EXPERIMENT 5

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS,
SYSTEMATIC POSITION AND AGE
OF FOSSIL GENERA PERTAINING
TO ECHINOIDS

Outline of Experiment_________________________________________
5.1 Introduction 5.4 Common Genera
Expected Learning Skills 5.5 Laboratory Exercises
5.2 Requirements 5.6 Results and Discussion
5.3 Echinoids: Systematics, General 5.7 References
Morphology and Age Range
5.8 Further Suggested Readings

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have made line drawings and described morphological characters
along with palaeoecology and stratigraphic range of various genera of trilobites. You know that
trilobites are extinct marine animals. Its every genus displays a set of distinctive morphological
characters, on which basis they can be differentiated from each other.
In this experiment, you will work with some common genera of echinoids. The echinoids are
marine animals and belong to the Class Echinoidea. The name Echinoidea is derived from two
Greek words Echinos meaning spines and Oidea meaning test, signifying the test covered with
spines. They include sea urchins, heart urchins and sand dollars. The soft parts of the animal are
enclosed inside a rigid calcareous skeleton, which is composed of many closely fitting plates of
calcite. The skeleton of echinoids is also known as test. The tests may be spherical, globular,
discoidal or heart-shaped and covered with the spines. Most of the echinoids show pentameral
(five-fold) radial symmetry whereas a few others show bilateral symmetry. The tests of echinoids
range in size from 3 to 10 cm in diameter or length.
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Echinoids can be divided into two main groups: regular and irregular.
 Regular or Endocyclic Echinoids: They have five-fold (pentameral) radial
symmetry and spherical to circular body.
 Irregular or Exocyclic Echinoids: They have bilateral symmetry and a
heart-shaped body.

Expected Learning Skills____________________________

After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 list the systematic positions of some common genera of echinoids;
 identify and describe their morphological characters;
 prepare their line drawings with labeling of the morphological features; and
 write their stratigraphical and palaeoecological range.

5.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully, following are the requirements:
 Pen, pencil, eraser, sharpener, scale, stencil and hand lens.
 Practical note-book.
 Fossil specimens of echinoids.

5.3 ECHINOIDS: SYSTEMATICS, GENERAL

MORPHOLOGY AND AGE RANGE
5.3.1 Systematic Palaeontology/Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
5.3.2 Morphology
The tests of most of the echinoids are hemispherical in shape and covered with
spines. A typical test has two poles, namely, oral and aboral. The lower side of
the test is known as oral pole and it is normally flattened. On the other hand,
the upper side, which is usually convex, is termed as aboral pole (Fig. 5.1). The
mouth of the animal is situated at the oral pole and anus at the aboral pole. It is
important to note that the terms oral and aboral are used to describe the
position of poles of tests of regular echinoids. The side of the pole where the
mouth lies is known as the oral side and the opposite side where anus lies is
referred to as aboral side. In irregular echinoids which have a bilateral
symmetry, the mouth and anus are excentric (away from the centre) and the
mouth side is called the anterior side while the anal side is the posterior side.
Accordingly the lower side becomes the ventral side and upper side the dorsal.
A test consists of many interlocking calcitic plates. The plates surrounding the
mouth are collectively described as peristome, whereas those encircling the

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anus are termed as periproct. Morphologically, a test of an echinoid may be
divided into three parts:
i. Apical system or disc
ii. Corona
iii. Peristome

Fig. 5.1: Schematic diagram of a regular echinoid showing the main divisions of
the test.

i. Apical System or Apical Disc: It is a small area lying at the apex or summit
of the aboral surface (Fig. 5.1). It is composed of ten plates which form a ring
around the periproct. Out of these ten plates, five are known as genital
plates and the rest are ocular plates. The genital plates are larger and
hexagonal in outline and form the inner part of the ring. One of the genital
plates is larger than other genital plates, has many small pores, and is
known as madreporite or porous plate (Fig. 5.2). The ocular plates are
smaller than genital plates and triangular to pentagonal in outline. Each of
the genital and ocular plates is perforated by a pore. It may be noted that to
complete a ring of ten plates around the periproct, both genital and ocular
plates are attached alternatively with each other and in many cases ocular
plates partially form the outer part of the ring. In such cases, ocular plates do
not touch the periproct and this condition of the test is termed as exsert (Fig.
5.3a). However, in other cases, ocular plates separate the genital plates and
touch the periproct, this condition is known as insert (Fig. 5.3b). It may be
noted that in irregular echinoids, the apical disc is small and does not
encircle the periproct.
ii. Corona: It is the main part of the test, which starts from the apical disc and
ends at peristome. It is composed of ten pairs of columns of plates, which
are collectively described as the coronal plates. Out of these ten pairs, five
double columns which carry tube feet are known as ambulacral plates and
the other five with no tube feet are termed as the inter-ambulacral plates
(Fig. 5.2). Tube feet are small fleshy suckers which come up from the water-
vascular system of the animal through pores in the test to capture food. The
five double columns of ambulacral plates are separated by five double
columns of inter-ambulacral plates, in which each double column is
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described as an area. The area of ambulacral plate is termed ambulacral
area and area of an inter-ambulacral plate is known as inter-ambulacral
area (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2: Line drawing of the aboral view of a regular echinoid showing the apical
system. Note 1 to 5 are ambulacral plates and I to V are inter-ambulacral
plates.

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.3: View of apical systems of regular echinoids showing: a) Exsert; and
(b) Insert tests.

In each area, plates are fixed alternatively. Each pair of both ambulacral
and inter-ambulacral columns is composed of two rows of elongated plates,
which meet along a central suture in a zig-zag pattern. The ambulacral
plates are small in size, larger in number, perforated by pores and in contact
with ocular plates of the apical disc. The inter-ambulacral plates are larger
in size, small in number as compared to ambulacral plates, bear spines and
terminate against the genital plates of the apical disc. Ambulacral plates are
said to be simple ambulacral plates if they are made up of only a single
piece and said to be compound plates when they are made up of two or
more smaller plates. In a few forms of echinoids, notably irregular echinoids,
the ambulacral plates look-like a petal and all ambulacral plates together
show a flower-like structure, which is termed as petaloid. It should be noted
that ambulacral and inter-ambulacral plates lie alternatively and run
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vertically between periproct and peristome. The coronal plates may be
covered by spines and tubercles. Tests of regular echinoids possess the
larger spines and tubercles whereas smaller spines and tubercles are found
on tests of irregular echinoids.
iii. Peristome: It lies on the oral side of the test. Peristome is an opening in the
test associated with the mouth and is circular to polygonal in outline (Fig.
5.4). The mouth of an animal occurs at the centre of the peristome and
represents a region where ambulacral and inter-ambulacral plates
converge. It would be of interest to you to note that both periproct (an
opening associated with anus) and peristome are rarely preserved in fossils.

Fig. 5.4: Oral view of a regular echinoid showing the peristome.

Key morphological features of echinoids: genital plates, ocular plates,

madreporite, ambulacral plates, inter- ambulacral plates, periproct and
peristome.
5.3.3 Geological History
The earliest echinoids are known from the Ordovician. They diversified during
the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Permian periods of the Palaeozoic era.
During the Carboniferous, they suffered considerable loss in their diversity.
However, they did not emerge as a dominant group of echinoderms during the
Palaeozoic times. The majority of the Palaeozoic echinoids belong to the order
Regularia.
In Mesozoic, echinoids underwent a dramatic diversification and became a
dominant group of the phylum Echinodermata. Irregular echinoids first
appeared in the Mesozoic and most of the Mesozoic echinoids belong to order
Irregularia. During the Mesozoic, echinoids emerged as a significant element of
marine fauna. During the Cenozoic, they became less important but they
diversified during the late Cenozoic. In Cenozoic, irregular echinoids became
more important while the regular echinoids became less abundant. Echinoids
are entirely marine animals and their fossils are good indicators of marine
environment.

5.4 COMMON GENERA OF ECHINOIDS

5.4.1 Hemiaster
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
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Phylum Echinodermata
Subphylum Echinozoa
Class Echinoidea
Order Spatangoida
Family Hemiasteridae
Genus Hemiaster
Morphological Description: It is an irregular echinoid with ovate, round,
subcircular inflated to somewhat wedge-shaped test. It has a weak anterior
sulcus (Fig. 5.5). Its posterior face is truncated to nearly straight. The apical
disc is large and lies in the centre. The oral surface is almost flat. The test has
five ambulacral plates and five inter-ambulacral plates. The inter-ambulacral
plates are broader than that of the ambulacral plates. The ambulacral area is
wide to hollow and contains well formed pores. The pores are arranged in
oblique fashion. The madreporite is not much larger than that of the genital
plates. The genital plates have a broad contact zone. Peristome is D to suboval
in shape. The periproct is small. The external surface of the test is granulose.
The test has well-developed petals clearly visible in aboral or dorsal view (Fig.
5.5).

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.5: Photograph of Hemiaster showing aboral views. (Courtesy: Dr. V.K.
Sharma, Department of Zoology, Govt. Holkar Science College, Indore for b).

Stratigraphic Range: Cretaceous to Recent.

Ecology: The genus, Hemiaster is a slow-moving shallow infaunal marine
feeder.
5.4.2 Micraster
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
Order Spatangoida
Family Micrasteridae
Genus Micraster

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Morphological Description: The test of this irregular echinoid is heart-shaped.
It has a small excentric apical disc. The madreporite or porous plate is
extending to the centre. It has a non-petaloid ambulacrum (Fig. 5.6). The inter-
ambulacral plates are much broader than that of the ambulacral plates. The
ambulacral area is narrow and subpetaloid in outline. The inter-ambulacral area
is large. The test has small tubercles. It is also perforated and crenulated. The
peristome is located near the anterior margin.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.6: Aboral view of the genus Micraster. (Source: Schlüter, 2016 for b; Courtesy:
Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University for a)

Stratigraphic Range: Late Cretaceous.

Palaeoecology: The genus, Hemiaster was a slow-moving shallow infaunal
marine deposit feeder.
5.4.3 Holaster
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
Order Holasteroida
Family Holasteroidae
Genus Holaster

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.7: Photographs of Holaster. (Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-
science/data/echinoid-directory/taxa/ specimen.jsp?id=1181 for b; Courtesy:
Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University for a)

Morphological Description: The irregular test is heart-shaped to ovoid in

outline. The oral margin is flattened and posterior margin is truncated. The
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apical disc is elongated. The genital plates are separated by the ocular plates.
The ambulacral area is large and has a small round to elongate pores. The
inter-ambulacral area has minute granules and tubercles. Peristome is semi-
circular to transversely elliptical and located near the anterior margin. Periproct
is elongate to oval in outline and is truncated at posterior end (Fig. 5.7).
Stratigraphic Range: Cretaceous to Palaeogene-Neogene
Palaeoecology: The genus Holaster, was a marine epifaunal to semi-infaunal
living sediments feeder.
5.4.4 Conulus
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
Order Echinoneoida
Family Conulidae
Genus Conulus
Morphological Description: The oral surface of the test is flat. The test is
conical, subconical to hemispherical in outline. It has four subequal genital
plates. All genital plates are in contact. Apical disc is small and situated at the
centre. Petals are not developed. The ambulacral area is narrow and straight. It
has continuous poriferous zones. The inter-ambulacral area has large plates. It
bears very small tubercles. The inter-ambulacral area is crenulated and
perforated. The peristome of the test is small, situated at the centre and is
decagonal to nearly circular in shape. The periproct of the test is small,
submarginal, ovate to oral in position (Fig. 5.8).
Stratigraphic Range: Cretaceous.
Palaeoecology: The genus, Conulus was an epifaunal sediment feeder.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.8: Photographs of the genus Conulus: a) aboral and b) oral views. (Source:
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/taxa/taxon. jsp?id=
1385)

5.4.5 Cidaris
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
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Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
Order Cidaroida
Family Cidaridae
Genus Cidaris
Morphological Description: The regular tests of Cidaris are spheroidal,
rounded to pentagonal in outline. Their top (aboral) and base (oral) are equally
flattened. The apical disc is large and occasionally preserved. The ocular plates
are large. The ambulacral area is narrow to moderately broad. The ambulacral
plates are simple, showing similar form and numerous in numbers. The vertical
rows of tubercles and granules are situated between the rows of pores. The
inter-ambulacral area is wide (about three times wider than the ambulacral
area) and composed of large plates. Each plate is perforated and contains a
primary tubercle. Peristome is large and pentagonal in outline. The test bears
large spines of different forms. The spines are marked by the ornamentation of
rows of granules (Fig. 5.9).
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Present.
Ecology: They are epifaunal deposit feeders and mainly live in tropical and
subtropical oceans.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.9: Photographs of genus Cidaris: a) Lateral; b) Oral; and c) Aboral views.
(Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/ data/echinoid-
directory/taxa/taxon.jsp?id=1135 for b and c; Courtesy: Dr. V.K. Sharma,
Department of Zoology, Govt. Holkar Science College, Indore for a).

5.4.6 Cyphosoma (=Euporophyma)

Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
Order Phymosomatoida
Family Phymosomatidae
Genus Cyphosoma (=Euporophyma)
Morphological Description: The regular test is small, circular in outline and
has a flat base. Apical disc is small with a pentagonal opening. The ambulacral
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area is nearly half to the width of the inter-ambulacral area. The inter-
ambulacral plates are broader and have a central primary tubercle. The
tubercles are imperforated and crenulated. Peristome is deep (Fig. 5.10).

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.10: Photographs of Cyphosoma (=Euporophyma): a) Aboral; and b) Oral
views. (Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-
directory/taxa/taxon.jsp?id=1439)

Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Eocene.

Palaeoecology: It was a slow moving epifaunal omnivore.
5.4.7 Echinocorys
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
Order Holasteroida
Family Echinocorythidae
Genus Echinocorys
Morphological Description: The irregular test is characterised by high steep
sides and is very convex from the top. It has a flat base. The apical disc is
elongated, large and bears four genital plates. The ambulacral area is simple,
long and subpetaloid. The inter-ambulacral area is large and yields tubercles.
Peristome is anteriorly situated. Periproct is oval to infra-marginal (Fig. 5.11).

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.11: Photographs of Echinocorys showing: a) Oral and b) Aboral views.
(Source: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/
taxa/specimen.jsp?id=1148)
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Stratigraphic Range: Late Cretaceous.
Palaeoecology: The genus Echinocorys, was an epifaunal deposit feeder.
5.4.8 Ditremaster
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Echinoidea
Order Spatangoida
Family Hemiasteridae
Genus Ditremaster
Morphological Description: The irregular test is subglobular, ovate to inflate in
outline (Fig. 5.12). The apical disc is slightly excentric and has two genital
pores. The ocular plates are small and perforated by a single circular pore. It
has well developed petals. The ambulacral plates are simple and perforated.
The outer surface of the test is ornamented with tubercles. Peristome is D-
shaped.
Stratigraphic Range: Eocene to Miocene
Palaeoecology: The genus Ditremaster, was a slow-moving shallow infaunal
dead organic feeder.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.12: Ditremaster: a) Photograph and b) line drawing of oral view. (Source:
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/taxa/
specimen.jsp?id=6185 for a)

5.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES

The fossil specimens of echinoids, belonging to the genera described in Section
5.5, will be provided to you for study at your study centre. You will have to
perform the following activities:
i. Draw the sketch of the specimen on your practical note-book.
ii. Label its various morphological features (refer Figs. 5.1 and 5.4 for labeling
various morphological features).
iii. Write its systematic position or palaeontology.
iv. Briefly, describe the morphology of the test.
v. Write the stratigraphic range and palaeoecology of the genus under study.
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Format for Studying Fossil Specimens
Fossil No.: …………….. Date: ………………
Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Systematic Palaeontology: It includes taxonomic hierarchy of the genus.
Morphological Description: It includes sketches of the specimen as well as
labeling and description of its morphological features.
Stratigraphic Age: It includes the age range of the genus.

5.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the morphological study, the given fossil specimens have been
identified as Hemiaster, Micraster, Holaster, Conulus, Cidaris, Cyphosoma
(=Euporophyma), Echinocorys and Ditremaster.

5.7 REFERENCES
 Clarkson, E.N.K. (1979) Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution, Blackwell
Science Ltd., USA.
 Nield, E.W. and Tucker, V.C.T. (1985) Palaeontology – An Introduction,
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
 Schlüter N (2016) Ecophenotypic variation and developmental instability in
the Late Cretaceous echinoid Micraster brevis (Irregularia; Spatangoida).
PLoS ONE 11(2): e0148341. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0148341
 https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/
 https://paleobiodb.org/classic
All the websites are accessed between 1st October and 30th October 2020)

5.8 FURTHER SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ray, A. K. (2008) Fossils in Earth Sciences, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi.
 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.
 Woods, H. (2004) Palaeontology Invertebrate, CBS Publishers and
Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/echinoid-directory/
 https://paleobiodb.org/classic
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