21
08/09/2021 2 1.2 Morphology of Cinchona Bark. 22-26
13/09/2021 3 2.1 Morphology of Fennel Fruit. 27-43
20/09/2021 4 2.2 Morphology of Coriander Fruit. 44-48
20/09/2021 5 3.1 Morphology of Clove. 49-64
17/11/2021 6 4.1 Morphology of Senna Leaf 65-79
Microscopy of Crude Drugs
04/10/2021 7 5.1 Microscopy of Fennel. 81-90
04/10/2021 8 5.2 Microscopy of Coriander Fruit. 91-97
04/10/2021 9 5.3 Microscopy of Clove. 98-104
25/10/2021 10 5.4 Microscopy of Cinnamon. 105-112
Isolation and Detection of Active constituents of Crude Drugs
01/11/2021 11 6.1 Isolation and Detection of Starch from Potato 113-123
08/11/2021 12 6.2 Isolation and Detection of Caffeine from Tea 124-131
leaves
Analysis of Crude Drugs by Chemical Tests
17/11/2021 13 7.1 Analysis of Senna by Chemical Tests 132-136
17/11/2021 14 7.2 Analysis of Benzoin by Chemical Tests 137-139
Chromatography
18/11/2021 15 8.1 Thin Layer Chromatography of Crude Extract 140-143
of Turmeric
18/11/2021 16 8.2 Paper Chromatography of Crude Extract of 140-143
Turmeric
MORPHOLOGICAL
EVALUATION OF CRUDE
DRUGS
EXPERIMENT NO.: 01 DATE: 06.09.2021
STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BARK
AIM: To study the morphological characteristics of bark.
OBJECTIVE:
After completing of this experiment, a student will be able to:
 Understand the morphological characteristics of some bark containing drug

 Know the chemical composition and uses of those bark containing drug.
INTRODUCTION:
 Evaluation:
Evaluation is the procedure of determination of the identity, purity, quality and efficacy of drugs
from natural origin. Evaluation of a drug ensures the identity of a drug and determines the
quality and purity of drugs. The main reasons behind the need for evaluation of crude drugs are
biochemical variation in the drug, effect of treatment and storage of drugs, and the adulterations
and substitutions.
The evaluation of crude drug is necessary because of three main reasons:

a) Biochemical variation of drug
b) Deterioration due to treatment and storage
c) Substitution and adulteration, as a result of carelessness, ignorance and fraud.
The different techniques involved in evaluation of crude drug are as follows:

1. Morphological evaluation
2. Microscopic evaluation
3. Physical evaluation
4. Chemical evaluation
5. Pharmacological evaluation or biological evaluation.
Microscopic evaluation:
This is mainly used in the determination of identity and purity of the crude drug. Microscopic
evaluation is indispensable in the initial identification of herbs, as well as in identifying small
fragments of crude or powdered herbs, and in the detection of adulterants (e.g., insects, animal
feces, mold, fungi, etc.) as well as identifying the plant by characteristic tissue features.
Physical evaluation:
This is mainly used in the determination of purity of the crude drug. In crude plant evaluation,
physical methods are often used to determine the solubility, specific gravity, optical rotation,
viscosity, refractive index, melting point, water content, degree of fibre elasticity, and other
physical characteristics of the herb material.
Chemical evaluation:
This is mainly used in the determination of quality of the crude drug. The chemical evaluation
includes qualitative chemical tests, quantitative chemical tests, chemical assays, and instrumental
analysis. The isolation, purification, and identification of active constituents are chemical
methods of evaluation.
Pharmacological evaluation or biological evaluation:

This is mainly used in the determination of efficacy of the crude drug. The plant or extract can
then be evaluated by various biological methods to determine pharmacological activity, potency,
and toxicity. The biological evaluation would serve better than the physical and chemical
evaluation for drugs that could not be satisfactorily assayed by these last two methods.
Morphological evaluation:
Morphological or organoleptic evaluation is the process of determination of identity of a crude
drug by using its morphology. This is known as organoleptic evaluation because sense organs
(eye, nose, touch) are used for evaluating the crude drug.
Obviously, the initial sight of the plant or extract is so specific that it tends to identify itself. If
this is not enough, perhaps the plant or extract has a characteristic odor or taste. Organoleptic
analysis represents the simplest, yet the most human form of analysis.
Talka gum, which is used as a substitute for acacia gum could be identified by its color and form.
Talka gum is usually broken and also some tears are brown in color and other colorless, whereas
acacia is white to yellow in color. Mangosteen fruits are a substitute for bael fruits and can be
identified by darker rind and the wedge-shaped radiate stigmas. Cuprea Bark (Remijia
pedupiculata) differs in its morphological character with cinchona. Blood Root used as an
adulterant for hydrastis is dark reddish-brown in color, whereas hydrastis is yellow in color.
Ginger and capsicum have pungent taste, whereas gentian and chirata have bitter taste.
Morphological differentiation of leaves and pods of Indian senna and Alexandrian senna, sweet
taste of liquorice, odors of umbelliferous fruits, disc-shaped structure of nux vomica, conical
shape of aconite, quills of cinnamon, etc. are few examples of this organoleptic evaluation.
Morphological evaluation includes different characteristics of organized drug:
1. Shape
2. Size
3. Colour
4. Odour
5. Taste
6. External marking
7. Fracture
8. Fracture surface
9. Special feature (if any)
 Bark:
Bark is the outermost layer of stems and roots of woody plants. It refers to the secondary external
tissues lying outside the vascular cambium of stems or roots. It specially consists of the inner
layer of secondary phloem tissue and outer layer of phellogen.
The secondary external tissues lying outside the cambium in stem or root of dicot plants are
known as the bark. Following are the tissues present in bark i.e., Cork (phellem), phellogen and
phelloderm (collectively known as periderm), cortex, pericycle, primary phloem and secondary
phloem. In Botany, the bark also known as periderm and tissues lying outside it, i.e., cork,
phellogen and phelloderm.
A young bark includes epidermis, cortex, pericycle and phloem. The cork cells in transverse
section are often tangentially elongated and arranged in regular radial rows. The cortex is usually
composed of a ground mass of parenchyma. An outer band of collenchyma often occurs. Sieve
tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and medullary cells are present in the phloem. Due
to excessive growth produced by cambium and cork cambium, the external tissues get
tangentially stretched or torn and epidermis is not found in the bark.
Bark is obtained from the plant by making longitudinal and transverse incision through the outer
layer followed by peeling. Generally, bark is collected in spring or early summer because the
cambium is very active and thin walled and detached easily.
THEORY:
The following features may be used to describe the morphology of bark.
1. Shape: The shape of the bark depends upon the mode

of cuts made and the extent and shrinkage occurred
during drying.
a. Flat: When the large piece of the bark is collected

from old trunk and dried under pressure, the bark is
flat, e.g., Quillaia and Arjuna barks.
b. Curved: Here, both the sides of the bark are curved
inside, e.g., Wild cherry, Cassia and Cascara barks.
c. Recurved: Both sides of bark are curved outside, e.g.,
Kurchi bark.
d. Channelled: When the sides of bark are curved
towards inner side to form channel, e.g., Cascara,
Cassia and Cinnamon barks. Fig 01: Different shapes of bark
e. Quill: If one edge of bark covers the other edge, it is
called quill, e.g., Ceylon, Cinnamon and Cascara barks.
f. Double quill: Here, both the edges curve inward to form double quill, e.g., Cinnamon and
Cassia barks.
g. Compound quill: When the quills of smaller diameter are packed into bigger quills, it is
called compound quills. Compound quills are formed to save the space in packing and
transportation, e.g., Cinnamon bark.
2. Outer surface:
a. Smooth: When development of cork is even, e.g., Arjuna bark.

b. Lenticels: They are transversely elongated holes formed on outer surface because of lateral
pressure, e.g., Wild Cherry and Cascara barks.
c. Cracks and fissures: They are formed due to increase in diameter, e.g., Cinchona bark
d. Longitudinal wrinkles: They are formed because of shrinkage of soft tissues, e.g., Cascara
bark.
e. Furrows: If troughs between

wrinkles are wide, it is called
furrows, e.g., Cinchona calisaya
bark.
f. Exfoliation: Sometimes the cork of
bark flakes off exposing cortex, e.g.,
in Wild cherry bark.
g. Rhytidoma: It is composite dead
tissue consisting of alternate layers of
cork, cortex and/or phloem, e.g.,
Quillaia and Tomentosa barks.
Sometimes it is removed during
peeling.
h. Corky warts: They are the small
circular patches, found sometimes in old
Fig 02: Morphological characters of bark
barks, e.g., in Cinchona succirubra and
Ashoka barks.
i. Epiphytes: Such as moss, lichen and liverworts are sometimes seen in bark, e.g., Cascara
bark.
3. Surface:
The various characters shown by the barks on the outer as well as inner surface are also
diagnostic characters of bark. Inner surface. The color, condition and presence of several growth-
like lichens, mosses are characteristic of the bark. The presence of lenticels and development of
cracks are additional characteristic of bark.
Outer surface of bark shows presence of:
a. Fissures: Usually deep marking.

b. Wrinkle: Due to shrinkage of inside soft tissue.
c. Furrows: Trough between the wrinkles.
Inner surface of bark shows:
a. Striations: When parallel longitudinal ridges are formed during drying, it is called striations;
it may be fine or coarse, e.g., Cascara bark.
b. Corrugations: They are the parallel transverse wrinkles formed due to longitudinal
shrinkage, e.g., Cascara bark.
4. Fracture: The appearance of exposed surface of transversely broken bark is called fracture.
Serial Type Description Examples

no.
1. Short Smooth Cassia, Cinnamon, Carcara
2. Granular Shows grain-like minute prominences Wild cherry
3. Splintery Shows uneven projecting points Quillaia
4. Fibrous Shows thread like fibres Cascara
5. Laminated Shows tangentially elongated layers Quillaia
Methods of collection of barks:
Bark is generally collected in spring or early summer because the cambium is very active and
thin walled and gets detached easily. Following are the methods of collection of barks.
1. Felling method: The fully grown tree is cut down near the ground level by an axe. The bark
is removed by making suitable longitudinal and transverse cuts on the stem and branches.
The disadvantages of this method are (a) the plant is fully destroyed and (b) the root bark is
not utilized.
2. Uprooting method: In this method, the stem of definite age and diameter are cut down, the
root is dug up and bark is collected from roots, stems and branches. In Java, cinchona bark is
collected by this method.
3. Coppicing method: The plant is allowed to grow up to certain age and diameter. The stems are
cut at a certain distance from ground level. Bark is collected from stem and branches. The stumps
remaining in the ground are allowed to grow up to certain level; again, the shoots are cut to
collect the bark in the same manner. Cascara bark and Ceylon cinnamon bark are collected by this
method.
 PRETEST QUESTIONS:
SERIAL NO.: 01 EXPERIMENT NO.: 1.1 DATE: 08.09.2021
STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CINNAMON BARK
Fig 01: Cinnamon bark
 Name of the drug - Cinnamon Bark
 Synonym - Dalchini, Daruchini
 Biological source - Dried Bark of Cinnamon zeylanium (Family: Lauraceae)
 Morphological Characteristics:
 Shape - Curved
 Size - Length –3.5 cm, Width – 1.1 cm
 Colour - Yellowish brown (Internal), Reddish brown (External)

 Odour - Sweet or Aromatic
 Taste - Sweet
 External Marking - Wrinkle and Annulation
 Fracture - Short and Splintery
 Fracture surface - Uneven
 Special feature (if any) - White markings due to growth of mosses and lichens
 Uses:
1. Carminative
2. Antiseptic agent
3. Mild Astringent
4. Germicide
 Chemical composition:
1. Volatile oil (cinnamic acids)
2. Phlebotomine
3. Mucilage
4. Calcium oxalate
5. Starch
6. Mannitol (sweet substance)
7. Cinnamon oil contains 60-70% of cinnamaldehyde, 5-10% eugenol and benzaldehyde,
cumin aldehyde and other terpenes like phellandrene, pinene, cymene, caryophyllene etc.
OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:
The study of morphological characteristics of Cinnamomum zeylanicum has been successfully
performed.
 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS:
STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CINCHONA BARK
Fig 02: Cinchona bark
 Name of the drug - Cinchona bark

 Synonym – Jesuit Bark, Prussian Bark
 Biological source - Dried bark of Cinchona ledgeriana (Family: Rubiaceae).
 Shape - Curved
 Size - Length –9 cm, Width – 1.4 cm (upper); 3 cm (middle); 2.5 cm
(lower)
 Colour - Dark brown (Inside), Reddish brown (External)
 Odour - Odourless
 Taste - Extremely Bitter
 External Marking - Wrinkles, Fissures and Furrows.
 Fracture - Fibrous
 Special feature (if any) - White patches due to growth of mosses and lichens
 Uses:
1. Antimalarial activity
2. Analgesic, antipyretic, and protoplasmic properties.
3. Bitter stomachic and tonic
4. Also used to treat cardiac arrhythmia
1. Alkaloid is the major chemical constituent of cinchona (quinidine, quinine, cinchonine and
Cinchonidine).
2. Other chemical constituent present in cinchona is quiniarine, cinchotine, hydroquinine,
hydrocinchonadine and cinchotannic acid.
3. Bitter glycoside and starch grains are also present in cinchona.
4. They consist of calcium oxalate and crystalline acid like quinic acid.
OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:
The study of morphological characteristics of Cinchona ledgeriana has been successfully

performed.

STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUITS.
AIM: To study the morphological characteristics of fruits.
OBJECTIVE:
 Understand the morphological characteristics of some fruit containing drug

 Know the chemical composition and uses of those fruit containing drug.
INTRODUCTION:
 Evaluation:
and substitutions.

d) Biochemical variation of drug
e) Deterioration due to treatment and storage
f) Substitution and adulteration, as a result of carelessness, ignorance and fraud.



10. Shape
11. Size
12. Colour
13. Odour
14. Taste
15. External marking
16. Fracture
17. Fracture surface
 Fruit
A fruit is a mature, ripened ovary, along with the contents of the ovary. The ovules of the flowers
after fertilization get converted into seeds, whereas the ovary wall develops further to form the
protective covering over the seed, which is known as fruit.
The branch of horticulture that deals with the study of fruits and their cultivation is called
Pomology. The fruits exhibit a wide spectrum of form, shape, size, weight, color, texture and
seed number. The morphology of seeds is considered as an important criterion for classification
and phylogeny of plants.
THEORY:
Parts of Fruits:
The main parts of a fruit include the

 Exocarp (skin)-The outermost covering of the pericarp of fruits
 Mesocarp (middle part)-Middle part of the fruit
 Endocarp (inner part)- The innermost layer of the pericarp, maybe thin or thick or even
woody.
These three parts make up the pericarp.
Fig 01: Parts of Fruit
Classification of fruit:
Depending upon the number of carpels present in the flowers, and other structures, the fruits fall
into (1) simple fruits, (2) aggregate fruits and (3) compound fruits.
(1) Simple fruits:

Formed from the single carpel or from syncarpous gynoecium. Once again depending upon the
mesocarp, whether it is dry or fleshy; they are classified as dry fruits and fleshy fruits.
 Dry fruits are further sub-classified into dehiscent and indehiscent fruits.
I. Dehiscent capsular fruits:

Type Diagram
1. Legume or pod: It is a dry monocarpellary
fruit developing from superior ovary, dehiscing
by both the margins, i.e., senna, tamarind, pea.
Fig 01a
2. Capsule: It is a dry one to many-chambered
fruit, developing from superior or poly-
carpellary ovary dehiscing in various forms, i.e.,
cardamon, cotton, datura, lobelia, Colchicum,
digitalis, poppy Fig 01b
3. Follicle: Similar to legumes and dehisces at
one margin only, i.e., rauwolfia, anise,
Calotropis.
Fig 01c
4. Siliqua: A dry, two-chambered fruit,
developing from bicarpellary ovary, multi-
seeded. It dehisces from base upwards as in
radish mustard, etc.
Fig 01d
.
II. Indehiscent fruits:
Type Diagram
1. Achene: A dry, one-chambered, one-seeded
fruit developed from superior monocarpellary
ovary. Pericarp is free of seed coat, i.e.,
clematis, rose.
Fig 02a
2. Caryopsis or grain: Small, dry, one-seeded
fruits, developing from simple pistil, pericarp
fused with seedcoat as in maize, rice, bamboo.
Fig 02b
3. Nut: Dry, one-seeded fruits developing from
superior ovary, pericarp hard and woody, i.e.,
areca nut, marking nut, cashew nut.
Fig 02c
4. Samara: Dry, one- or two-seeded, winged
fruit from superior bi- or tricarpellary ovary, i.e.,
Dioscorea, Shorea, etc.
Fig 02d
5. Schizocarp: These are further divided into
two subclasses.
(i) Lomentum: In this type of pod of legume is
partitioned into one-seeded compartments as
observed in acacia, ground nut, cassia fistula.
Fig 02e
(ii) Cremocarp: Dry, two-chambered fruit,
developing from an inferior bicarpellary ovary.
Splitting into two, indehiscent one-seeded pieces
are called mericarps, i.e., coriander, cumin,
fennel, dill, etc
 Fleshy fruits are divided into-
1. Drupe (Stone fruit): A fleshy one or more seeded fruit, with pericarp well differentiated into
epicarp, fleshy mesocarp and hard endocarp as in mango, olive, coconut, etc.
2. Berry: A fleshy, many-seeded fruit developed from superior, single carpel, i.e., tomato, guava,
grapes, banana.
3. Pepo: Pulpy, many-seeded fruit developing from one- or three celled inferior ovaries, i.e.,
cucumber gourd, colocynth, water melon.
4. Pome: Fleshy, one- or more-celled syncarpous fruit. Fleshy part is thalamus, while actual fruit
lies inside, e.g., apple, pear.
5. Hesperidium: A superior, many-seeded fleshy fruit endocarp forming chambers; epicarp and
mesocarp fused to form skin, e.g., orange, lemon.
Fig 02: Types of fleshy fruits
(2) Aggregate fruits:

These fruits get formed from many carpels or apocarpous gynoecium, e.g., raspberry.
Fig 03: Types of aggregate fruits: A Sterculias, B-B1 Strawberry, C-C1 Raspberry, D Custard
Apple
(3) Compound fruits
In this particular case many more flowers come together and form the fruits, e.g., figs, pineapple.
Fig 04: Types of compound fruits: A Jackfruit, B Pineapple, C Mulberry, D Fig
Based on the development of ovary fruits can be classified as:
a) True Fruit - A true fruit can be defined as the fruit which is formed from the fertilized ovary
of the flower. Any true fruit will almost show the following: The pericarp i.e., the ovary wall.
The seed or seeds i.e., the fertilized and ripen ovules. e.g., cherries, plums, peaches.
b) False Fruit-Sometimes it so happens that apart from the ovary and the other floral parts like
thalamus, receptacle or calyx grow and form the part of the fruit, known as false fruit or
pseudocarp. Following are the few examples of pseudocarp in which other parts of the flower
forming important part of the fruits are shown in the bracket. Strawberry (thalamus), cashew
nut (peduncle and thalamus), apple (thalamus), marking nut (peduncle) and rose (thalamus)
c) Parthenocarpic Fruit - Many species and cultivars produce fruit that either lack seeds or
have no viable seeds. The production of such seedless fruits is known as parthenocarpy and
is common for the horticultural varieties of banana, pineapple, cucumber, tomatoes, figs,
oranges, grapes, kiwi, blackberry, pepper, etc.
Fig 05: True Fruit and False Fruit
Other Morphological Features include:
Adhesion: Superior or inferior

Dehiscence: Dehiscent or indehiscent.
Seeds: Numbers of seeds present.
Other characteristics: Odour, taste, food reserves, etc.
Morphology of Umbelliferous or Cremocarp Fruit:

Medicinal fruits derived from plants of the family Umbelliferae are all of one type, known as
Cremocarp. The cremocarp is a variety of schizocarp or splitting fruits which divides into one
seeded portion each corresponding to one carpel; the carpel itself does not open to liberate the
seed. The cremocarp consists of two carpels, each containing one seed, and derived from an
inferior ovary.
At the summit of the fruit there may be five small inconspicuous sepals or a slight rim
representing the calyx and in the centre are the two styles surrounded bellow by the disc like
nectary and forming the Stylopod. When the fruit splits it divides vertically along the septum
between the carpels, the two halves being termed mericarps.
Fig 06: Umbelliferous fruit
Each mericarp therefore has a flat surface, commissural surface, dorsal surface and a rounded
surface. From the central line of each commissural surface a fine thread separates being attached
basally to the pedicel and apically to the upper end of the mericarp; the thread is termed as
Carpophore. The seed in each mericarp is attached by the testa to the pericarp so that it
completely fills the loculus. In the majority of fruits there are schizogenous ducts extending
through the mesocarp from base to apex; each duct is termed as vitta. the number and position of
different fruit is characteristic.
Between the vita the pericarp is ridged externally and a vascular strand is contained each of the
primary ridges. Between the vita the pericarp is ridged externally and a vascular strand is
contained each of these primary ridges and over the vittae there are sometimes occur other ridges
named secondary ridges.
MEDICINALLY IMPORTANT UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS:

Plant Image Use/Importance
Fennel Fennel is used by mouth for
(Foeniculum vulgare) various digestive problems
including heartburn, intestinal
gas, bloating, loss of appetite,
and colic in infants among
Fig 03a others.
Coriander Coriander is used as a
(Coriandrum sativum) flavouring agent in medicines
and tobacco and as a
fragrance in cosmetics and
soaps.
Fig 03b
Ajowan Ajowan fight bacteria and
(Trachyspermum ammi) fungi. Carom seeds have
powerful antibacterial and
antifungal properties. It
Fig 03c
improves cholesterol levels,
may lower blood pressure
and combats peptic ulcers
and relieves indigestion
Caraway Caraway can be made into a

(Carum carvi) tea or taken as a supplement.
Fig 03d
STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF FENNEL
Fig 01: Fennel fruit
 Name of the drug - Fennel
 Synonym - Saumph, Mauri
 Biological source - Dried ripe fruit of Foeniculum vulgare (Family: Umbelliferae)
 Shape - Ovate
 Size - Length –0.8 cm, Width – 0.1 cm
 Colour - Yellowish brown/Golden Yellow
 Odour - Sweet or Aromatic
 Taste - Sweet
 External Marking - Primary ridges and secondary ridges
 Special feature (if any) - 2 mericarps, 1 pedicel and 2 carpophores are present.
 Uses:
1. Fennel is used as stomachic, aromatic, diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, as a digestive,
pectoral, and flavouring agent.
2. Anethole may have estrogenic-like activity and inhibit spasms in smooth muscles.
3. Fennel can increase production of bile, used in the treatment of infant colic.
4. It can promote menstruation in women, can increase lactation, act as antipyretic,
antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory.
1. The best varieties of Fennel contain 4 to 5% of volatile oil.
2. The primary constituents of volatile oil are 50 to 60% of anethole, a phenolic ether; and 18 to
22% of fenchone, a ketone.
3. Fenchone is chemically a bicyclic monoterpene which is a colourless liquid and the odour
and taste is pungent and camphoraceous.
4. The oil of Fennel has β-pinene, anisic acid, phellandrene, and anisic aldehyde.
5. Fennel also contains about 20% fixed oil and 20% proteins.
6. Anethole has an aromatic odour and sweet taste whereas fenchone has a camphoraceous
odour and taste.
7. Volatile oil also contains methyl chavicol, anisic aldehydes, α and β- pinene, ascorbic acid,
niacin, riboflavin, etc.
Fig 02: Important chemical constituents of Fennel

OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:
The study of morphological characteristics of Foeniculum vulgare has been successfully performed.
STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CORIANDER
Fig 01: Coriander Fruit
 Name of the drug - Coriander
 Synonym - Dhania, Cilantro, Chinese parsley
 Biological source - Dried ripe fruit of Coriandrum sativum (Family: Umbelliferae)
 Shape - Globular
 Size - Length –0.5 cm, Diameter – 0.2 cm
 Colour - Aromatic
 Odour - Aromatic
 Taste - Spicy, characteristic taste of slightly citrusy bitter.
 External Marking - Primary ridges - 10 and secondary ridges - 8
 Special feature (if any) - 2 mericarps, 1 pedicel, stylopod and 2 carpophores are
present.
 Uses:
1. It is used as an aromatic, carminative, stimulant, alterative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic
and flavouring agent.
2. It is also used as refrigerant, tonic, appetizer, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and stomachic.
3. Coriander can be applied externally for rheumatism and painful joints.
4. The infusion of decoction of dried fruit of cardamom is useful for the treatment of sore-
throat, indigestion, vomiting, flatulence, and other intestinal disorders.
1. Coriander consists of about 1% of volatile oil the chief volatile components are D - (+) -
linalool (coriandrol), along with other constituents like, borneol, p-cymene, camphor,
geraniol, limonene, and alpha-pinenes.
2. The fruits also contain fatty oil and hydroxycoumarins.
3. The fatty oils include acids of petroselinic acid, oleic acid, linolenic acid, whereas the
hydroxycoumarins include the umbelliferon and scopoletin.
4. The chief constituent of Coriander is volatile oil (0.15 to 1.0%), which contains 65 to 70% of
(+)-linalool (coriandrol) and pinene.
5. Coriander also contains a small amount of fixed oil and protein.
Fig 02: Chemical constituents of Coriander

OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:
The study of morphology of Coriandrum sativum has been successfully performed.

STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOWERS.
AIM: To study the morphological characteristics of flowers.
OBJECTIVE:
 Understand the morphological characteristics of some flower containing drug

 Know the chemical composition and uses of those flowers containing drug.
INTRODUCTION:
 Evaluation:
and substitutions.

g) Biochemical variation of drug
h) Deterioration due to treatment and storage
i) Substitution and adulteration, as a result of carelessness, ignorance and fraud.



19. Shape
20. Size
21. Colour
22. Odour
23. Taste
24. External marking
25. Fracture
26. Fracture surface
 Flower:
A flower is the reproductive unit of an angiosperm plant. It is actually a modified shoot meant
for production of seeds. It consists of four different circles (whorls) arranged in a definite
manner.
Fig 01: Parts of Flower
THEORY:
Parts of a typical Flower:
The four whorls of the flowers can be described as under:
1. Calyx: It is the outermost whorl of flower and is generally green in color, the individual
member of which is called sepal.
2. Corolla: It is the second whorl of flower and is either white or bright colored, each member of
which is known as petal.
3. Androecium: It is the third circle of flower and constitutes the male part. The individual
component is called stamen and each stamen consists of filament, anther and connective.
4. Gynoecium: This is the fourth circle of the flower and constitutes the female part. Each
component is known as carpel or pistil and is made of stigma, style and ovary.
With powdered flowers the pollen grains, portions of the fibrous layer of the anther wall and the
papillose epidermis of the stigmas are obvious features.
Classification of Flowers:
Flowers can be classified based on different parameters-
1) Depending upon the arrangement of floral parts on thalamus, the flowers may be of
three types:
Type Diagram
(i) Hypogynous flower (Superior ovary): Herein
the thalamus is conical, flat, convex and stamens,
sepals and petals are arranged at base and ovary at
the apex, e.g.: brinjal, China rose, mustard, etc.
Fig 01a
(ii) Perigynous flowers (Half-superior Ovary):
Thalamus is flat, sepals and stamens grow around
the ovary. The flowers are said to be perigynous
as in Rose, Strawberry peach.
Fig 01b
(iii) Epigynous flower (Inferior ovary): The
thalamus is fused with ovary wall, calyx, corolla,
stamen appear at the top and the gynaecium at the
bottom as in Sunflower, cucumber, apple, etc.
Fig 01c
2) Depending on placentation flowers can be classified-

Placentation refers to the way the ovules and developing seeds are attached to the plant's ovary.
Each developing seed will attach to the wall of the ovary or a central structure in the ovary. A
filament of plant tissue called a funiculus connects the seed to the ovary wall. It transports
nutrients to the seed in a similar way to how an umbilical cord carries nutrients to a fetus in the
womb. The inner layer of the ovary is called the placenta.
There are five common patterns of placentation in angiosperms that define how the seeds are
arranged within the fruit. These patterns are called axile placentation, marginal placentation,
parietal placentation, basal placentation, and superficial placentation.
Type Diagram
1. Marginal: It is characteristic to
monocarpellary ovary and placentae arise on
ventral suture, e.g., bean and pea.
Fig 02a
2. Axil: It is characteristic to polycarpellary
syncarpous, bilocular or multilocular ovary.
Ventral sutures of each carpel meet at the centre
and each of them have marginal placentation, e.g.,
onion, China rose, ipomoea
Fig 02b
3. Parietal: It is characteristic to polycarpellary
syncarpous ovary and the placentae develop on
the ventral suture but the ovary is unilocular as in
papaya and Cucurbita.
Fig 02c
4. Free Central: It is characteristic to
polycarpellary syncarpous ovary, which is
unilocular. Ovules arise on the central axis, but it
is not connected with the peripheral wall, e.g.,
Dianthus, Saponaria, Portulaca
Fig 02d
5. Basal: It is characteristic to polycarpellary and
unilocular ovary. Only one ovule is present and it
arises from its base as in sunflower.
Fig 02e
3) Depending on Aestivation flowers can be classified-
The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other members of
the same whorl is known as aestivation. The main types of aestivation are valvate, twisted,
imbricate and vexillary.
Type Diagram
A. Valvate- When sepals or petals in a whorl

just touch one another at the margin,
without overlapping, as in Calotropis, it is
said to be valvate.
Fig 03a
B. Twisted- If one margin of the appendage
overlaps that of the next one and so on as in
China rose, lady’s finger and cotton, it is
called twisted.
Fig 03b
C. Imbricate-If the margins of sepals or
petals overlap one another but not in any
particular direction as in Cassia and
Gulmohur, the aestivation is called
imbricate.
Fig 03c
D. Vexillary/Papilionaceous- In pea and
bean flowers, there are five petals, the
largest (standard) overlaps the two lateral
petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two
smallest anterior petals (keel); this type of
aestivation is known as vexillary or
papilionaceous.
Fig 03d
4) Depending on Floral Symmetry flowers can be classified-
In symmetry, the flower may be actinomorphic (radial symmetry) or zygomorphic (bilateral

symmetry).
A. When a flower can be divided into two equal radial halves in any radial plane passing through
the centre, it is said to be actinomorphic, e.g., mustard, datura, chilli.
B. When it can be divided into two similar halves only in one particular vertical plane, it is
zygomorphic, e.g., pea, Gulmohur, bean, Cassia.
C. A flower is asymmetric (irregular) if it cannot be divided into two similar halves by any
vertical plane passing through the centre, as in canna
Modification of Androecium:
Stamens of flower may be united with other members such as petals or among themselves.
1. When stamens are attached to the petals, they are epipetalous as in brinjal, or epiphyllous
when attached to the perianth as in the flowers of lily.
2. The stamens in a flower may either remain free (polyandrous) or may be united in varying
degrees.
3. The stamens may be united into one bunch or one bundle (monoadelphous) as in China rose,
or two bundles (diadelphous) as in pea, or into more than two bundles (polyadelphous) as in
citrus.
4. There may be a variation in the length of filaments within a flower, as in Salvia and mustard.
Modification of Gynaecium:
1. When more than one carpel is present, they may be free (as in lotus and rose) and are called
apocarpous.
2. They are termed syncarpous when carpels are fused, as in mustard and tomato.
3. After fertilisation, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit.
Inflorescence:
A flower is a modified shoot wherein the shoot apical meristem changes to floral meristem.
Internodes do not elongate and the axis gets condensed. The apex produces different kinds of
floral appendages laterally at successive nodes instead of leaves. When a shoot tip transforms
into a
flower, it is always solitary. The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as
inflorescence.
Depending on whether the apex gets developed into a flower or continues to grow, two major
types of inflorescences are defined – racemose and cymose.
 In racemose type of inflorescences, the main axis continues to grow, the flowers are
borne laterally in an acropetal succession.
 In cymose type of inflorescence the main axis terminates in a flower, hence is limited in
growth.The flowers are borne in a basipetal order.
Fig 03: Types of inflorescences- Racemose (Left), Cymose (Right)
MEDICINALLY IMPORTANT FLOWER CONTAINING CRUDE DRUGS:
Plant Name Image Importance/Use

Clove Clove is used for upset stomach and
(Eugenia caryophyllus) as an expectorant. Expectorants
make it easier to cough up phlegm.
Fig 04a
Saffron It is used for sleep problems
(Crocus sativus) (insomnia), cancer, “hardening of
the arteries” (atherosclerosis),
intestinal gas (flatulence)
Fig 04b
Pyrethrum Pyrethrin is in body
(Chrysanthemum lice medicines such as A-200
cinerariifolium) Pyrinate, Barc
Fig 04c
Chamomile Chamomile preparations are
(Matricaria chamomilla commonly used for many human
L.) ailments such as hay fever,
inflammation, muscle spasms,
menstrual disorders
Fig 04d
STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CLOVE
Fig 01: Clove
 Name of the drug - Clove
 Synonym - Laung, Lavanga
 Biological source - Dried flower bud of Eugenia caryophyllus (Family: Myrtaceae)
 Shape - Globular, depressed at base; sub-cylindrical
 Size - Total length –1.5 cm, Diameter of globular part – 0.5 cm,
Length of stalk – 1 cm.
 Colour - Dark brown/Reddish brown
 Odour - Aromatic and Characteristic
 Taste - Pungent, creates numbness in tongue
 External Marking - Wrinkles
 Fracture - Short and Splintery

 Fracture surface - Even
 Special feature (if any) - Presence of Hypanthium, fused corolla and four sepals
 Uses:
1. The fresh leaves, its juice and volatile oil are used for various purposes.
2. The oil is antibacterial and insecticidal.
3. The leaves are used as stimulant, aromatic, spasmolytic, and diaphoretic.
4. The juice is used as an antiperiodic and as a constituent of several preparations for skin
diseases and also to cure earache.
5. Infusion of the leaves is used as a stomachic.
6. The drug is a good immunomodulatory agent.
1. Clove contains 14–21% of volatile oil.
2. The other constituents present are the eugenol, acetyl eugenol, gallotannic acid, and two
crystalline principles; α- and β- caryophyllenes, methyl furfural, gum, resin, and fibre.
3. Caryophyllin is odourless component and appears to be a phytosterol, whereas eugenol is
a colourless liquid.
4. Clove oil has 60–90% eugenol, which is the cause of its anaesthetic and antiseptic
properties.
Fig 19: Chemical Constituents of Clove oil

OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:
The study of morphology of Eugenia caryophyllus has been successfully performed.

STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAVES.
AIM: To study the morphological characteristics of leaves.
OBJECTIVE:
 Understand the morphological characteristics of some flower containing drug

 Know the chemical composition and uses of those flowers containing drug.
INTRODUCTION:
 Evaluation:
and substitutions.

a. Biochemical variation of drug
b. Deterioration due to treatment and storage
c. Substitution and adulteration, as a result of carelessness,
ignorance and fraud.



1. Shape
2. Size
3. Colour
4. Odour
5. Taste
6. External marking
7. Fracture
8. Fracture surface
 Leaves:
Among the different parts of a plant, the leaf is the most essential. Primarily, leaves have two
functions: photosynthesis and transpiration. In some plants, it takes up the responsibility of
reproduction also. Leaves are thin, flat organs responsible for photosynthesis in the plants. It
develops laterally at the node. It is an important part of the shoot system and it originates from
shoot apical meristems.
The structure of a leaf is described below in detail:
 Parts of a leaf:
Generally, leaf base, petiole, and lamina, together form the main parts of a leaf.
a. Leaf Base-This is the part where a leaf attaches to the stem. Leaf base has two small leaf-like
structure called stipules. In plants like paddy, wheat, and other monocotyledons, this leaf base
is wide and masks the stem.
b. Petiole- Petiole is the long, thin, stalk that links the leaf blade to the stem.
c. Lamina-Also known as leaf blade. It is the green, flat surface of the leaves. It consists of a
small, branched vein and veinlets. The vein that runs along the middle of the lamina is called
midrib. Midrib divides the surface of the lamina into two. These veins and veinlets give
rigidity to the leaf blade and help in the transportation of water and other substances.
Fig 01: Parts of a Leaf
 Types of a leaf:
There are two broad categories of leaves – simple and compound, which are further classified into
different groups based on their shape, size, their arrangements on the stem, leaves of flowering and
non-flowering plants, and various other physical attributes.
The two different types of leaves found in a plant are:
a. Simple Leaf: When a single lamina is connected to the main stem by a petiole, the leaf is said
to be simple. A simple leaf may be incised to any depth but not down to the midrib or petiole
(Guava leaf).
Fig 02: Parts of a Simple Leaf
b. Compound Leaf: A compound leaf is a leaf made up of two or more leaflets. In a compound
leaf, the midrib of the leaf is branched into different leaflets and is connected by a single
petiole (Pea leaf, palm leaf).
Fig 03: Parts of a Compound Leaf

The compound leaves are further sub-divided into the following types of leaves:
a. Palmately Compound Leaf: In a palmately compound leaf, the leaflets are attached at
the tip of the petiole. E.g. - Silk cotton.
These can be differentiated into:
 Unifoliate- These types of leaves have only one leaflet (Citrus).
 Bifoliate- These leaves have two leaflets (Balanites).
 Trifoliate- These leaves have three leaflets emerging from the same point (Oxalis)
 Quadrifoliate- These leaves have four leaflets arising from the same point (Marsilea).
 Multifoliate- This type of leaf has many leaflets arising at a common pin (Bombax).
b. Pinnately Compound Leaf: In a pinnately compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is
divided into numerous leaflets and all connected by a common axis (Neem).
These can be further differentiated into:

 Pinnate: A compound leaf that has an axis on each side of the midrib is known as a
pinnate leaf.
 Unipennate: The leaf with leaflets on each side of the axis.
E.g.-Cassia.
 Bipinnate: Here, a secondary axis bearing the leaflet is produced by the central axis.
E.g.- Acacia.
 Tripinnate: Here, a tertiary axis bearing leaflets emerges from the secondary axis.
E.g.- Moringa.
 Decompound: Leaf with more than three pinnate.
E.g.- Old leaves of coriander.
 Paripinnate: A leaf without a terminal leaflet.
E.g.- Cassia.
 Imparipinnate: Leaf with an odd terminal leaflet.
E.g.- Pea.
 Arrangement of Leaves:
Many vegetative keys employ the arrangement of leaves and buds as a basis for separation.
The use of the four categories by the student allows him/her to categorize plants into groups
and assists in eliminating many plants from consideration in the process of positive
identification.
1. Opposite: Leaves and buds directly across from each other on the stem. e.g.: Acer, Lonicera,
Deutzia, Viburnum.
2. Alternate: Leaves and buds are spaced in alternating fashion along the axis of the stem and
seldom, if ever, are seated directly across from each other. Ex: Betula, Fagus, Quercus,
Ce/tis, Ulmus, Carya.
3. Subopposite: Subopposite refers to a condition where the leaves and buds are not spaced
sufficiently far apart to be considered alternate nor are they perfectly opposite, hence, the
term subopposite. Examples: Rhamnus cathartica, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Chionanthus
virginicus.
4. Whorled: Whorled refers to a condition when three buds and leaves (or more) are present at
a node. Examples: Catalpa, Hydrangea paniculata 'Grandiflora', Cephalanthus
occidentalis.
 Types of Venations:
2. Pinnate. The leaf has a prominent central vein (often termed themidrib) which extends from
the base, where the petiole attaches to the blade, to the apex of the leaf. If the interveinal
areas were removed the overall effect would be that of a fishbone. Pinnate venation occurs in
the leaves of many plant types. The elm (Ulmus) and oak (Quercus) are classic examples.
3. Palmate: There are several main veins all of approximately equal size which extend from the
base of the leaf to the apex of the lobe or margin of leaf. Examples: Acer, Platanus, Cercis.
4. Dichotomous: A very limited type of venation, the most familiar representative of which is
Ginkgo biloba. The basal veins extend for a distance and then branch forming a "Y" type
pattern.
5. Parallel: Typical of many monocotyledonous plants. The veins run essentially parallel to each
other along the long axis of the leaf. Examples: Zea mays (corn), Ruscus, Danae.
 Leaf Bases:
 Leaf Margins:
 Leaf Apices:
 Leaf Surface:
1) Farinose: bearing farina; mealy, covered with a waxy, whitish powder.
2) Glabrous: smooth, not hairy.
3) Glaucous: with a whitish bloom; covered with a very fine, bluish-white powder.
4) Glutinous: sticky, viscid. papillate, or papillose: bearing papillae (minute, nipple-
shaped protuberances).
5) Pubescent: covered with erect hairs (especially soft and short ones).
6) Punctate: marked with dots; dotted with depressions or with translucent glands or
colored dots.
7) Rugose: deeply wrinkled; with veins clearly visible.
8) Scurfy: covered with tiny, broad scalelike particles.
9) Tuberculate: covered with tubercles; covered with warty prominences.
10) Verrucose: warted, with warty outgrowths.
11) Viscid, or Viscous: covered with thick, sticky secretions.
STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF SENNA LEAF

Aim: To determine the morphological features of senna leaf.
Fig 01: Senna Leaves
 Name of the drug: Senna leaf.
 Synonym: Alexandrian senna, Tinnevelly senna, Folia senna
Senna leaf consists of the dried leaflets of Cassia acutifolia Delile (C.
 Biological source: senna L.) known as Alexandrian senna and of C. angustifolia Vahl.,
which is commercially known as Tinnevelly senna. It belongs family
Leguminosae.
Shape: Lanceolate
Size: 3 cm (length), 1 cm (width)
Colour: Golden yellow
Odour: Odourless
Taste: Bitter, mucilaginous
External marking: No such marking
Fracture: Fibrous
Fracture surface: Even
Special feature: Compound leaf
Apex: Acute
Base: Asymmetrical
Petiole: Petiolate
Margin Entire
Chemical constituent: Senna contains sennosides A and B (2.5%) based on the aglycones
sennidin A and B, sennosides C and D which are glycosides of
heterodianthrones of aloe-emodin and rhein are present. Others
include palmidin A, rhein anthrone and aloe-emodin glycosides.
Senna also contains free chryso phanol, emodin and their glycosides
and free aloe-emodin, rhein, their monoanthrones, dianthrones and
their glycosides. Mucilage is present in the epidermis of the leaf and
gives red colour with ruthenium red.
Fig 02: Structure of Sennosides
 Uses:
Senna leaves are used as laxative. It causes irritation of large intestine and have some griping
effect. Thus they are prescribed along with carminatives. Senna is stimulant cathartic and
exerts its action by increasing the tone of the smooth muscles in large intestine.
OBSERVATION:
CONCLUSION:
The study of morphological characteristics of Cassia angustifolia has been successfully performed.
MICROSCOPIC
EVALUATION OF CRUDE
DRUGS
STUDY OF THE MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT

PLANT PARTS
AIM: To study the microscopic characteristics of different plant parts.
OBJECTIVE:
 Understand the microscopic characteristics of different plant parts.

 Know the different aspects of microscopic evaluation of crude drugs.
INTRODUCTION:
Microscopic characters are one of the important aspects of pharmacognosy as it helps in
establishing the correct identity of a drug. Under this heading all the detailed microscopic
characters of a drug is described.
Microscopic evaluation is indispensable in the initial identification of herbs, as well as in
identifying small fragments of crude or powdered herbs, and in the detection of adulterants (e.g.
insects, animal faeces, mold, fungi, etc.) as well as identifying the plant by characteristic tissue
features. Every plant possesses a characteristic tissue structure, which can be demonstrated
through study of tissue arrangement, cell walls, and configuration when properly mounted in
stains, reagents, and media. The characteristic features of cell walls, cell contents, starch grains,
calcium oxalate crystals, trichomes, fibres, vessels, etc. have been studied in details.
 Lignin stains red or pink with a drop of phloroglucinol and concentrated hydrochloric acid.
 Mucilage is stained pink with ruthenium red, and N/50 iodine solution stains starch and
hemicellulose blue.
 Surinam quassia is recognized by the absence of calcium oxalate and presence of uniseriate
medullary rays, crystal fibres, and wavy medullary rays of cascara bark, lignified trichomes,
and plasmodesma in Nux vomica.
 Stone cells are absent in the frangula bark, whereas they are present in cascara. Presence of
pith in rhizomes and absence in roots, warty trichomes of senna, and presence or absence of
crystals of aloin indicates different varieties of aloes, glandular trichomes of mint, etc.
STUDY OF THE MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF FENNEL
Fig 01: Fennel Fruit & Powder
 Name of the drug - Fennel
 Synonym - Mouri, Saunf
 Biological source - Dried ripe fruit of Foeniculum vulgare (Family: Umbellifereae/Apiaceae)
Fennel, a hardy, beautiful plant, perennial, umbelliferous herb, with yellow flowers and feathery
leaves, grows wild in many parts of the world. The plants grow to a height of 2 m, erect and
cylindrical and take enough space in branching. Fennel is propagated by seeds during April in
ordinary soil. Fennel is used as stomachic, aromatic, and diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, as a
digestive, pectoral, and flavouring agent.
 Microscopic Characteristics:
 The transverse section of mericarp region of fennel shows two prominent surfaces, the
dorsal and the commissural surface.
 The commissural surface has carpophores and two vittae, and the dorsal surface has a
total of five ridges.
 The mericarp is divided into pericarp, consisting of the epicarp and mesocarp; the testa
and the endocarp.
 Epicarp consists of polygonal cells of epidermis which are tangentially elongated and
covered by the cuticle.
 Mesocarp has parenchyma cells with five bicollateral vascular bundles; below each
primary ridge a lignified reticulate parenchyma surrounds the vascular bundles.
 There are four vittae on dorsal surface and two vittae on commissural or the ventral
surface.
 Inner Epidermis or Endocarp shows parquetry arrangement (a group of four to five cells
arranged parallel at acute angles with groups of similar cells in different direction).
 Testa is a single-layered tangentially elongated cell with yellowish colour.
 Endosperm consists of thick-walled, wide polyhedral, colourless cells.
 Cells contain fixed oil, aleurone grains, and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate.
Description of the different parts are-

Parts Description
Pericarp
Epicarp A layer of quadrangular to polygonal cells, with smooth
cuticle
Mericarp Reticulate, lignified parenchyma surrounding the vascular
bundles
Vascular Bundles Five in number, bicollateral, present below each ridge
(Primary Ridge)
Vittae Schizogenous oil cells, 4 on dorsal side, 2 on commissural
surface, ventricular surface. About 250 microns in maximum
width, the walls are brown.
Endocarp Consists of narrow elongated cells having a parquetry
arrangement (group of parallel cells arranged in different
directions)
Seed
Raphe A single ridge of vascular strands appears in the middle of
commissural surface
Endosperm Thick walled, polygonal cellulosic parenchyma containing oil
globules (fixed oil) aleurone grains and rosette crystals of
calcium oxalate
Testa Single layered, yellowish brown in color
Carpophores With very thick-walled sclerenchyma in 2 strands.
Fig 02: T.S. of Fennel Fruit (Mericarp)
Fig 03: T.S. of Fennel Fruit (Hand drawn)
Fig 04: T.S. of Fennel Fruit (Microscopy)

 Procedure:
1. Fennel fruits are collected.
2. They are kept in water overnight.
3. Thin transverse sections of the fruit are collected.
4. The section is observed under microscope by placing on a glass slide.
 Uses:
5. Fennel is used as stomachic, aromatic, diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, as a digestive,
pectoral, and flavouring agent.
6. Anethole may have estrogenic-like activity and inhibit spasms in smooth muscles.
7. Fennel can increase production of bile, used in the treatment of infant colic.
8. It can promote menstruation in women, can increase lactation, act as antipyretic,
antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory.
OBSERVATION:
Fig 05: T.S. of Fennel Fruit

Fig 06: T.S. of Fennel Fruit (Zoom-in picture)
Fig 06: Diagram of T.S. of Fennel Fruit
CONCLUSION:
Microscopic evaluation of Foeniculum vulgare has been performed successfully.

STUDY OF THE MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF CORIANDER FRUIT

Fig 01: Coriander Fruit & Powder
 Name of the drug - Coriander
 Synonym - Dhania, Cilantro, Chinese Parsley
 Biological source - Dried ripe fruit of Coriandrum sativum (Family:

Umbellifereae/Apiaceae)
Coriander is cultivated in Central and Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, Hungary, in Africa
and India. The coriander seeds are sown in dry weather either in March or in early autumn. The
fruit is a cremocarp, sub spherical in shape, yellowish brown in color. It is used as Aromatic,
carminative, stimulant, alterative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic and flavoring agent. It is also used
as refrigerant, tonic, and appetizer, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and stomachic. Coriander can be
applied externally for rheumatism and painful joints.
 Microscopic features:
 The transverse section of coriander shows the presence of a dorsal surface and a commissural
surface.
 The dorsal surface consists of two vittae and a carpophore.
 The dorsal surface has five primary ridges and four secondary ridges.
 The epicarp consists of a single row of small thick-walled cells with calcium oxalate crystals.
 The mesocarp has an outer loosely arranged tangentially elongated parenchyma cells and the
middle layer consisting of sclerenchyma.
 The middle layer is again divided into; the outer region of sclerenchyma is represented by
longitudinally running fibres, whereas the inner region has tangentially running fibres.
 The vascular bundles are present below the primary ridges.
 The inner layer has polygonal, irregularly arranged parenchyma cells.
 The endocarp has the parquetry arrangement.
 In the testa it has single-layered, yellowish cells, and the endosperm is thick, polygonal,
colourless parenchyma with fixed oil and aleurone grains.

Parts Description
Pericarp
Epicarp Single layer, thickened, polygonal tabular cells. Few cells contain
calcium oxalate. Crystals covered by smooth cuticle.
Mesocarp Divided into 3 layers
I)Outer layer Poorly arranged tangentially elongated non-lignified parenchyma.
Lacunae at dorsal side.
II)Middle layer Fusiform, lignified sclerenchymatous cells in sinuous cells.
Sclerenchymatous cells are of two types-
a) Tangentially elongated sclerenchyma
b) Longitudinally elongated sclerenchyma
III)Inner layer Large, irregular, hexagonal lignified parenchyma
Endocarp Inner pericarp shows typical parquetry arrangement of cells
Vascular bundles Five vascular bundles at dorsal side, present above longitudinally
elongated sclerenchyma
Vittae Two vittae at ventral side. No vitta at dorsal side
Seed
Testa Single layered and yellowish in colour
Endosperm Thick-walled polygonal cellulosic parenchyma containing food or
aleurone grains and micro rosette of calcium oxalate.
Carpophore a slender prolongation of the floral axis, bearing the carpels
Fig 02: T.S. of Coriander Fruit (Mericarp)
Fig 03: T.S. of Coriander Fruit (Hand drawn)

Fig 04: T.S. of Coriander Fruit (Microscopy)
 Procedure:
1. Coriander fruits are collected.
2. They are kept in water overnight.
3. Thin transverse sections of the fruit are collected.
 Uses:
1. It is used as an aromatic, carminative, stimulant, alterative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic and
flavouring agent.
2. It is also used as refrigerant, tonic, appetizer, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and stomachic.
3. Coriander can be applied externally for rheumatism and painful joints.
4. The infusion of decoction of dried fruit of cardamom is useful for the treatment of sore-
throat, indigestion, vomiting, flatulence, and other intestinal disorders.
OBSERVATION:
Fig 05: T.S. of Coriander Fruit
Fig 06: Diagram of T.S. of Coriander Fruit
CONCLUSION:
The study of microscopy of Coriandrum sativum has been successfully performed.

STUDY OF THE MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF CLOVE
Fig 01: Clove Bud & Powder
 Name of the drug - Clove
 Synonym - Laung, Lavanga
 Biological source - Dried flower bud of Eugenia caryophyllus (Family: Myrtaceae)
Clove is reddish-brown in color, with an upper crown and a hypanthium. Clove tree is evergreen
and 10 to 20 m in height. The plant requires moist, warm and equable climate with well
distributed rainfall. Clove is used as an antiseptic, stimulant, carminative, aromatic, and as a
flavoring agent. It is also used as anodyne, antiemetic. Dentists use clove oil as an oral anesthetic
and to disinfect the root canals. Clove kills intestinal parasite.
1. T.S passing through Columella:
 The transverse section through the hypanthium shows the following characters. It has a
single layer of epidermis covered with thick cuticle.
 The epidermis has ranunculaceous stomata. The cortex has three distinct regions: the
peripheral region with two to three layers of schizolysigenous oil glands, embedded in
parenchymatous cells.
 The middle layer has few layers of bicollateral vascular bundle. In the inner portion it has
loosely arranged aerenchyma cells.
 The central cylinder contains thick-walled parenchyma with a ring of bicollateral vascular
bundles and abundant sphaeraphides.
2. T.S passing through Ovary:

 Ovary and with ovarian wall.
 Parenchymatous dissepiments.
 Starch, prisms of Calcium oxalate and stone cells are absent.
3. L.S of Clove Bud Description:
Parts Description
Stamens Incurved
Style Erect about 3mm long
Ovary Two celled, inferior ovaries with numerous ovules attached to axile
placenta.
Columella Column shaped, short
Oil Gland schizolysigenous oil glands which are ellipsoidal in shape
Fig 02: L.S. of Clove Bud (Hand drawn)
Fig 03: T.S. of Clove bud (Hand drawn): through Ovary (left); through Columella (right)
Fig 04: T.S. of Clove bud (Microscopy): through Ovary (left); through Columella (right)
 Procedure:
1. Cloves are collected.
2. They are soaked in water overnight.
3. Longitudinal Section of entire clove bud is done.
4. Transverse Section of clove is done at two positions- a) passing through ovary, b) passing
through hypanthium.
5. The sections are observed under microscope by placing on a glass slide.
 Uses:
3. The fresh leaves, its juice and volatile oil are used for various purposes.
4. The oil is antibacterial and insecticidal.
5. The leaves are used as stimulant, aromatic, spasmolytic, and diaphoretic.
6. The juice is used as an antiperiodic and as a constituent of several preparations for skin
diseases and also to cure earache.
7. Infusion of the leaves is used as a stomachic.
8. The drug is a good immunomodulatory agent.
OBSERVATION:
Fig 05: L.S. and T.S. of Clove bud

Fig no.6 – L.S of clove bud
Fig 07: Diagram of T.S. of Clove bud (passing through ovary)

Fig 08: Diagram of T.S. of Clove bud (passing through columnella)
CONCLUSION:
Microscopic evaluation of Eugenia caryophyllus has been performed successfully.

STUDY OF THE MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF CINNAMON
Fig 01: Cinnamon Bark & Powder
 Name of the drug - Cinnamon
 Synonym - Daruchini, Dalchini, Cortex cinnamon, Chinese cassia.
 Biological source - Dried bark of Cinnamomum zeylancium (Family: Lauraceae)
Cinnamon is cultivated by seed propagation method; about four to five seeds are placed in each
hole at 2 m distance between the plants. The tree grows best in almost pure requiring only 1% of
vegetable substance. It is used as an alternative, aromatic, carminative, flavouring agent,
analgesic, antiseptic, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, demulcent, digestive, expectorant,
stomachic, diaphoretic, antibacterial, antifungal, etc.
 The transverse section shows the presence of three to four layers of sclereids which are
horse shoe shaped consisting of starch grains.
 The pericyclic fibres (6 to 15) are present on the outer margin.
 It consists of-
A) sieve tubes which are completely collapsed and are arranged tangentially;
B) lignified phloem fibres, arranged as tangential rows of four to five cells;
C) biseriate medullary rays with needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals;
D) longitudinally elongated idioblast consisting of volatile oil;

E) sub-rectangular parenchyma cells with starch grains and
F) Calcium oxalate crystals.

Part Description
Pericycle (Stone Cell Layers) Produce light, coloured waxy longitudinal lines on cuticle
of bark
Pericyclic fibres Small groups of about 6-15 pericylic fibres (lignified)
occur at intervals
Sclereids 3-4 layers of pitted sclereids, thickened lignified walls,
isodiametric, slightly elongated tangentially (U shaped
thickening) with starch grains.
Secondary Phloem Parenchymatous, few cells contain acicular Calcium
oxalate crystals and starch grains (diameter up to 10µm)
Medullary rays Biseriate, narrow at inner side, wider in the scleride band
side, contains starch, acicular raphides.
Phloem fibres Single isolated circular lignifies with stratification being
12-22-35µm wide and 200-500-600µm long
Mucilage cells Can be identified after staining with Ruthenium
red(pink/red)
Oil cells Big, isolated
Fig 02: T.S. of Cinnamon bark (Microscopy)

Fig 03: T.S. of Cinnamon bark (Hand drawn)
 Procedure:
1. Few pieces of Cinnamon bark are collected.
2. They are boiled in water for 1 hour and kept in water for absorbing moisture.
3. Thin transverse sections of bark are collected.
 Uses:
1. Carminative
2. Antiseptic agent
3. Mild Astringent
4. Germicide
OBSERVATION:
Fig 04: T.S. of Cinnamon bark
Fig 05: Diagram of T.S. of Cinnamon bark

CONCLUSION:
Microscopic evaluation of Cinnamomum zeylancium has been performed successfully.

ISOLATION AND
DETECTION OF ACTIVE
CONSTITUENTS OF
DRUGS
ISOLATION & DETECTION OF STARCH FROM DUST POTATO
 Aim: To study the isolation & detection of starch from dust potato.
 Objectives: After completing this lab, students should be able to:
1. Understand different technique for isolation of starch from potato.

2. Learn about various types of chemical constituents and morphology of starch.
 Theory:
Potato is widely consumed as food all over the world. It contains the starch as a major carbohydrate.
The potato contains approximately 18-21% of carbohydrates. The major carbohydrate is starch. This
starch is comprising 65-80% of the dry weight if the tuber. In the potato, it is present as microscopic
granules in leucoplasts lining the interior cell walls of parenchyma tissue. Potato belongs to
Solanaceae family. Basically, it is a cold season crop.
i. Order: Solanales.
ii. Family: Solanaceae.
iii. Genus: Solanum.
iv. Species: S. tuberosum.
STARCH:
Starch, a white, granular, organic chemical that is produced by all green plants. Starch is a soft, white,
tasteless powder that is insoluble in cold water, alcohol, or other solvents. The basic chemical formula
of the starch molecule is (C6H10O5)n. Starch is a polysaccharide comprising glucose monomers joined
in α 1,4 linkages. The simplest form of starch is the linear polymer amylose; amylopectin is the
branched form. Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units
joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as energy storage.
Fig 01: Powdered Starch

A comparative account of their macroscopical, microscopical and physical characteristics of starch
grains from various crops is given in the following table:
Serial No. Characteristics Maize Rice Wheat Potato
1. Colour White White Faint grey Yellowish tint
2. Shape Simple grains, Simple or Mostly Flattened
angular, compound simple (large ovoid or
hilum central, grains (2-150 and small) subspherical,
rarely components), grains, faint well-marked
compound polyhedral striations, striations,
grain. with sharp hilum appears hilum
angles as line eccentric
3. Size in μm 5-30 2-10 Small 2-9, 10-100
large 10-45
4. pH Neutral Alkaline Acidic Acidic
5. Moisture content 13 13 13 20
6. Ash content 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.3
(% w/w)
Fig 02: Types of Starch grain

STUDY OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POTATO STARCH:
Name of the Drug: Starch.

Synonyms: Amylum.
Biological source: Starch consists of polysaccharide granules obtained from the grains of maize,
Zea mays Linn. or of rice, Oryza sativa Linn. or of wheat, Triticum aestivum Linn. (Family-
Graminae) or from the tubers of the potato, Solanum tuberosum Linn. (Family: Solanaceae).
Morphological characteristics:
 Colour: Rice and maize, grains are white, while wheat is skin coloured, and potato is
slightly yellowish.
 Odour: Odourless.
 Taste: Mucilaginous
 Shape: Starch occurs as fine powder or irregular, angular, masses readily reducible to
powder.
 Chemical constituents:
ii. Starch contains generally a mixture of two polysaccharides, amylopectin (α- amylose)
and amylose (β-amylose).
iii. Amylopectin it is the main constituent of most of the starches (more than 80%) and is
present in outer parts of granules. It contains both strait chained and branched glucose
unit. It is insoluble in water and is responsible for gelatinizing property. It gives bluish
black colour with iodine solution.
iv. Amylose most starches contain 20% amylose. It contains straight chained glucose units
and is present in inner parts of granules. It is soluble in water and produces blue colour
with iodine solution.
 Uses of Starch:
 Starch is used as a tablet disintegrating agent and diluents for tablet manufacturing.
 Starch is used as lubricants and glidants, because of their slippery nature and ability to adhere to
surfaces.
 It is also used as absorbents in drug formulations to keep powders dry and ensure the stability of
drugs that are liable to deteriorate by hydrolysis.
 Starch is widely used as a binder in the production of tablets, capsules, and other solid dosage
forms.
 Protective and demulcent.
 Used as an antidote for iodine poisoning.
Fig 03: Amylose and Amylopectin
 Materials Required:
1. Potato,
2. Muslin Cloth,
3. Watch Glass,
4. Mortar and Pestle,
5. Test Tube,
6. Iodine solution.
 Isolation Procedure of Starch:
1. Peel a raw potato and cut into small pieces and record the initial weight.
2. Grind them in a motor and pestle with sufficient water.
3. Collect the potato homogenate into a beaker and add enough water.
4. Then filter the homogenate through a muslin cloth to remove the particles.
5. Allow the filtrate to settle. Starch rapidly settles at the bottom. Decant the starch free supernatant
carefully.
6. Wash 3-4 times and decant the supernatant. Collect the compact mass of starch and allow it to dry.
7. Record the final weight of isolated starch and calculate the yield.
 Identification Test of Starch:
Take a small quantity of test solution with a drop of 1N HCl and then add two drops of iodine solution.
Formation of blue colour indicates the presence of starch.
 Result:
The given sample contains________ gm of starch/_______gm potato.
OBSERVATION:
From the above experiment, starch is isolated from potato, and we record the final weight of isolated
starch and calculate the yield.
Fig 04: Starch precipitate isolated from Potato sample

Fig 05: Dried, powdered starch precipitate isolated from Potato sample
CONCLUSION:
From the above experiment, we came to know about the isolation produce to extract the starch from
potato and calculate the yield of starch.
 PRE-TEST QUESTIONS:
ISOLATION & DETECTION OF CAFFEINE FROM TEA LEAVES
 Aim: To study the isolation & detection of caffeine from tea leaves.
3. Understand different technique for isolation of starch from tea leaves.

4. Learn about various types of chemical constituents and morphology of tea
leaves.
 Theory:
Tea is a shrub that grows up to four meters high, evergreen, alternate leaves. The leaves are a
rich source of caffeine (1–5%). It also contains theobromine and theophylline in minor
quantities. The colour of tea leaves is due to tannin (10–20% Gallotannic acid). The agreeable
odour is due to presence of a yellow volatile oil. Tea leaves also contain protein, wax, resin
belongs to Theaceae family.
i) Order: Ericales.
ii) Family: Theaceae.
iii) Genus: Thea.
iv) Species: T. sinensis.
CAFFEINE:
Caffeine is one of the most important naturally occurring purine alkaloid, mostly present in
varying concentration in tea or coffee. It is the methyl derivative of xanthine. Various plants like
coffee, tea, cola, cocoa, guarana, mate contain caffeine. Caffeine concentration in a variety of tea
depends upon both on climatic and topographical conditions of growth, and processing
technique. Caffein is used as CNS stimulant. It also has myocardial and diuretic, effect. Caffein
also relaxes the smooth muscle of bronchi. Its excessive use can cause nervousness, insomnia,
and headaches. It is physically addictive.
Fig 01: Powdered Caffeine
STUDY OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TEA LEAVES:

Name of the Drug: Caffeine.
Synonyms: Trimethylxanthine.
Biological source: Caffeine obtained from the leaves of Thea sinensis Linn. (Family:
Theaceae) or dried ripe seed of Coffea arabica Linn. (Family: Rubiaceae).
Morphological characteristics:
 Colour: White
 Odour: Aromatic.
 Taste: Bitter
 Shape: Caffeine occurs as fine powder or irregular, angular, masses readily reducible to
powder.
 Chemical constituents:
Caffeine is a purine alkaloid or methylxanthines that is present in tea leaves. Chemical name of
caffeine is1,3,7-trimethylpurine-2, 6-dione. Caffeine is a trimethyl xanthine in which three
methyl groups are located at positions 1, 3, and 7.
Fig 02: Molecular Structure of Caffeine
 Uses of Caffeine:
 Caffeine acts as CNS stimulant.

 Caffeine is also used to improve mental alertness.
 It is used for treating migraine headaches.
 Caffeine an appetite-suppressant medication.
 Caffeine act as diuretic agent.
 Materials Required:
1. Separating funnel
2. Electrical balance
3. Beaker
4. Volumetric flask
5. Measuring cylinder
6. Buchner funnel
7. Hot plate
8. Tea leaves
9. Distilled water
10. Dichloromethane
 Isolation Procedure of Caffeine:
1) 20gm of finely powdered tea leaves are placed in a 400 ml beaker, 5gm sodium carbonate and 100 ml
of water is added and the mixture is heated for 20 mins. Water is occasionally added to keep the
volume of solution constant.
2) The hot solution is filtered, and the filtrate is neutralized by stirring with 10% sulphuric acid solution.
3) It is then filtered generally through Buchner funnel; the filtrate is washed with 20ml of
Dichloromethane.
4) Then two phases are placed in a separating funnel.
5) The organic lower layer is separated; the aqueous layer is extracted twice with two 40 ml portion of
dichloromethane.
6) Then the two organic layers are combined, and the solvent is evaporated.
7) Crude caffeine is recrystallized with hot water or acetone.
8) Record the final weight of isolated caffeine and calculate the yield.
Fig 03: Process of Isolation of Caffeine from Tea Leaves.

Fig: Slurry is being heated on a hot plate
Fig: Separating funnel

 Identification Test of Caffeine:
Murexide Test: Add 3 drops of nitric acid to a few amounts of powder drug placed in a small porcelain
dish and evaporate to dryness. Then 2 drops of ammonium hydroxide are added. Formation of purple colour
indicates the presence of caffeine.
Fig 03: Isolated Caffeine from Tea Leaves.
 Result:
Weight of tea = 20 gm
Weight of Sodium carbonate = 5 gm.
Weight of crude caffeine isolated = 0.106 gm.
0.106
Therefore, Total yield = X 100 % = 0.53%
20
OBSERVATION:
From the above experiment, caffeine is isolated from tea leaves, and we record the final weight of
isolated caffeine and calculate the yield.
CONCLUSION:
From the above experiment, we came to know about the isolation produce to extract the starch from
potato and calculate the yield of starch.
CHEMICAL TEST FOR PURINE ALKALOID
Aim: To study the isolation of caffeine from tea leaves.

Theory:
Most alkaloids are precipitated from neutral or slightly acid solution. Caffeine, a purine
derivative, does not precipitate like most alkaloids. It is usually detected by mixing with a
very small amount of nitric acid (HNO3), evaporating to dryness and exposing the residue to
ammonium hydroxide. A purple color is produced with caffeine and other purine derivatives.
This is known as the murexide test.
Requirements:
Chemicals:
1. Extracted caffeine
2. Nitric acid (HNO3)
3. NH4OH
Glassware:
1. Petri dish
2. Pipette
Procedure and Observation:

Procedure Observation
In powdered extraction of caffeine, HNO3 Purple colour is obtained.

is added and evaporated to dryness. Then a
few drops of NH4OH is added.
Conclusion:
Isolated substance from tea dust gives positive result for murexide test. The isolated substance
is caffeine which is a purine alkaloid.
 PRE-TEST QUESTIONS:

CHEMICAL TESTS FOR
CRUDE DRUGS
ANALYSIS OF BENZOIN BY CHEMICAL TESTS
 Aim: To perform chemical tests for benzoin.
1. Perform chemical tests for benzoin

2. Learn about various types of chemical constituents and morphology of
Benzoin.
 Theory:
Benzoin is also known as Sumatra Benzoin. Styrax benzoin is the biological source of benzoin
and contains resin. Mainly found in Sumatra, Thiland, Vietnam, and South Eastern Asia. These
trees are not grown in India. It has a greyish-brown color, aromatic odor, sweet taste. Cinnamic
acid, benzoic acid, summaresinollic acid are the important chemical constituent.
Fig 01: Granules of Benzoin

Synonyms: Luban, Loban, Dhuno
Biological Source:
Benzoin is the balsamic resin obtained from the incised stem of Styrax benzoin Dryander and
Styrax paralleloneurus Perkins.
Chemical Constituents:
1) It contains 23% free balsamic acids containing mainly Cinnamic acid.
2) It contains 70- 80% resin consisting of triterpenoids acids, siaresinolic acid (19-hydroxy
oleanolic acid) and sumaresinolic acid (6-hydroxy oleanolic acid) and their esters with
balsamic acids at hydroxyl group.
3) It also contains vanillin, sterol (phenyl ethylene) and phenyl propyl cinnamita responsible
for the aromatic smell.
 Chemical Tests:
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

i) Digest 0.25 g drug with 5 Purplish red colour is Benzoin is present.
ml ether for 5 minutes; pour observed.
1 ml of ethereal solution in a
porcelain dish; add 2 drops
of sulphuric acid and rotate
the dish.
ii) Triturate the drug with

It produces a yellowish green
alcohol, filter and filtrate is colour.
treated with alcoholic ferric
chloride solution.
 Observation:
Fig 02: When the filtrate is treated with alcoholic ferric chloride
solution, it forms yellowish-green coloration.
CONCLUSION:
The chemical tests for Benzoin have successfully been performed.
ANALYSIS OF SENNA BY CHEMICAL TESTS
 Aim: To perform chemical tests for Senna.
3. Perform chemical tests for Senna

4. Learn about various types of chemical constituents and morphology of
Senna.
 Theory:
Synonym of Indian Senna is Tinnevelly senna, Classia senna. It consists of dried compound leaflets
of Classia angustifolia belongs to family Leguminosae. Mostly its cultivation is done in Tinnevelly,
Madurai, Rajasthan, Gujrat, and Andhra Pradesh. The plant is a small shrub having 3-7 pairs of
leaflets. The drug should be protected from light during storage.
Fig 01: Senna Leaves
 Synonyms: Senapata, Sennae folium, Senai-ki-patti, tinnevelly senna, cassia senna.

 Biological Source: Dried leaflet of Cassia angustifolia (Family: Leguminosae).
 Chemical Constituents:
1) The major chemical constituent is sennoside-A and sennoside-B which are anthraquinone
glycoside.
2) Besides this it also contains sennosides C and D which are glycosides of heterodianthrones of aloe-
emodin and Rhein are present.
3) Others include palmidin A, Rhein anthrone and aloe-emodin glycosides. Senna also contains free
chrisom phenol, emodin and their glycosides and free aloe-emodin, Rhein, their monoanthrones,
dianthrones and their glycosides.
4) Mucilage is present in the epidermis of the leaf and gives red colour with ruthenium red.
 Chemical Tests:
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

BONTRAGER TEST: The Pink colour is observed. Anthraquinone glycosides is
leaves were boiled with present.
dilute sulphuric acid. It was
filtered. The filtrate is taken
in another test tube, mixed
with benzene or chloroform.
The mixture was shaken and
allowed to separate in two
phases. The organic phase is
taken another test tube and
strong ammonia solution
was added to the organic
solution and shaken.
 Observation:
Fig 01: Pink color is observed
CONCLUSION:
The chemical tests for Senna have successfully been performed.
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY OF CRUDE EXTRACT OF

TURMERIC
 Aim: To perform the TLC of crude turmeric extract and development of chromatogram by
determining the Rf value
1) Understand the process of thin layer chromatography.
2) Learn about the applications of thin layer chromatography
 Theory:
Thin-layer chromatography is a chromatography technique used to separate non-volatile

mixtures. Thin-layer chromatography is performed on a sheet of an inert substrate such as glass,
plastic, or aluminium foil, which is coated with a thin layer of adsorbent material, usually silica
gel, aluminium oxide, or cellulose.
Thin layer chromatography is an important analytical tool in the separation, identification and
estimation of different classes of natural products In 1958 Stahl demonstrated extensive
applicability of this technique which has certain advantages over paper chromatography. The
method based on physico-chemical phenomenon of adsorption is rapid and permits the spraying
of corrosive reagents.
Principle:
Chromatography works on the principle that different compounds will have different solubilities
and adsorption to the two phases between which they are to be partitioned. Thin Layer
Chromatography (TLC) is a solid-liquid technique in which the two phases are a solid (stationary
phase) and a liquid (moving phase).
Applications:
TLC is extremely useful in Biochemical analysis such as separation or isolation of biochemical

metabolites from its blood plasma, urine, body fluids, serum, etc. It is widely used in separating
multicomponent pharmaceutical formulations. It is used in the cosmetic industry.
Retardation Factor:
The retardation factor (Rf) is defined as the fraction of an analyte in the mobile phase of a
chromatographic system like TLC method. The retardation factor (Re) is defined as the fraction
of an analyte in the mobile phase of a chromatographic system.
Rf = x/y
Here,
Rf = retardation factor
x = distance traveled by solute
y = distance traveled by the solvent
 Requirements:
1. Glass slide
2. chromatographic chamber with glass lid
3. turmeric extract
4. capillary tube Silica gel G UV chamber
5. toluene
6. ethyl acetate
 Procedure:
i. Prepare a slurry of silica gel G by mixing 1 part of adsorbent with 25 parts of distilled
water in a mortar
ii. Clean the glass slide thoroughly and coat the slurry uniformly by pouring method
(approx. 0.3 nm)
iii. Allow the plate to dry room temperature and activate in an oven at 120 ° C for 20 minutes
iv. Prepare the solvent system using Toluene and Ethyl acetate 93.7 and pour it to a depth of
approx. 3 cm in the chamber and cover it with lid. Keep it for sometimes for solvent
chamber saturation
v. Apply spot of Turmeric extract using capillary tube and allow the spot to dry at room
temperature
vi. Place the glass plate gently inside the chamber and develop the chromatogram by
ascending technique. Take out the plate, mark the solvent front and dry at room
temperature
vii. Observe the plate under day light and UV chamber and spraying Iodine -HCL spry.
viii. Determine the Rf value
Fig 01: Steps to prepare Silica Gel G plates
OBSERVATION AND RESULT:
Now we were measuring the distance traveled by the turmeric on mobile phase and distance
traveled by the solvent front on stationary phase of TLC plate for calculating the retention factor
of turmeric. And put that value in required equation which is describe in introduction.
Rf value of Turmeric = distance traveled by the solute / distance traveled by the solvent
CONCLUSION:
This test is very important for dyeing because to find out the new colour of chemical by testing
on TLC plate. By this experiment we determine the retardation factor (Rf) of turmeric.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY OF CRUDE EXTRACT OF TURMERIC
 Aim: Separation of turmeric extract by paper chromatography.
 Objective: After completing this lab, students should be able to:
1) Understand the process of paper chromatography.

2) Learn about the applications of paper chromatography.
 Theory:
Chromatography: Chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of a mixture.

The mixture is dissolved in a fluid called the mobile phase, which carries it through a system on
which is fixed a material called the stationary phase.
Paper Chromatography: Paper chromatography is an analytical method used to separate

colored chemicals or substances. It is primarily used as a teaching tool, having been replaced by
other chromatography methods, such as thin-layer chromatography.
Fig 01: Paper Chromatography
Principle: The principle involved is partition chromatography wherein the substances are
distributed or partitioned between liquid phases. One phase is the water, which is held in the
pores of the filter paper used; and other is the mobile phase which moves over the paper.
Application:
 To study the process of fermentation and ripening.

 To check the purity of pharmaceuticals.
 To inspect cosmetics.
 To detect the adulterants.
 To detect the contaminants in drinks and foods.
 To examine the reaction mixtures in biochemical laboratories.
RF Value: RF value (in chromatography) The distance travelled by a given component divided

by the distance travelled by the solvent front. For a given system at a known temperature, it is a
characteristic of the component and can be used to identify components.
Importance: Rf value stands for the retardation factor value. It tells us how far the unknown
pigment traveled in relation to the distance the solvent traveled. The Rf value is useful for
scientists because it allows scientists to identify the pigment by comparing its Rf value to that of
a known standard.
 Principle Of the Experiment: Distribution of solute (sugar) between the stationary and mobile
phases, that is the partition process is the major factor in the PC separation of sugars. Their
partition coefficients are substantially in favour of the aqueous phase. Therefore, with non-
aqueous developers, sugars appear on the paper chromatogram with low Rf values, whereas with
developer containing larger aqueous ratio, the Rf values of sugars are much higher. This is
because a sugar molecule containing larger number of hydroxyl groups which is readily soluble
in water and makes the partition coefficient in favour of the aqueous phase. Further, the Rf
values of sugars are affected by their structural formulae, their molecular mass, the number of-
OH ' groups, and presence of other kinds of groups such as aldehydes or ketones etc.
 Requirement:
 Apparatus-
1. Measuring cylinder (100 cm3)
2. Spotting Capillaries
3. Whatman No.1 filter paper sheets
 Chemical-
1. Turmeric powder (100 mg)
2. Ethanol
3. Toluene
4. Ethyl acetate
5. Methanol
 Procedure:
1. Preparation of solution-
a. Sample solutions- 9ml toluene, 0.5ml ethyl acetate and 0.5ml methanol is mixed.
b. Preparation of turmeric extract- 100mg of turmeric powder is boiled with 1ml
ethanol. It is filtered using filter paper. Filtrate is used as extract.
2. The chromatographic paper strips of the required size is cut.
3. On each strip a line is drawn with pencil at about 1 cm from one end and put a mark at
the centre of the line. The sample is to be applied at this mark. Write the name of a
particular sugar on the upper side of the paper with pencil.
4. Extract is applied to the point of application separately on the marked strips. Use a fresh
capillary for each solution.
5. The spots are dried by allowing the solvent to evaporate.
6. Solvent system is poured in a beaker. This is called chromatographic chamber.
7. Paper is put in the chamber and the chamber is sealed with lead.
8. Solvent is allowed to rise along the paper and wait till the solvent front reaches near the
upper end of the paper.
9. Remove the paper strip from the boiling tube and mark the solvent front with the help of
a pencil.
10. Calculate the Rf values and compare the Rf values of individual sugars with that of their
Rf values in mixtures to identify the sugars present in the mixture/sample solution.
OBSERVATION:
CALCULATION:
Distance travelled by extract ∨sample ( cm )=7.1 cm
Distance travelled by extract ∨sample ( cm )=7.5 cm
Distance travelled by extract ∨sample ( cm ) 7.1

R f value= = =0.9467
Distance travelled by solvent ( cm) 7.5
RESULT:
Rf value of the given sample is 0.9467.

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Pt-592 Pharmacognosy-II Manual 18601919003

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GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF PHARMACEUTICAL

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

PAPER CODE: PT- 592

LABORATORY MANUAL OF PHARMACOGNOSY &

NAME: Mousam Maity

ROLL NO.: 18601919003

REGN. NO.: 011413 OF 2019-20

Mission of the Institute and Department

1. Ability to acquire knowledge of pharmaceutical sciences.

 COVID-19 safety protocols:

STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BARK

AIM: To study the morphological characteristics of bark.

 Understand the morphological characteristics of some bark containing drug

The evaluation of crude drug is necessary because of three main reasons:

The different techniques involved in evaluation of crude drug are as follows:

Pharmacological evaluation or biological evaluation:

The following features may be used to describe the morphology of bark.

1. Shape: The shape of the bark depends upon the mode

a. Flat: When the large piece of the bark is collected

a. Smooth: When development of cork is even, e.g., Arjuna bark.

e. Furrows: If troughs between

Outer surface of bark shows presence of:

a. Fissures: Usually deep marking.

Serial Type Description Examples

Methods of collection of barks:

STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CINNAMON BARK

Fig 01: Cinnamon bark

 Name of the drug - Cinnamon Bark

 Synonym - Dalchini, Daruchini

 Biological source - Dried Bark of Cinnamon zeylanium (Family: Lauraceae)

 Size - Length –3.5 cm, Width – 1.1 cm

 Colour - Yellowish brown (Internal), Reddish brown (External)

 External Marking - Wrinkle and Annulation

 Fracture - Short and Splintery

 Fracture surface - Uneven

STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF CINCHONA BARK

Fig 02: Cinchona bark

 Name of the drug - Cinchona bark

 Size - Length –9 cm, Width – 1.4 cm (upper); 3 cm (middle); 2.5 cm

 Colour - Dark brown (Inside), Reddish brown (External)

 Taste - Extremely Bitter

 External Marking - Wrinkles, Fissures and Furrows.

 Fracture surface - Uneven

The study of morphological characteristics of Cinchona ledgeriana has been successfully

 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS:

STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUITS.

AIM: To study the morphological characteristics of fruits.

 Understand the morphological characteristics of some fruit containing drug

The evaluation of crude drug is necessary because of three main reasons:

The different techniques involved in evaluation of crude drug are as follows:

Pharmacological evaluation or biological evaluation:

Morphological evaluation includes different characteristics of organized drug:

The main parts of a fruit include the

Fig 01: Parts of Fruit

(1) Simple fruits:

I. Dehiscent capsular fruits:

Fig 02: Types of fleshy fruits

(2) Aggregate fruits:

Fig 04: Types of compound fruits: A Jackfruit, B Pineapple, C Mulberry, D Fig

Based on the development of ovary fruits can be classified as:

Other Morphological Features include:

Adhesion: Superior or inferior

Morphology of Umbelliferous or Cremocarp Fruit:

Fig 06: Umbelliferous fruit