Symboles and abréviations

1
Symboles and abréviations

 Symboles and abréviation

PV : Photo voltaires
Hr : hours
DC : Direct current Motors
AC : alternative current motors
SQ : Sun vectors
GPS : global positionning system
TOU : time of use
E/W: east west
N/S: north south
CDM: coefficient diagram method
G(s): the transfer function
N(s): numerator
F(s): the reference numerator
D(s): denumerator
A(s): the denominator polynomial of the controller transfer function
B(s): the feedback numerator polynomials of the controller transfer function.
d:
r:
P(s): the characteristic polynomial
PTARGET (s): the target characteristic polynomial
γ i:stability indices
¿
γ i : stability limit indices
: time constant
K: gain
: the time delay
FOPTD: first order plus time delay
SOPTD: second order plus time delay
mP :maximum overshot
t s:settling time
TN: Taylor numerator
TD: Taylor denumerator
PA : Padé approximation

2
Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

Abstract

What is a solar tracker? and how can we use it? and why we needed for in the first
place? a lot of important details in this chapter that will help us understand more about sun
trackers.
Sun tracking is one of the best electrical sources, not because it’s just a good
renewable energy it’s also became more predictable and easier to use. Grasping the concept of
the sun’s movement will help any technician, engineer or system developer to understand the
formulas that one need to use in programming of micro-controllers, programmable logic
controllers or to write a simple PC program that could automatically steer your solar tracking
system. The discussion around the movement of the sun is thus made within the context of
orientating a solar tracker with respect to the sun at any location on the earth and on any given
time of the day.
In this chapter we are aiming on major points on our paper, the sun tracking as I
mentioned previously and we are focusing on the coefficients diagram method, we will
highlight the principal of the method and the mathematical part of it. Last but not least we will
observe how it will help us achieving our simulation target.
We will use Coefficient Projection (CDM) to design a simple stable time controller.
Delay system with polynomial approach. For this, the first-order plus time delay (FOPTD)
model is used. Imagine This method is based on various approximations of time delay.
Explicit adjustment of CDM controller Determined using the FOPTD plant model. The
obtained control algorithms were compared and analyzed. Various first-order time delay
systems.

3
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

Sun tracker
solar tracker, a system that positions an object at an angle relative to the Sun. The
most-common applications for solar trackers are positioning photovoltaic (PV) panels (solar
panels) so that they remain perpendicular to the Sun’s rays and positioning space telescopes
so that they can determine the Sun’s direction. PV solar trackers adjust the direction that a
solar panel is facing according to the position of the Sun in the sky. By keeping the panel
perpendicular to the Sun, more sunlight strikes the solar panel, less light is reflected, and more
energy is absorbed. That energy can be converted into power.
Solar tracking uses complex instruments to determine the location of the Sun relative
to the object being aligned. These instruments typically include computers, which can process
complicated algorithms that enable the system to track the Sun, and sensors, which provide
information to a computer about the Sun’s location or, when attached to a solar panel with a
simple circuit board, can track the Sun without the need for a computer.
Solar trackers provide significant advantages for renewable energy. With solar
tracking, power output can be increased by about 30 to 40 percent. The increase in power
output promises to open new markets for solar power. However, solar trackers have several
important disadvantages. A static solar panel may have a warranty that spans decades and
may require little to no maintenance. Solar trackers, on the other hand, have much shorter
warranties and require one or more actuators to move the panel. These moving parts increase
installation costs and reduce reliability; active tracking systems may also use a small amount
of energy (passive systems do not require additional energy). Computer-based algorithm solar
trackers are more expensive, require additional maintenance, and become obsolete much
faster than static solar panels, since they use fast-evolving electronic components with parts
that may be difficult to replace in relatively short periods of time.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/solar-tracker

The sun-tracker described is an electromechanical system using several

phototransistors to provide collector-dish position feedback to a control centre. This then
drives a motor to steer the dish and reduces any position error. A circuit block diagram is
shown in Figure Ⅱ.1.
The system built for the Monash collector, is a one axis polar mounting type,
tracking from east to west, with the axis of the collector aligned with the celestial pole and
adjustments made manually and periodically as required. If automatic seasonal adjustment
was required, the tracker unit would be duplicated.
Figure Ⅱ.1 shows that the difference signal from the phototransistors is a current, then
converted to a voltage signal by the R~ stage. This voltage is amplified by an adjustable gain
amplifier A, which drives the motor to change the pointing direction of the phototransistors to
reduce their difference output.

4
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

DC MOTOR
RT
A
Sun

Sensor and GEARBOX

phototransistors

RT : Transfer resistance stage

A: adjustment voltage
Figure Ⅱ.1: Simplified block diagram of the sun tracker electrical circuit shown the
basic functions required for the tracker operation

For the collector tracking arrangement chosen a 15°/hr axial rotation is required. A desired
resolution of better than 0.1 ° made gear reduction from the motor to the sun-sensor (and
collector) a necessity. A gear ratio of10,000: I has been used. The drive motor for the tracker
has a rated power output of 2.2 W at 400 r.p.m, and is mounted internal to the gear box frame
and is thus protected from the weather.
EXPERIENCE WITH A SUN TRACKER SYSTEM
P. J. HESSION and W. J. BONWICK

How Solar Trackers Work

Solar trackers are support structures that allow solar panels to follow the path of the
sun and absorb more solar radiation. They can increase the efficiency of the panels by
anywhere from 10% to 45%, depending on the type of tracker.1 Because of the cost of the
hardware and installation, they are more commonly seen on large-scale solar projects
like community solar farms than on individual residences. It is easier, safer, and more cost-
effective to install trackers on ground-mounted arrays than on rooftops, and the scale of the
project allows more return on the investment.
The challenge with installing a tracker on a roof is one of physics. While ground-
mounted trackers are often sunk into the ground with concrete pillars, roof-mounted ones rely
on the strength and integrity of the roof. Rooftop trackers raise the profile of the solar panels,
which increases their exposure to strong winds—and that, in extreme weather, could pull the
entire solar system off the roof. Rooftop trackers need to be of lighter weight and lower profile.
Solar Tracking Platform Components
In this chapter we are particularly interested in controlling the movement of a solar
harvesting means in an energy efficient manner. The concept of a solar tracking platform

5
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

describes that part of the system that ensures solar collector mobility and tracking control, for
example a dual axis cross-coupled (mechatronic) steering platform.
In general, an electrically driven solar tracking mobility platform includes a solar
tracking control system for driving the motion of a concentrating solar collector. It may be
used to track the sun in two dimensions and to focus the sunlight onto a solar receiver means.
The complete integrated system typically includes the following elements and components:
1. 1. Transmission/actuator mechanical drive subsystem: Linear actuators,
worm gears, linear drives, slew drives, and planetary gear drives form part of
the positioning system to move the reflector to face the sun
2. Electric motors: DC or AC electric motors to drive the mechanical drives,
through current, frequency or speed control;
3. Battery storage: Backup battery system for power storage and start-up power
requirements;
4. Motion sensing subsystem devices: Linear or rotational shaft encoders, tilt
sensors, inclinometers, photodiodes, photosensitive resistors to monitor the
present position of the dish while it moves to the desired position;
5. Solar position algorithm: Algorithm to continuously calculate the sun vector
SQ(γs,θs), as solar azimuth and elevation angles;
6. Control unit subsystem: Programmable device to coordinate the modes of
operation, as well as the control strategy to position the system according to
the solar position algorithm or sensor coordinates
7. Limit switches: Devices to prevent mechanical movement beyond pre-
defined limits in order to prevent tracker or cable damage;
8. Environmental or atmospheric ambient sensing devices: Light intensity
sensing, solarimeter, pyranometer, anemometer/wind sensor, ambient
temperature sensor, humidity sensor and atmospheric pressure sensors to
detect any emergency or threatening environmental risks.
9. Payload: The solar collector subsystem, typically an optical element, lens,
collector, reflector or dish system with associated solar harvesting means (i.e.
Stirling engine/device or concentrated photovoltaic module mechanically
mounted at the focal point of a parabolic type dish);

The development phases of your project will thus include the design and
implementation of a mechanical platform with a mechanical transmission or actuator system
as well as electronic or digital electronic control in order to realise smooth power input solar
trajectory contour following. The detailed designs of the power conversion unit and grid
interface/power electronics aspects of the system is described in a follow on book prepared by
the authors.

SOLAR TRACKING Sun Position Sun Tracking Sun Following by Gerro Prinsloo, Robert
Dobson

6
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

Types of Solar Trackers

Trackers follow the sun in one of two ways. Single-axis trackers rotate on an east-west
axis, following the sun throughout the day. These are designed to increase solar absorption by
25% to 35%. Dual-axis trackers rotate on a north-south axis as well, following the sun
throughout the year. Compared to a fixed-tilt system mounted on a roof, a ground-mounted
system with a dual-axis tracker can produce up to 45% more electricity.

How the tracker follows the sun depends on the model and price. Some lower-cost
trackers need to be shifted manually. Passive trackers are in the mid-cost range; they use no
motor, but instead, use a liquid that tilts the system to the west as it heats up or tilts it back to the
east when it cools. An active solar tracker uses a motor to automatically orient the panels for
maximum exposure to the sun, and dual-axis systems can tilt to nearly any angle to face the sun.
Many active trackers run their motors from energy produced by the solar panels themselves.
They might also use GPS and software to maximize the panels' efficiency.

fig Ⅱ.2 : A solo Axis Solar Tracker Two Axis Solar Tracking System

7
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

fig Ⅱ.03: A Dual Axis Solar Tracker Two Axis Solar Tracking System

https://www.treehugger.com/solar-trackers-explained-5189463

Figure Ⅱ.04 illustrates the full spectrum of types of solar tracking platforms designs
under consideration. In a simple one-axis sun tracker design, the tracking system drives the
collector about an axis of rotation until the sun central ray and the aperture normal are coplanar.

Figure Ⅱ.04 : of existing solar tracking platforms (Chong et al., 2014).

There are typically three types of one-axis sun tracking designs available. This
includes horizontal-axis tracker (tracking axis is to remain parallel to the surface of the earth
and it is always oriented along East-West or North-South direction); tilted-axis
tracker(tracking axis is tilted from the horizon by an angle oriented along North-South
direction,e.g. Latitude-tilted-axis sun tracker); and vertical-axis tracker (the tracking axis is
collinear with the zenith axis) also known as an azimuth sun tracker (Chong et al.,
2014).Two-axis or dual-axis sun trackers, such as the azimuth-elevation and the tilt-roll sun
tracking systems, follow the sun in the horizontal and vertical plane. In the azimuth elevation
sun-tracking system, the solar collector must be free to rotate about the azimuth and the
elevation axes. In these systems, the tracking angle about the azimuth axis is the solar azimuth
angle and the tracking angle about the elevation axis is the solar elevation angle. Such dual-
axis tracker systems track the sun on two axes, such that the sun vectors normal to the
aperture as to attain near 100% energy collection efficiency.

SOLAR TRACKING Sun Position Sun Tracking Sun Following by Gerro Prinsloo, Robert
Dobson

Why we need a sun tracker in the first place

8
Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

In order to track the sun, we need to be able to follow it not only as it moves from
east to west but also as it gradually that is, as the sun reached the highest point of travelling in
the sky, in order to track it, not only from east to west but north to south we need to have a
dual-axis solar tracker.

Solar trackers are rising in popularity, but not everyone understands the complete
benefits and potential drawbacks of the system. Solar panel tracking solutions are a more
advanced technology for mounting photovoltaic panels. Stationary mounts, which hold panels
in a fixed position, can have their productivity compromised when the sun passes to a less-
than-optimal angle. Compensating for this, solar trackers automatically move to "track" the
progress of the sun across the sky, thereby maximizing output.

It’s a fantastic system for energy output, but there are a few considerations to bear in
mind before.

Advantages

 Trackers generate more electricity than their stationary counterparts due to increased
direct exposure to solar rays. This increase can be as much as 10 to 25% depending on
the geographic location of the tracking system.
 There are many different kinds of solar trackers, such as single-axis and dual-
axis trackers, all of which can be the perfect fit for a unique jobsite. Installation size,
local weather, degree of latitude and electrical requirements are all important
considerations that can influence the type of solar tracker best suited for a specific
solar installation.
 Solar trackers generate more electricity in roughly the same amount of space needed
for fixed-tilt systems, making them ideal for optimizing land usage
 In certain states, some utilities offer Time of Use (TOU) rate plans for solar power,
which means the utility will purchase the power generated during the peak time of the
day at a higher rate. In this case, it is beneficial to generate a greater amount of
electricity during these peak times of the day. Using a tracking system helps maximize
the energy gains during these peak time periods.
 Advancements in technology and reliability in electronics and mechanics have
drastically reduced long-term maintenance concerns for tracking systems.

Disadvantages

 Solar trackers are slightly more expensive than their stationary counterparts, due to the
more complex technology and moving parts necessary for their operation. This is
usually around a $0.08 – $0.10/W increase depending on the size and location of the
project.

9
Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

 Even with the advancements in reliability, there is generally more maintenance

required than a traditional fixed rack, though the quality of the solar tracker can play a
role in how much and how often this maintenance is needed.
 Trackers are a more complex system than fixed racking. This means that typically
more site preparation is needed, including additional trenching for wiring and some
additional grading.
 Single-axis tracker projects also require an additional focus on company stability and
bankability. When it comes to getting projects financed, these systems are more
complex and thus are seen as a higher risk from a financier’s viewpoint.
 Solar trackers are generally designed for climates with little to no snow making them a
more viable solution in warmer climates. Fixed racking accommodates harsher
environmental conditions more easily than tracking systems.
 Fixed tracking systems offer more field adjustability than single-axis tracking systems.
Fixed systems can generally accommodate up to 20% slopes in the E/W direction
while tracking systems typically offer less of a slope accommodation usually around
10% in the N/S direction.

https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2016/05/advantages-disadvantages-solar-
tracker-system/

https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/

Conclusion

The dual axis tracking capability is extremely important in solar harvesting

applications since the solar concentrator needs to track the sun in a three-dimensional space,
using both an azimuth and elevation drives to dynamically focus the sunlight directly onto
the focal point of the reflector where the power conversion unit is mechanically suspended.
The primary task of the solar tracking platform solution is to ensure that the thermal/optical
focus is maintained. In this chapter, the mechanical aspects of a solar tracking platform
design was described. In the next chapter, aspects associated with the calculation of the solar
vectors for the maneuvering of the solar tracking platform will be detailed.

Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom (east/west axis, north/south axis). they
can generate up to 40% more electricity compared to non-moving solar panels. However
dual axis trackers cost 100% more than a static type panels.

Which means however, Dual axis comes at the price of higher complexity and lower
reliability (more down time and more maintenance) than single axis.

10
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

Ⅱ.2 CDM:
In this article, we will use Coefficient Projection (CDM) to design a simple stable time
controller. Delay system with polynomial approach. For this, the first-order plus time delay
(FOPTD) model is used. Imagine This method is based on various approximations of time delay.
Explicit adjustment of CDM controller Determined using the FOPTD plant model. The obtained
control algorithms were compared and analyzed. Various first-order time delay systems.

CDM (Coefficient diagram method):

The controller must be designed under some practical limitations when a control problem
is considered. The controller is desired to be of minimum degree, minimum phase (if possible) and
stable. It must have a sufficiently narrow bandwidth and power rating limitations. If the controller
is designed without considering these limitations, the robustness property will be very poor,
although the stability and time response requirements are met. When all of these mentioned
properties are considered together, the controller designed by using CDM proposed by Manabe
will have the smallest degree, the smallest bandwidth and will have the closed loop time response
without an overshoot. These properties guarantee the sufficient damping of the disturbance effects
and the low economic property.
CDM is a polynomial algebraic method. The advantages of the classical and modern
control techniques are integrated with the basic principles of this method which is derived by
making use of the previous experience and knowledge about the controller design. This way an
effective and efficient design method, namely CDM is constructed. Without confronting with
serious difficulties and necessitating much experience, CDM now makes possible to design very
good controllers with less effort and relative ease when compared with the other existing methods
[6]. Many control systems have been designed successfully using CDM Comparing designs done
by CDM and other design methods, it is seen that CDM can give a controller design which is both
stable and robust, and it has the desired system response speed. Also, CDM is less sensitive to
disturbances and bounded uncertainties resulted from parameter variations. Therefore, CDM is an
important method for controller design.

11
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

The basic block diagram of the CDM control system is shown in Fig 1. In this figure, y is the
output, r is the reference input, u is the control and d is the external disturbance signal. The
transfer function of the plant G(s)=N(s)D-1(s) where N(s) and D(s) are the numerator and the
denominator of the G(s), respectively. A(s) is the denominator polynomial of the controller
transfer function while F(s) and B(s) are called the reference numerator and the feedback
numerator polynomials of the controller transfer function. Since the transfer.

Fig Ⅱ.05: A block diagram of CDM control system

function of the controller has two numerators, it resembles to a 2DOF system structure. Better
performance can be expected when using a 2DOFstructure, because it can focus on both tracking
the desired reference signal and disturbance rejection. Unstable pole-zero cancellation and use of
more number of integrators are also avoided in implementations with this structure.
The output of the controlled closed-loop system is
N ( s) F ( s) A (s) N ( s)
y= p (s )
r+
p( s)
d (1)
where P(s) is the characteristic polynomial and given by
n

P( s) =D( s) A( s)+ N( s) B(s)=∑ ai si (2)

i=0

According to Manabe [6], CDM design parameters, namely equivalent time constant (t), stability
indices (gi)and stability limit indices (γ*) are given by

 = a1 / a0, (3a)
ai 2
γ i= ai+ 1+ ai−1
, i=1~(n-1), g0=gn =¥ (3b)

1 +1
γ i= γ γ i+1 (3c)
i−1

From Eq.3a-c, the coefficients ai can be written as

12
 Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

a i = i−1 a 0= Zi a 0 (4)
∏
j=1
γ ii j

n
Ptarget ( s)=¿ a ¿[(∑ ¿¿ )( s)i) + (s) + 1]
0
(5)
i=2

The equivalent time constant specifies the time response speed. The stability indices
and the stability limit indices affect the stability and the time response. The variation of the
stability indices due to plant parameter variation specifies the robustness.

Controller Design Using CDM 

CDM uses "simultaneous approach" to obtain the controller and closed loop transfer
function. In this approach, the type and degree of the controller polynomials and the
characteristic polynomial of the closed-loop system are defined at the beginning. Considering
the design specifications, coefficients of the polynomials are found later in the design
procedure. Because of simultaneous design structure, the designers able to keep a good
balance between the rigor of the requirements and the complexity of the controller.
The processes encountered in industry can be mostly described as FOPTD model

K −s (6)
Gm ( s )= e
Ts+ 1

where K is the gain, T is the time constant and q is the time delay .The experimental
identification of this model using many techniques are well described in The term e−s which
represents the time delay in Eq.6 is approximated by
the Taylor numerator expansion

e » 1- s (7)
−s

the Taylor denominator expansion

1
e
−s
» 1+ s (8)
the Padé approximation

2−s
e
−s
» 2+s (9)

13
Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

Especially, if the ratio of the time delay to time constants small, these approximations can
successfully be used for the time delay. The first order approximations are sufficient because
their higher number lead to a high reorder of the approximative transfer function of a
controlled system and consequently to more complex resulting controllers. The results
obtained in the next section show that the first order approximation for time delay is
sufficiently acceptable and gives good results. The equivalent linear time-invariant models of
Eq.6 are obtained as in Table 1.

Determination of the nominal plant and the controller polynomials:

Since CDM is a polynomial-based method, the transfer function of the plant is thought to be
two independent polynomials; one is the numerator polynomial N(s) of degree m and the other
is the denominator polynomial D(s) of degree n (m£n). The explicit forms of the controller
polynomials A(s) and B(s) appearing in the CDM control system structure shown in Fig.1 are
represented by
p p

A(s) =∑ li s i And B(s)=∑ k i si (10)

i=0 i=0

where the condition p􀀀__ must be satisfied for the sake of practical realizations. For a good
performance, the Table 1. Equivalent transfer Functions for Eq. 6

Equivalent transfer Functions of FOPTD model

TN exp. 1−s −k s +k
G sn (s)=k
Ts+1 = Ts+1

TD exp. K k
G sd (s)= = 2
(Ts+1)(1+ s) Ts +¿ ¿

PA 2−s −k s +2 k
Gsp (s)=k =
(Ts+1)(2+ s) Ts2+ ¿ ¿

degrees of the controller polynomials to be chosen get importance. The most important fact
that effects the degrees is the existence of a disturbing signal and its type. It is advised that the
minimum degree polynomials are chosen depending on the type of the disturbance. In this

14
Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

paper, the controller polynomials are chosen for the step disturbance signal. The controller
polynomials then have forms

A(s) = ls s (11a)
B(s) =k s+k 0 (11b)
for the numerator approximation and

A(s) = l2 s 2 l ss (12a)
B(s) =k 2 s2 + k s +k 0 (12b)

for the denominator and Padé approximations.

Computation of the coefficients of the controller polynomials during the design:

Pole-placement method is a straightforward design method much used in control engineering

basically made use of to compute the controller polynomials in CDM. A feedback controller
is chosen by pole placement technique and then, a feedforward controllers determined so as to
match the steady-state gain of closed loop system. According to this, the controller
polynomials which are determined by Eq. 11 and 12 are replaced in Eq. 2. Hence, a
polynomial depending on the parameters ki and li is obtained. Then, a target characteristic
polynomial Ptarget (s) is determined by placing the design parameters into Eq. 5. Equating these
two polynomials

A(s)D(s)+B(s)n(s)= Ptarget (s) (13)

is obtained, which is known to be Diophantine equation. Solving this equation, the following
explicit formulae are found for the coefficients of the controller polynomials A(s) and B(s) in
Eq. 11

❑2++ Z 2
l 1= (14a)
T + ¿¿
1
k 1= (+-l 1), (14b)
k
k 0=1/k. (14c)
The numerator polynomial F(s) which is defined as the pre-filter element is chosen to be

F(s)=P(s)/N(s) (16)

The parameters of Eq. 12a and b can be derived as

1
l 2= Z4 (17a)
T

1
l 2= ¿Z3-(T+)l 2) , (17b)
T

15
Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

1
k 2= ( Z -(T+)l1-l2,
k 2
(17c)
1
k 1= (−l 1 ) ,
k
(17d)
k 0=1/k (17e)
F (s )=P( s )/N( s )=0.5/K (s) (18)

for the denominator approximation and

1
l 2= Z 4 , (19a)
T

3 2
❑ + 2 Z 1 ❑ + 4 ( Z 2−4 l 2 ) +8(Z 3−2 T l 2 )
l 1= (19b)
8¿¿

1
k 2=
K (T 1+(2T+) 2 (19c)
l l −Z 3 ,
1
k 1=
2K
(+0.5−2 l1), (19d)
0.5
K . (19e)
k 0=

for the Padé approximation.

Choice of the key parameters for the design and testto be done after the design
Choice of the equivalent time constant: One of the most important properties of CDM is that
the desired settling time (ts) is determined at the beginning before starting to design.
Considering the Standard Manabe form [6], the equivalent time constant is chosen to be t=
ts / 2.5.
There is an implicit relation between the equivalent time constant and the magnitude of the
control signal. If tincreases then the time response becomes slow and the control signal gets
smaller. If t gets smaller, the time domain response gets faster but the control signal
increases. For this reason, the value of t must be chosen by considering the above mentioned
relation in practical
applications.
Choice of the stability indices and the stability limit indices: In general, the stability indices
are chosen as γ i={2.5, 2, 2, ..., 2},since the Standard Manabe form is used for the controller
design in CDM. For the time delay systems, if the approximations instead of the time delay
are used, the numerator of the plant transfer function is transformed into first order

16
Chapter Ⅱ : Sun Tracker

polynomial in TN and PA approximations. An overshoot can be occurred when Standard

Manabe form is used in this case [11].Thus, the values of the stability indices can be changed
so as to decrease the overshoot.
The control system shown in Fig.2 is simulated by using the actual plant and the CDM
controller. It is decided whether some adjustments are needed in the controller parameters by
considering the time domain and the frequency response characteristics of the control system

Figure 08 : Simulation block diagram for the CDM control

system.

and the desired performance characteristics. If any change is needed, the key parameters for
the design are modified and repeating the processes.

Simple Polynomial Controller Design by the Coefficient Diagram Method

SERDAR ETHEM HAMAMCI

17