Agni College of Technology

Thalambur, Chennai 600 130

Department of Electronics and Communication Engg.
Anna University Solved QB 5 Units
Sub Name Communication Theory Sem IV
Sub Code EC8491 Year II
Unit -1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
PART – A Question & Answer
1 Why Dsbfc bandwidth is insufficient when compared with single side band AM.

Amplitude modulation produces an output signal the bandwidth of which is twice the maximum
frequency of the original baseband signal. Single-sideband modulation avoids this bandwidth
increase, and the power wasted on a carrier, at the cost of increased device complexity and more
difficult tuning at the receiver.

2
Mention any four advantages of RF Amplifier in AM Receiver.

The RF amplifiers have greater gain that is they have better sensitivity. They have better ability to
amplify weak signals received by the receiver. The RF amplifiers have better selectivity i.e., better
ability to select the wanted signals among the various incoming signals. The incoming weak signals
are raised to a higher level by the RF amplifiers and therefore they improve signal to noise ratio.

3
What are advantages of converting low frequency signal to high frequency signal?

Three possible reasons. In multiplexing, low frequency signals are converted to high frequency
signals and combined with other high frequency signals so that you can pack multiple signals into a
single signal, although this combined signal will have a greater bandwidth.

Another reason is to get the signals out of the spectral range of 60 Hz to reduce noise. The later is
used in some measurement operations where a low frequency process is measured with a
modulating sensor that produces a signal away from the 60 Hz region. After signal processing, this
signal can be demodulated to get back to the original signal.

A third reason is to reduce baseline and low frequency drift common to many amplifiers.
Modulating a low frequency signal, perhaps including a DC component, to a higher frequency,
places such signals in a frequency range where electronic amplifiers are more stable and usually
produce less noise.

4 What theorem is used to calculate the average power of a periodic signal g p(t)? State the
theorem.

Parseval's theorem usually refers to the result that the Fourier transform is unitary; loosely, that the
sum (or integral) of the square of a function is equal to the sum (or integral) of the square of its
transform
5 What is pre envelope and complex envelope?
Pre envelope
An analytic signal is a complex signal created by taking a signal and then adding in quadrature
its Hilbert Transform. It is also called the pre-envelope of the real signal.
Complex envelope
This is a very important result and is applicable to both low pass and modulated signals. For
modulated or band pass signals, its net effect is to translate the signal down to baseband, double
the spectral magnitudes and then chop off all negative components. The part is called the
Complex Envelope of the signal g(t).
6 Compute the bandwidth of the AM signal given by S(t) = 23[1+0.8 cos (310t)
cos(23000πt)]

S(t)=23[1+0.8cos(310 t)]cos(230000πt)
ωm=310
2πfm =310
fm =310/2π
BW = 2 fm =98.67Hz.
7 What are the causes of linear distortion?

In passive components (such as a coaxial cable or optical fiber), linear distortion can be caused by
inhomogeneities, reflections, and so on in the propagation path.
8 In Amplitude modulation transmitter radiates 1000 watts of unmodulated power. If the
carrier is modulated simultaneously by two tones of 40% and 60% respectively, calculate the
total power radiated.
RF power delivered if 40% tone is used Pc= Pt / (1+ma2/2)
= 1000(1+.42/2)
= 1.08kw
9. RF power delivered if 50% tone is used Pc= Pt / (1+ma2/2)
Calculate the local oscillator frequency if the incoming frequency is f1 and
= 1000(1+.52/2)
translated
= 1.125kw carrier frequency is f2.
flo=f1±f2

10
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a 100 kHz bandwidth if the
highest frequency modulating a carrier is 5kHz?

BW = 2 fmax = 2 x 5 kHz =10kHz

11
Define threshold effect in AM receiver.
It is defined as the value of input signal to noise ratio below which the output signal to noise ratio
decreases much rapidly than the input signal to noise ratio. It is the property of envelope detectors
used for the demodulation of modulated signals.

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12 A carrier is amplitude modulated to a depth of 80%. Calculate the total power in the
modulated wave, if the carrier is 10 watt.
Ma = 0.8 Pt =Pc [1+Ma2/2] = 10[1+(0.8)2/2] Pt =13.2

13 Draw the frequency spectrum of VSB, where it is used?

USES: TV transmission, video compression

14.
Compare Bandwidth and power requirement in terms of carrier power for AM,DSBSC, and
SSB

15.
Compute the bandwidth of the amplitude modulated signal given by s(t)=23[1+0.8
cos(310t)]cos(230000πt) ma=0.8 , 2πfm=310 therefore fm=49.33Hz B.W=2fm=98.66Hz

16.
What is the drawback of coherent detection.
50% of power is lost in beam splittering

17
State the applications of FDM.
Telemetry Commercial broadcast and television Communication network

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 18.
SSB is suitable for speech signals and not for video signals. Why?
Bandwidth of SSB is half that of DSB-SC AM. Thus twice the number of channels can be
accommodated at a given frequency spectrum. No carrier is transmitted, hence possibility of
interference with other channels are avoided. It eliminates the possibility of fading. Fading occurs
due to multipath propagation

19 What is the advantage of conventional DSB-AM over DSB-SC and SSB-SC AM?
DSB-AM has larger transmission bandwidth BT =2B compared to DSB-SC and SSB- SC
It consumes larger power PT = PC+PLSB+PUSB
Easy to generate and detect.

20
Draw the block diagram of SSB-AM generator.

PART – B Question

1. Explain about Super Heterodyne receiver with neat diagram.

2. Sketch the block diagram of DSB-SC AM system and derive the figure of merit.
3. Using superheterodyne principle, draw the block diagram of AM radio receiver and
briefly explain it.
4. (a) Define Amplitude modulation. How amplitude modulated signal can be generated
using a non-linear modulator circuit?
(b) Compare amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.
5. With necessary diagrams and expression explain the generation and demodulation of AM.
6. Compare the various AM schemes.
7. Obtain the expression for figure of merit of DSB SC receiver using coherent detection
8. Discuss the methods of demodulation of DSBSC signal using costas loop.
9. Derive the expression for DSB-SC AM and calculate its power & efficiency. Explain a
method to generate and detect it.
PART – C Question
1. Explain pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in detail.
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2. Compare the characteristics of DSBFC, DSBSC, SSBFC, SSBSC schemes.
3. Obtain the expressions for figure of merit of DSB-SC receiver using coherent detection.

Unit -2 ANGLE MODULATION

PART – A Question & Answer
1.

A carrier signal is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of 5 Vpp and 10 kHz. If

the frequency deviation constant is 1 kHz/v, determine the maximum frequency
deviation and state whether the scheme is narrow band FM or wide band FM.

BW =2 [ δ+
fm(max)]Hz δ
=m fm
= 5 x 10 = 50
BW = 2 [50+ 10] = 120
Bandwidth is wideband FM

2.
What is the need for pre–emphasis.
The PSD of noise at the output of FM receiver sally increases rapidly at high frequencies
but the PSD of message signal falls off at higher frequencies. This means the message
signal doesn’t utilize the frequency band in efficient manner. Such more efficient use of
frequency band and improved noise performance can be obtained with the help of pre-
emphasis.
3. Illustrate the difference between FM and PM.
S.No FM PM

1 The maximum frequency deviation The maximum frequency deviation

depends upon amplitude of depends only on amplitude of
modulating voltage and modulating voltage.
modulating frequency.
2 Noise immunity is better than PM. Noise immunity is better than AM but
worse than FM.
3 Frequency of the carrier is Phase of the carrier is modulated by
modulated by modulating signal modulating signal.
4. What is meant by detection? Name the methods for detecting FM signals.
Demodulation is the process by which the modulating signal is recovered from the
modulated
signal. It is the reverse process of modulation.
Methods:
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 Foster seeley method
Ratio detector
Balanced slope detector
5. Determine the range of tuning of a local oscillator of a super heterodyne receiver when
fLO>fc. The broadcast frequency range is 540Hz to 1600Hz. Assume Flf =455KHz.

F0 = fc+fIF

=(540Hz to 1600Hz)+455kHz

=455.54 to 456.6kHz
6. What is capture effect in FM?
When the interference signal and FM input are of equal strength, the receiver fluctuates back
and forth between them. This phenomenon is known as the capture effect.
7. How does FM wave can be converted to PM wave?

8. A carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal modulating frequency 2kHz, resulting

in a frequency deviation of 5kHz what is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated
waveform?

9. Define pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

The premodulation filtering in the transmitter, to raise the power spectral density of the
baseband signal in its upper-frequency range ,is called preemphasis (or predistortion).
The filtering at the receiver to undo the signal preemphasis and to suppress noise is called
deemphasis.
10. What is meant by frequency translation?
Frequency translation is the process of moving a signal from one part of the frequency axis,
to another part of the axis. Frequency translation is often done in wireless communications
systems to move a pass band signal to base band before demodulation.
11. How is the Narrow band FM converted into wideband FM?

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 The narrow-band FM signal is multiplied in frequency by means of frequency multiplier so
as to produce the desired wide-band FM signal.
12. What are the advantages of Ratio detector?
Any Variation in amplitude of the input FM signal due to noise modifies the characteristic of
the discriminators.
13. What is FM threshold effect?
This is known as the FM threshold effect (FM threshold is usually defined as the carrier-to-
noise ratio at which the demodulated signal-to-noise ratio fall 1 dB below the linear
relationship

14. State the Carson’s rule.

An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM Signal generated by a single
tonemodulating signal of frequency fm is defined as B = 2 δf (1 + (1/ fm)) where, δf =
Maximum frequency deviation fm = Maximum modulating frequency
15. Compare Narrow band and wideband FM.
Narrow band FM Wideband FM
Modulation index is greater than 1 Modulation index less than 1
Frequency deviation 75kHz Frequency deviation 5kHz
Bandwidth 15 times NBFM Bandwidth 2fm
Use: Entertainment and broadcasting Less suppressing of noise
Noise is suppressed more Use :mobile communication
16. What are the methods to improve FM threshold reduction?

Threshold reduction is obtained with FMFB demodulator. In the above fig., the local
oscillator is replaced by voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The VCO frequency changes as
per low frequency variations of demodulated signal. Thus the receiver responds only to
narrow band of noise centered around instantaneous carrier frequency. This reduces the
threshold of FMFB receiver
17. Define transmission Bandwidth.
Transmission bandwidth is the actual width of the transmitted signal. It is often narrower
than the channel bandwidth to allow practical transmit filters to be used to ensure that the
modulated signal does not spread out beyond the channel bandwidth.
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 18. Define coherent and non coherent system.
Coherent systems need carrier phase information at the receiver and they use matched filters
to detect and decide what data was sent, while noncoherent systems do not need carrier phase
information and use methods like square law to recover the data.
19. Define the vector representation of FM signal.

20. What are methods to improve FM threshold detection?

1.Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
2. FMFB (Frequency modulation with feedback)
PART – B Question

1. (i) Derive an expression for a single mode FM signal with necessary diagrams and draw
its frequency spectrum.
(ii) An angle modulated wave is described by
v(t) = 100 cos (2* 10^6πt + 10 cos 2000πt). Find (i) Power V of the modulating signal
(ii)Maximum frequency deviation (iii)Bandwidth

2. Draw the circuit diagram of a Foster seeley discriminator and explain its working with
relevant phasor diagrams.
3. Discuss the effects of noise on the carrier in a FM receiver with suitable mathematical
diagrams.
4. (i) Derive the expression for wideband FM in terms of Bessel functions.
(ii) How can FM be derived from PM and vice versa. Explain in detail.
5. Derive an expression for SNR at input (SNR)c and output of(SNR)o of a coherent
detector.
6. Define FM. Draw the FM waveform. Derive an expression for single tone frequency
modulation.
7. (i) Compare narrowband and wide band FM.
(ii) Explain any two methods used for FM detection, with neat sketches.
8. Write about the basic principles of FM detection and explain about ratio detector.
9. (i) Derive the figure of merit for FM receiver.
(ii) What is the necessity of Pre emphasis and De emphasis used in FM system? Explain
pre emphasis and de emphasis with neat circuit.
10. Explain the Armstrong method of FM generation.
PART – C Question
1. (i) Explain the principle of indirect method of generating a wideband FM Signal.
(ii) Discuss the effects of non linearity in FM systems.
2. (i) Find the characteristics feature of demodulation of FM signal.
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 (ii) What are the applications of PLL?
3. Discuss the need for frequency translation.
4. What is PLL consisting of? Draw the diagram and explain.
5. WBFM modulator used to transmit audio signals containing frequencies in the range 100
Hz to15kHz. The desired FM signal at the transmitter output is to have a carrier
frequency of 100MHz and a minimum frequency deviation of 75kHz. Assume the
modulation index β=0.2 radians for NBFM. Find the frequency multiplier values N1, N2
and values of carrier frequency and frequency deviation at the various points in WBFM
modulator.

Unit -3 RANDOM PROCESS

PART – A Question & Answer
1. State central limit theorem.

Central limit theorem not only states the convergences of the average to the mean, but it
also gives some insight into the distribution of the average .This theorem states that if
Xi’s are random variables which each have mean m and variance o2.

2.
Define Auto correlation function.
The statistical average of a random process auto correlation function Rxx(t1,t2) is
defined as the expected values of the random processes with respect to the appropriate
probability density function.

Rxx(t1,t2)=E(x(t1),(t2))
3. Define a random variable. Specify the sample space and the random variable for a
coin tossing experiment.
In probability and statistics, a random variable or stochastic variable is a variable whose
value results from a measurement on some type of random process. A random variable is a
numerical description of the outcome of an experiment. For a coin tossing experiment the
sample space is S = { Head, Tail } and the concerned random variable x can take the values
Head or Tail with probability 1/2.
4. Compare AM with DSB-SC.
S.No Parameter AM DSB-SC
1 Bandwidth 2 fm 2 fm

2 Frequency It consists of USB, It consists of USB

spectrum LSB and carrier and LSB
More

3 Power power is Power required is

required for less than that of
transmission
AM
5. When is a random process called deterministic?
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 A stochastic process (or random process) is a probability model used to describe
phenomena that evolve over time or space. More specifically, in probability theory, a
stochastic process is a time sequence representing the evolution of some system represented
by a variable whose change is subject to a random variation. This is the probabilistic
counterpart to a deterministic process (or deterministic system).
6. What is the difference between random variable and random process.
Random variable is a function from the sample space to real line on the other handrandom
processes is the mapping from sample space to real functions or waveforms.
7. Why random process are called strictly sense or strictly stationary?
All its finite dimensional distributions are invariant under translation of time parameter.
8. When the random process is called deterministic?
A random process is called deterministic if future values of a random processcan be per-
fectly predicted from past values. If a process does not have this property it is called. non-
deterministic.
9. Define heterodyne.
Generatration of new frequencies by mixing two or more signals in a nonlinear device such
as a vacuum tube, transistor, or diode mixer.
10. Define the mathematical definition of random process.
A stochastic (random) process is a statistical phenomenon consisting of a collection of
random variables ordered in time.
11. State any two properties of an autocorrelation function.
Solution: 1. R  is an even function of  . 2. If R  is the autocorrelation function of a
stationary process Xt with no periodic component, then   2 lim R x     ,
provided the limit exists.
12. Define probability density function.
Probability density function is defined as fx(x) is defined in terms of cumulative
distribution function Fx (x) as fx(x) = Fx (x)
13. Define Auto correlation function.
Autocorrelation, also known as serial correlation, is the correlation of a signal with itself at
different points in time 19. List the necessary and sufficient conditions for the process to be
WSS.
14. When a stationary random process is called WSS?
A stationary random process X(t) is called WSS, if it satisfies the following conditions, 1.
The mean value of the process is a constant E[X(t)] = m = Constant 2. It is autocorelation
function depends only on  and not on t E[X(t) X(t+  )] = Rxx(  )

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 15. Define Poisson distribution and state any two instances where Poisson distribution
may be successfully employed.
A random variable X is said to follow a Poisson distribution if it assumes only non-negative
values and its probability mass function is given by   , 0,1,2,.......... 0 !         x
and x e P X x x . Number of printing errors at each page of a book and the number of road
accidents reported in a city per day are any two instances where Poisson distribution may
be successfully employed.
16. State any two properties of an autocorrelation function.
1. R is an even function of .
2. If R  is the autocorrelation function of a stationary process Xt with no periodic
component, then   2 lim R x     , provided the limit exists.
17. Define probability.
The probability of occurrence of an event A is defined as, P(A)=
18. What are mutually exclusive events?
Two possible outcomes of an experiment are defined as being mutually exclusive if the
occurrence of one outcome precludes the occurrence of the other.
19. Define probability density function.
Probability density function is defined as fx(x) is defined in terms of cumulative
distribution function Fx (x) as fx(x) = Fx (x)
20. State the Laws of probability.
Additive law of probability Case I : When events are mutually exclusive , P (A ∪B) =�;
P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) Case II :When events are not mutually exclusive; P(A ∪B) = P(A) +
P(B) - P (A∩B) Multiplication law of probability: Case I: When events are independent;
P(A∩B) = P(A) P(B) Case II: When events are dependent; P(A∩B) = P(A) P(B/A) = P(B)
P(A/B)
PART – B Question

1. (i) Two random processes X(t) =A cos (ωt+ϴ) and Y(t) = A sin(ωt+ϴ) where A nd ω
are constants and ϴ is uniformly distributed random variable in (0,2π).Find the cross
correlation function.
(ii)Explain in detail about the transmission of a random process through a linear time
invariant filter.

2. (b)(i) Write the definition, power spectral density and autocorrelation function for
white noise and narrow band noise.
(ii) What causes thermal noise in a material? Write the expression for RMS value of the
noise.
3. (i) Give the properties of auto correlation function.
(ii) Give a random process, X(t) = A cos (ωt+μ) where A and ω are constants and μ is a

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 uniform random variable. Show that X(t) is ergodic in both mean and auto correlation.
4. (i) When is a random process set to be SSS, WSS and Ergodic process. (ii) State any
five properties of autocorrelation functions.
5. (i) Describe the central limit theorem.
(ii) List the different types of random process and give the definitions.

6. Describe the properties of power spectral density.

PART – C Question
1. (a) X is uniformly distributed as given below.

Find E(X), E[X2],E[cos X],and E[ (X-mx)2].

2. State Baye’s rule.

Unit -4 NOISE CHARACTERIZATION
PART – A Question & Answer
1. Give the definition of noise equivalent temperature.

The available noise power is directly proportional to temperature and it is independent

of value of resistance. This power specified in terms of temperature is called as noise
temperature. It is denoted by Te. It is given as,

Te = (F-1)T
2.
Define capture effect.
When the interference signal and FM input are of equal strength, the receiver
fluctuates back and forth between them .This phenomenon is known as the capture
effect.
3. Two resistors of 20kΩ, 50kΩ are at room temperature (290k) for a band width of
100kHz; calculate the thermal noise voltage generated by the 2 resistors in series.
En2 = 4KTΔfR = 4 X 1.38 X 10^-23 x 290 x 100 x 10^3 x 20 x 10^3 = 32 x 10 ^-12
V2
For series combination, Req = 20+50 =70k En2 = 4 x 1.38 x 10^-23 x 290 x 100 x
10^3 x 70 x 10^3 En =10.58 μV
4. Define Noise figure.
It is the ratio between the Signal to noise ratio at the input to the signal to noise ratio at the
output of the system.
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 F = (SNR)i / (SNR)o

5. Define SNR.
Signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of average signal power to average noise power
i.e., SNR= (Average signal power)/ (Average noise power)
6. What is capture effect?

When the noise interference is stronger than FM signal, then FM receiver locks to
interference. This suppresses FM signal. When the noise interference as well as FM signal
are of equal strength, then the FM receiver locking fluctuates between them. This
Phenomenon is called capture effect.

7. List the various types of internal noise.

 Thermal noise or white noise or Johnson noise.
 Shot noise.
 Transit time noise.
8. What is White Noise?
Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over a wide
frequency range. Such spectrum has all frequency components in equal portion, and is
therefore called white noise. The power spectral density of white noise is independent of
the operating frequency.
9. Define noise factor.
Noise factor (F) is defined as the ratio of signal to noise power ratio at the input to signal
to noise power ratio at the output
10. Define noise equivalent bandwidth.
The noise equivalent bandwidth of the filter is defined as the bandwidth of an ideal filter
at which the noise power passed by real filter and ideal filter is same.
11. Define thermal noise.
The electrons in a conductor possess varying amounts of energy. A small fluctuation in
this energy produces small noise voltages in the conductor. These random fluctuations
produced by thermal agitation of the electrons is called thermal noise.
12. Compare the noise performance of DSBSC and FM receivers.
Parameter DSBSC FM
(SNR)o and (SNR)c Both are equal SNR)o = 3/2 Mf2(SNR)c
Threshold effect Absent Present
Noise performance Better Good
13. Define SNR.
Signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of average signal power to average noise

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 power i.e., SNR= (Average signal power)/ (Average noise power)
14.
How does the pre-emphasis and de-emphasis provide over all SNR improvement in
FM.
Pre-emphasis at the transmitter is exactly offset by the de-emphasis circuit in the receiver,
providing a normal frequency response. The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis is to increase the high frequency component during transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise.

15. Defend the reason why, the SNR of the receiver should be high?
The SNR of the receiver needs to be high for better performance. If the SNR is high that
means the signal power is high and the noise power is less. If the SNR is less, then more
noise will arise and make the system sluggish.
16. Classify the different sources of noise?
Noise may be divided into two categories. External noise, noise whose sources are
external and internal noise, whose noise sources are generated internally by the circuit or
the communication systems.
17. State the advantages of super-heterodyne receiver.

The super-heterodyne receiver has the following advantages on TRF receivers, (i)
Improved selectivity in terms of adjacent channels. (ii) More uniform selectivity in terms
of adjacent channels. (iii) Improved receiver stability. (iv) Higher gain per stage because
IF amplifiers are operated at a lower frequency. (v) Uniform band width because of fixed
intermediate frequency. These advantages make them suitable for most of the radio
receiver applications such as AM, FM, SSB, communications, TV and radar receivers.

18. What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their origin?
The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and cosmic noise Solar noise is the
electrical noise emanating from the sun. Cosmic noise is the noise received from the
center part of our galaxy, other distant galaxies and other virtual point sources.
19. Two resistors of 20k, 50k are at room temperature (290K). For a BW of 100KHZ,
Calculate the thermal noise voltage generated by the two resistors in series.
[] E kRTB microvolt
20. Define Partition noise.
In an electron tube having one or more positive grids, this noise is caused by irratic
partition of the cathode current among the positive electrodes. In a transistor, the partition
noise is created from the random fluctuation in the division of current between the
collector and base. 23. Write the expression for noise voltage when several sources are
cascaded. ( R ) Enr = Sqrt (4 KTB (R1 + R2 + …..) ) Where R1 , R2 --- are the resistances

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 of the noise resistors. K – Boltz man constant T – absolute temperature B – Bandwidth
PART – B Question

1. (i) Define narrow band noise and explain the representation of narrow band noise
interms of Inphase and Quadrature components.
(ii) Explain Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM.

2. What causes thermal noise in a material? Write the expression for RMS value of the
noise.
3. Derive the expression for shot noise voltage.
4. A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20 dB and this is preceded by an
amplifier that has a noise figure of 9 dB and an available power gain of 15 dB.

5. (i) Explain narrow band noise. Shown that a narrowband noise n(t) can be
represented interms of inphase and quadrature phase components.
(ii) Thermal noise from resistor is measured as 4x10^-17 W at the temperature of 20
oc. For a given bandwidth. What will be the noise power when temperature is
changed to 50. Average noise power Pn = KTB Watts 4 x 10 ^-17 =k(20) B = k(50)B
6. Explain the noise in DSB-SC receiver using synchronous or coherent detection and
calculate the figure of merit for a DSB-SC system?
PART – C Question
1. Write short notes on Shot noise, Thermal noise, White noise.
2. Write the details about narrow band noise and the properties of quadrature
components of narrowband noise.
3. Describe the pre-emphasis and de-emphasis of FM system.
Unit -5 SAMPLING & QUANTIZATION
PART – A Question & Answer
1. What do you meant by sampling rate?
Definition: Sampling rate or sampling frequency defines the number of samples per second
(or per other unit) taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete or digital signal. .
2. How the multiplexing of signals can be accomplished?
Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send
through a single cable. The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into
several number of logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a
data stream to be transferred.
3. What do you mean by Pulse Amplitude Modulation?
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude
of the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
4. Draw the schematic diagram to generate PPM signal from PWM signal.

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5. In a pulse code modulator, 6 bit encoder has been replaced by a 8 bit encoder.
Calculate the SNR improvement offered by the replacement.
SNR in dB can be found by the formula, SNR (dB) = 6* N. Therefore if we use 6-bit
modulator SNR (dB) = 6*6 = 36. If we use 8-bit modulator SNR (dB) = 6*8 = 48. By this
we have an increase of 12dB.
6. What is aliasing effect?
When sampling theorem is applied to a band-limited signal, containing frequencies greater
than fm, sampling rate would be less than that of Nyquist rate.
fS > fnyquist
It leads to overlapping of adjacent spectrum which is said to be aliasing effect.
7. Write the difference between natural, impulse and flat-top sampling.
Impulse sampling can be performed by multiplying input signal x (t) with impulse train
(tnTS) of period 'T'. Here, the amplitude of impulse changes with respect to n amplitude of
input signal x (t).
Natural sampling is similar to impulse sampling, except the impulse train is replaced by
pulse train of period T. i.e. you multiply input signal x(t) to pulse train P(tnT).
During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse which can be easily
removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top. Here, the top of the samples are flat i.e. they
have constant amplitude. Hence, it is called as flat top sampling or practical sampling. Flat
top sampling makes use of sample and hold circuit.
8. What do you mean by PWM?
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time
Modulation (PTM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the duration or width or time
of the pulse carrier varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
9. What is meant by quantization error?
It is the difference between the original signal and the quantized signal.
e(n) = x(n) – xq(n)
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10. State Sampling theorem.
A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher than W
Hz, may be completely recovered from the knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of 2W
samples per second.

fs  2 fm
or
1
Ts 
2 fm
11. Why prefiltering is done before sampling?
Prefiltering is done before sampling, to obtain the new frequency reduced to fS/2 or less
such that spectrum of which does not show aliasing. Prefiltering avoids aliasing effect.
12. Write the disadvantages of TDM.
• Channel Dispersion – Variation in Amplitude and Phase with frequency. Equalization
process to be done to tackle this dispersion.
• Cross Talk – Signal from adjacent channel spill over to desired time slot. To handle
this, the TDM should be immune to Amplitude non-linearites.
13. Write short notes on companding laws.
Companding is a method of mitigating the effects of a channel with limited dynamic range.
The name is a combination of the words compressing and expanding.
Types:
 A-law
 µ-law
14. What is meant by PCM?
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a method of signal coding in which the message signal is
sampled, the amplitude of each sample is rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of
discrete levels and encoded so that both time and amplitude are represented in discrete form.
This allows the message to be transmitted by means of a digital waveform
15. Define Nyquist rate.
Let the signal be band limited to W Hz. Then Nyquist rate is given as,
Nyquist rate = 2W samples/sec
Aliasing will not take place if sampling rate is greater than Nyquist rate.
16. What is meant by quantization?
While converting the signal value from analog to digital, quantization is performed. The
analog value is assigned to nearest digital value. This is called quantization. The quantized
value is then converted into equivalent binary value. The quantization levels are fixed
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 depending upon the number of bits. Quantization is performed in every Analog to Digital
Conversion.
17. What you mean by non-uniform quantization?
Step size is not uniform. Non-uniform quantizer is characterized by a step size that increases
as the separation from the origin of the transfer characteristics is increased. Non-uniform
quantization is otherwise called as robust quantization.
18. Write two fold effects of quantization process.
(i) The peak to peak range input sample values is subdivided into a finite set of decision levels
or decision thresholds that are aligned with the risers of the staircase.
(ii) The output is assigned from a discrete value selected from a finite set of representation
levels. The reconstruction values that are aligned with tread of the staircase.
19. What do you mean by PPM?
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude
and width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with reference to
the position of a reference pulse varies according to the instantaneous sampled value of the
message signal.
20. What do you mean by uniform Quantization?
The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is termed as a
Uniform Quantization. There are two types of uniform quantization. They are Mid-Rise type
and Mid-Tread type.
PART – B Question

1. Explain the working of PWM with a neat sketch?

2. Explain aliasing and how you will combat its effects?
3. Describe in detail the concepts of FDM.
4. Explain PCM with a neat block diagram and state its advantages and applications.
5. Discuss on distribution of quantization errors in uniform quantizers and derive the
relationship between number of bits used in the encoder and signal to quantization
noise ratio.
6. What do you mean by Quantization? Derive the expression for signal-to-quantization
noise ratio in PCM system.
7. Explain Time Division Multiplexing system for N-number of channels.
8. State the low pass sampling theorem and explain reconstruction of the signal from its
samples.
9. Illustrate and describe the types of quantizer? Describe the midtread and Midrise type
characteristics of uniform quantizer with a suitable Diagram.
10. Write notes on Logarithmic Companding.
PART – C Question
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1. A PCM System has a uniform quantizer followed by 6 bit encoder. Show that the rms
signal to noise ratio is approximately given by (1.8 + 6b) dB, assuming a sinusoidal
input.
2. Show that the signal to noise power ratio of a uniform quantizer is PCM system
increases significantly with increase in number of bits per sample. Also determine the
signal to quantization noise ratio of an audio signal
S (t) = 4 Sin (2π500t) which is quantized using a 10bit PCM.
3. Discuss the logarithmic companding of speech signal in detail also comment on the A
and μ Law.

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