CHAPTER 4 – CONCRETE

CEMENT

Hydraulic Cement – is a bonding agent that reacts with water to form a hard stone-like
substance that is resistant to disintegration in water. Most hydraulic cement has specific
combination of silicate and aluminates of lime. Cement is the bonding agent of rock materials
called aggregate which act as a filler.

Portland Cement – is widely used in various small and large constructions including roads and
highways. Portland cement is not a brand but a type of hydraulic cement. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin,
a brick layer of Leeds, England, introduced the name Portland, a hydraulic lime that he patented
for having resemblance to the natural limestone quarried on the isle of Portland in England. In
1876, the first Portland cement in the United States, was produced by David Saylor of Coplay,
Pennsylvania.

Portland Cement is Categorized into Five Types:

Type I – is used in general construction where the special properties are specified.

Type II – for general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulfate action or where
moderate heat of hydration is required.

Type III – is used where high early strength is necessary.

Type IV – When a low heat of hydration is desired.

Type V – is specified when high sulfate resistance is required.

Pozzolan Cement – is an amorphous silica that harden as a silica gel by reacting chemically
with alkali in the presence of water. The name Pozzolan is derived from Pozzouli, an Italian town
where Pozzolona a composition of glassy tuff was found.

Water – is acceptable for drinking purposes is also satisfactory for use in concrete mixing.
Admixture – is defined by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), admixture is a
material other than water, aggregates or Portland cement, that is used as an ingredient in
concrete added to the batch immediately before or during its mixing.

The Purpose of Admixture in Concrete are:

 To improve the workability or consistency of concrete. Meaning, the ability of concrete

mixture to fill all the voids of aggregate, steel reinforcement, and other voids inside the
forms. Concrete mixture however, should not be too thick or too fluid.
 To improve the durability of concrete.
 To increase strength.
 Accelerate strength development.
 Increase density and reduce permeability.

Air-entraining Admixtures – materially improves the durability of concrete in entraining

billions of microscopic air bubbles distributed throughout the matrix of the concrete. These tiny
air bubbles are large in volume compared woth the capillary voids and the gel pores in Portland
cement paste. These air bubbles create space for the relief of pressure built up in the smaller
cavities when they are filled with water that expand when it freezes.

Aggregates

Aggregates are inert materials when bound together into a conglomerated mass by Portland
cement and water form concrete, mortar, or plaster. The aggregates component is about 75% of
the total mass of concrete.

Aggregates are classified in two categories:

1. Coarse Aggregate
2. Fine Aggregate

Coarse Aggregate
Is that portion of an aggregates that is retained on number 4 (4.76mm) sieve which usually come
from:

1. Natural gravel deposits which are formed by water, wind or glacial reaction.
2. Manufactured by crushing rock, stone, boulder, and large cobble stone.

There are four kinds of common coarse aggregate, namely:

1. Limestone or calcium-bearing materials

2. Basalts, granite, and related igneous rocks.
3. Sandstone and quartzites
4. Rock, such as opal, and chert composed mainly of amorphous silicon dioxide.

Conditions for maximum size of coarse aggregate:

1. It shall easily fit into the forms and in between reinforcing bars.
2. It should not be larger than 1/5 of the narrowest distance of the forms or 1/3 depth
of the slab nor ¾ of the minimum distance between the reinforcing bars.

Fine Aggregate

Is generally the product of natural disintegration of silica-bearing or calcium-bearing rock. Fine

aggregate or sand are those that passes through No.4 sieve and predominantly retained by a
No.200 (74 micron) sieve. It is also manufactured from large pieces of aggregate by crushing,
grinding, or rolling.

Concrete

Is an artificial stone as result of mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. The
conglomeration of these materials producing a solid mass is called Plain Concrete. Concrete in
which reinforcement is embedded in a manner that the two materials act together resisting in
forces is called Reinforcement Concrete.

Workability of Concrete

Workability of concrete means the ability of fresh concrete to flow freely around the
reinforcements and fill all the voids inside the form. Concrete is said to be workable under the
following conditions:

1. Property proportioned for transport and placed without segregation. The aggregate
particles must be uniformly distributed.
2. Easily molded into desired shapes and completely fill the space it is to occupy.
3. Easily Finished.

Workability is also described as:

1. Consistency – is the degree of wetness or slump of the concrete mixture. It varies directly
with the amount of water in the mixture.
 2. Plasticity – is the ease with which fresh concrete can be molded or deformed without
segregation.
3. Mobility – is the capacity of concrete to move or flow, particularly during vibration.

Concrete should be correctly proportioned to produce the workability required for a particular
structure. For example, a fairly thick or stiff concrete mixture may be used for pavement where it
can be tamped or vibrated. On the other hand, concrete for thin wall and small column structure
maybe compacted with minimum vibration. Thus, a semi-fluid mixture is required for concrete in
applications where it must flow in order to fill all the spaces inside the form.

Strength of Concrete

Concrete structure is subjected to compressive, tensile, flexural, and shearing forces. And the
strength of concrete is measured in its ability to resist the stresses caused by these different
forces. Theoretically, a low water cement ratio produces high quality Portland cement paste.
Likewise, it also add some other desirable properties such as:

1. Water tightness
2. Abrasion resistance
3. Durability

The durability of concrete is its ability to resist the forces of deterioration. The forces of nature
that cause deterioration includes:

1. Freezing and thawing of water saturated concrete.

2. Expansion caused by the reaction between reactive aggregates and alkali in cement.
3. Reaction between soil and water sulfate and the hydrated Portland Cement.
4. Expansion and shrinkage caused by wetting and drying.

The freezing of water in the pores of concrete causes it to expand about 9% in volume. The
pressure caused by expansion of freezing water maybe sufficient to damage the gel structure
and cause deterioration of the concrete.

Chemical Resistance

Because hydrated Portland cement is the chemical base of concrete, it will react to most acids.
This reactions causes concrete to disintegrate. In some cases, even the highest quality concrete
must be protected from the direct contract with corrosive chemicals.

Magnesium Fluorosilicate hardens the surface of concrete by chemical action and makes it more
impervious to chemical attack. Concrete could be protected by application of any of the
following:

1. Composition and fineness of the cement.

2. Cement water ratio of the paste.
3. The time of curing.
4. Manner of curing.
5. Temperature.
6. Presence of entrained air.

Weight of Concrete

There are three types of concrete according to weight:

1. Light weight concrete

2. Medium stone concrete
 3. Heavy weight concrete

Light Weight Concrete

Is classified into three types depending upon the kind of aggregates used that predetermine their
weight.

1. Low Density Concrete – is used for insulation purposes. Its unit weight would rarely
exceed 50 pounds per cubic foot or 800kg per cubic meter.
2. Moderate Strength Concrete – has a unit weight of 360 to 960kg per cubic meter with
a compressive strength of 70 to 176kg per square centimeter commonly used to fill light
gauge steel floor panels.
3. Structural Concrete – has similarity in characteristics with that of medium stone
concrete. It weighs 90 to 120 pounds per cubic foot or 1,440 to 1,920kg per cubic meter
used in buildings, roads, bridges, etc.

Medium Stone Concrete

Is an structural concrete. It weighs from 145 to 152 pounds per cubic foot or 2,325 to 2,435kg
per cubic meter.

Heavy Weight Concrete

Is used as shield against gamma rays reactor and other similar structures. It is also used as
counter weight for lifting bridges. The contents of heavy weight concrete are cement, heavy iron
ores, crushed rock, steel scraps, punching or shot as fine aggregate. The weight of heavyweight
concrete depends upon the kind of aggregate used in mixing such as:

1. Heavy rock aggregates – weighs 200 to 300 pounds per cubic foot, or 3200kg per cubic
meter.
2. Iron Punching – is added to high density ores. It weighs 4325 to 5000kg per cubic meter.

Proportioning Concrete Mixture

Correct proportioning of ingredients to produce concrete also provides a balance between the
requirements of:

1. Economy
2. Workability
3. Strength
4. Durability
5. Appearance

The right proportioning of all the ingredients for concrete is the most difficult manufacturing step
to control, although it is one of the most important aspects in producing high quality economical
concrete.

In 1918, Duff A. Abrams, an American scientist researcher, discovered the ratio of the amount of
water to the amount of cement in the concrete mixture (water cement ratio) is related to the
strength and quality of the concrete. It has been proven that many other variables contribute to
the strength of concrete, but the water cement ratio principle still provides the basis for
predicting strength to some extent other than the desirable properties of concrete.

In 1940, it was found out that the durability of concrete could be increased ten times by the use
of small amount of air entraining agent (admixtures) in a concrete mixture. The discovery of the
water cement ratio principle and the use of entrained air admixture marked the turning point in
concrete technology.

Two methods adopted in proportioning concrete mixture were either by the volume or by weight
measure. The philosophy behind in establishing the proportion of fine and coarse aggregate with
cement and water is to create a solid mass where cement paste enters into the voids of the fine
aggregates (sand) then fill the voids of the coarse aggregates (gravel) forming a solid mass
called concrete.

Theoretically, concrete proportion showed that fine aggregates or sand is always one half of the
volume of gravel. For instance, the 1:2:4 proportion means one part cement, two parts fine
aggregate and four parts coarse aggregate from class A mixture. There are times however, when
this established proportioning of concrete mixture is adjusted by decreasing the volume of gravel
to 1:2½:3½ which is sometimes necessary when pouring is to be done in a form crowded with
reinforcing steel bars. This is another way of expressing 1:6 proportion similar with the 1:2:4
formula which means that for every part of cement plus six parts of sand and gravel will produce
a class A mixture.
 Water cement ratio is best determined by the trial batch method during the actual mixing
operation to establish the right amount of water necessary for the kind of mixture required
to get the desired strength and consistency of the concrete.
 Concrete mixture should be in a plastic and workable form. It should neither be too dry or
too wet. When too dry, concrete is difficult to place in the forms because it resists packing
around the reinforcements and corners of the form. This is the main attribute of
honeycombining in concrete. When too wet mixture, segregation of the concrete
ingredients cannot be controlled.
 The water cement ration should be established during the first hour of mixing operation.
Adjustment should be made from time to time based on the condition of the weather.
When the weather us fair or cloudy, adjustment of water cement ratio is minimal or not
even necessary. But when the temperature increases, additional water is also necessary to
maintain the established water-cement ratio.
 The established water cement ratio will be affected by the increasing temperature and
evaporation of aggregate moisture. Thus, also requires adjustment by increasing the water
content per batch of mixture.
 If rain comes any time after the water-cement ratio had been established, immediate
adjustment by reducing the water-cement raito is necessary to maintain the uniformity of
the mixture. Expect however, if the aggregates are roofed indoor.
 All conveying devices intended for delivering concrete, should be cleaned, free from
rainwater before use to avoid additional water to ready mixed concrete.

ESTIMATE: VOLUME METHOD

1. A proposed concrete pavement has a general dimension of 10cm thick, 3.00m wide, and
5.00m long. Determine the quantity of cement in bags, sand and gravel in cubic meter required
using class “C” mixture.

Solution:

Determine the volume of the proposed concrete pavement .

Volume=Thickness x Width x Length

V =0.10 m x 3.00 m x 5.00 m=1.5 cubic meters

Refer ¿ table , using 40 kg ceme nt class C mixture ; multiply the volume by the corresponding values:

Cement :1.5 x 6.0=9.0 bags

Sand :1.5 x 0.50=0.75 cu . m

Gravel :1.5 x 1.0=1.50 cu . m

When using50 kg cement class C mixture

Cement :1.5 x 5 .0=7.5 bags

Sand :1.5 x 0.50=0.75 cu . m

Gravel :1.5 x 1.0=1.50 cu . m

2. A rural road 6.00m wide after base preparation requires concreting of one kilometer long. Find
the number of bags cement, sand, and gravel required using class “A” concrete if the slab is 6
inches thick.

Solution:

Solve for the volume of concrete pavement ,convert 6 inches ¿ meter=0.15 m

V =Thickness x Width x Length

V =0.15 m x 6.00 m x 1000 m=900 cu . m

Refer ¿ table .Using 40 kg cement ,multiply the volume by corresponding values :

Cement :900 x 9.0=8100 bags

Sand :900 x 0.50=450 cu . m

Gravel :900 x 1.0=900 cu . m

Using 50 kg cement

Cement :900 x 7.0=6300 bags

Sand :900 x 0.50=450 cu . m

Gravel :900 x 1.0=900 cu . m

ESTIMATE: AREA METHOD

3. A proposed concrete pavement has a general dimension of 10cm thick, 3.00m wide, and
5.00m long. Determine the quantity of cement in bags, sand and gravel in cubic meter required
using class “C” mixture.

Solution:

Solve for the pavement area

Area=Width x Length

A=3.00 m x 5.00 m=15 sq . m

Refer ¿ table . Along 10 cm slab thicknessunder 40 kg cement class C mixture, multiply:

Cement :15 x 0.60=9.0 bags

Sand :15 x 0.0 50=0.75 cu . m

Gravel :1 5 x 0.1 0=1.50 cu . m

4. A rural road 6.00m wide after base preparation requires concreting of one kilometer long. Find
the number of bags cement, sand, and gravel required using class “A” concrete if the slab is 6
inches thick.

Solution:

Find the area of the concrete road pavement

Area=Width x Length

A=6.00 m x 1000 m=6000 sq . m

 Refer ¿ table , Using 40 kg cement , class A mixture for a 15cm thick concrete slab, multiply:

Cement :6000 x 1.350=8100 bags

Sand :6000 x 0.075=450 cu . m

Gravel :6000 x 0.150=900 cu . m

Square Concrete Column

Estimating the quantity of materials for concrete post or column can also be done in two simple
ways:

 Volume Method
 Linear Meter Method

5. A reinforced concrete square column is 5.00m long with a cross sectional dimensions of 16 x
16 inches. Determine the quantity of cement, sand, and gravel using class “A” concrete.

Solution:

By Volume Method:

Convert first all measurements ¿ inches ¿ meter .16 inches=0.40 m

Solve for the cross sectional area of the column

Area=0.40 m x 0.40 m=0.16 sq . m

Find the volume of thecolumn

Volume=0.16 sq .m x 5.00 m=0.80 cu . m

¿ table for Volume Method , using 40 kg cement class A concrete, multiply:

Cement :0.80 x 9.0=7.2 say 8 bags

Sand :0.80 x 0.50=0.40 cu . m

Gravel :0.80 x 1.0=0.80 cu . m.

6. A concrete column is 7.00m high with a cross sectional dimensions of 20 x 20 inches.
Determine the quantity of cement, sand, and gravel content of the column if there are 8 columns
in the row using class “A” concrete.

Solution:

Convert all dimensions ¿ inches ¿ meters .20∈¿ 0.50 m

Solve for volume of one square column

Volume=0.50 m x 0.50 m x 7.00 m=1.75 cu . m

Find the volume of 8 columns

Volume=1.75 cu .m x 8=14 cu . m

Using 40 kg cement under class A mixture ,multiply :

Cement :14 x 9.0=126 bags

Sand :14 x 0.50=7.0 cu . m

Gravel :14 x 1.0=14.0 cu . m

By Linear Meter Method:

7. A concrete column is 7.00m high with a cross sectional dimensions of 20 x 20 inches.

Determine the quantity of cement, sand, and gravel content of the column if there are 8 columns
in the row using class “A” concrete.

Solution:

Find the total length of the 8 columns

8 columns x 7.00m=56.0 m

Refer ¿ table , Along 50 x 50 cm column , using 40 kg cement class A concrete , multiply :

Cement :56.0 x 2.250=126 bags

Sand :56.0 x 0.125=7.0 cu .m

Gravel :56.0 x 0.250=14.0 cu . m

Post and Footing

Structurally, post is always supported by slav called footing or foundation. Estimating the
quantity of materials for these types of structures could be done by:

 Volume Method
 Area Method and Linear Meter Method combined for post and footing.

8. A concrete post 4.00 meters high with cross sectional dimensions of 40cm x 40cm is
supported by a footing slab 20cm thick by 1.20m. Using class A concrete, find the quantity of
cement, sand, and gravel if there are 12 posts of the same size.

Solution:

By Volume Method

Find the volume of the 12 posts

Volume=Sectional Area x Height x No . of Posts

V olume=12 posts x ( 0.4 m x 0.4 m) x 4.0 m=7.68 cu . m

Solve for the volume of 12 footing slab

Volume=12 x ( 0.20 m x 1.20 m x 1.20 m )=3.456 cu . m

Find the total volume

Vt=7.68+ 3.456=11.136 cu . m

Refer ¿ table , using 40 kg cement , class A concrete ,multiply :

Cement :11.136 x 9.0=100.2bags

Sand :11.136 x 0.50=5.56 cu . m

Gravel :11.136 x 1.0=11.136 cu . m

By Linear Meter and Area Method:

Find the total length of 12 posts

L=12 posts x 4.00 m

L=48 m

Refer ¿ table , along the 40 x 40 cm column¿ A mixture , multiply :

Cement : 48 x 1.440=69.12 bags

Sand :48 x 0.080=3.84 cu .m

Gravel : 48 x 0.160=7.68 cu .m

Find the area of the footing slab

Area=12 pcs x ( 1.2 m x 1.2m ) =17.28 sq . m

Refer ¿ table , using 40 kg cement class A mixture for 20 cmthick slab ,multiply :

Cement :17.28 x 1.80=31.1 bags

Sand :17.28 x 0.100=1.72cu . m

Gravel :17.28 x 0.200=3.46 cu . m

Add results

Cement :69.12+31.1=100.2bags

Sand :3.84+1.72=5.56 cu . m

Gravel :7.68+3.45=11.13 cu . m

9. Rectagular Beam and Girder

Beam is defined as a strong horizontal piece of reinforced concrete for spanning and supporting
weights. On the other hand, a beam that is carrying or supporting another beam is called girder.
Similarly, estimating the materials for these types of structures is either by volume or linear
meter method.
Use class A concrete, list down the materials required:

SOLUTION:

BY VOLUME METHOD:

Find the volume of thebeam

Volume=5 pcs x 0.25 m x 0.40 m x 8.00 m=4.0 cu . m

Solve for the volume of the girder

Volume=2 pcs x 0.40 m x 0.60m x 16.00 m=7.68 cu . m

Total volume of beam∧girder

Vt=4+ 7.68=11.68 cu .m

Refer ¿ thetable ,using 40 kg cement class A , multiply:

Cement :11.68 x 9.0=105.12bags

Sand :11.68 x 0.50=5.84 cu . m

Gravel :11.68 x 1.0=11.68 cu .m

BY LINEAR METER METHOD:

Find the total length of the beam

L=5 pcs x 8.00 m=40 meters

Refer ¿ table , alongcolumn x 40 cm , under 40 kg cement class A concrete , multiply :

Cement : 40.0 x 0.90=36 bags

Sand :40 x 0.050=2 cu . m

Gravel : 40 x 0.10=4 cu . m

Find the total legth of the girder

L=16 m x 2 pcs=32 meters

Refer ¿ table , along column x 60 cm ,under 40 kg cement class A mixture , multiply :

Cement :32 x 2.160=69.12 bags

Sand :32 x 0.120=3.84 cu . m

Gravel :32 x 0.240=7.68 cu . m

Takethe total

Cement :36+ 69.12=105.12 bags

Sand :2+3.84=5.84 cu . m

Gravel : 4+7.68=11.68cu . m