OLD STONE AGE

Temporary homes and caves made from branches and animal skin
MIDDLE STONE AGE
Tent: framework - wooden poles, animal bones
NEW STONE AGE
Clay, thatch
MESOPOTAMIAN PERIOD
Chaldea - clay, glazed bricks, bitumen, pitch
Assyria - stone, brick, limestone
Persia - limestone, timber
EGYPTIAN PERIOD
Timber, stone, brick, clay, limestone, sandstone
GREEK PERIOD
Marble, mud bricks, masonry blocks
ROMAN PERIOD
Concrete, marble stone, lime, metals, wood, granite
GOTHIC PERIOD
Red bricks, glazed bricks
RENAISSANCE PERIOD
Marble; arches + columns + domes
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION PERIOD
Concrete development
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Glass, steel, bricks, layers! Liquid granite, bendable concrete, solar panels, thermal insulation

WHAT IS A BUILDING MATERIAL?

Any material used in construction and can be:
SOLID or LIQUID or SEMISOLID
PROCESSED or NOT
NATURAL or SYNTHETIC
NATURAL: clay, rocks, sand, wood
SYNTHETIC: glass, plastics, cement, concrete, thermal insulation

MECHANICAL ENGINEER:
selection of materials,
specification,
quality control

5 areas to be evaluated when choosing materials:

CLIMATE COMPATIBILITY
AESTHETIC
APPLICIBILITY
ECONOMIC FACTORS
MECHANICAL/NON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

STRENGTH:
behaviour of material to stress & strain
ability to withstand plastic deformation when force is applied

TYPES OF FORCES ACTING ON A BODY:

TRANSVERSE - perpendicular to the longitudinal axis (bending)
AXIAL - along the longitudinal axis (compression, tension)
TORSIONAL - twisting

STRESS can be produced by:

direct stress
bending stress
shearing stress
torsional stress
combination

LOADING CONDITIONS - STATIC or DYNAMIC

STATIC:
loading over time
slowly applied; no shock of vibration

DYNAMIC:
PERIODIC LOAD (rotation; repeats overtime)
RANDOM LOAD (no repetition; earthquake)
TRANSIENT LOAD (short time + vibrations and then rest) (truck goes over bridge)

STRESS/STRAIN

External force acts on a body - causing deformation TEMPORARY or NOT

PLASTIC - predmet se slomi
ELASTIC - samo savije pa se vrati u prvobitno stanje

STRAIN -measurement of change in length divided by original length

YEILD STRENGTH - stress at which material stops behaving elastically REACHES MAX ELASTICITY

ULTIMATE STRENGTH - maximum material can handle before breaking

Stress = force / area acted upon Strain = change in length / original length

ELASTICITY - property of material of rat to return to original shape after stress is removed

ELASTO-PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR

PLASTICITY - non-reverse able change after load applied

 MATERIALS :

BRITTLE - (do not go through plastic deformation before breaking) concrete

DUCTILE - (does go through plastic deformation before breaking)

VISCOELASTICITY - (both viscous and elastic behaviour)

VISCOSITY - fluids resistance to flow (asphalt, plastics)

TEMPERATURE - high temp = melting

DUCTILITY - ability of a material to undergo large deformations without rupture before failure
BRITTLENESS - sudden fail, without undergoing deformation
DENSITY - P = mass / volume
BULK DENSITY - mass of many particles divided by total volume they occupy

POROSITY - empty spaces

EFFECTIVE POROSITY - fluid flow effectively
INEFFECTIVE POROSITY - closed pores no fluid flow

HIDROPHYSICAL
HYGROSCOPICITY - (reaction to moisture by air)
WATER ABSORPTION - ( amount of water absorbed when immersed in water
MOISTURE - (quantity of water contained in a material)
WATER PERMEABILITY - (water vapour flow in cubic meter per day through a cross section
of 1 m2 under a unit hydraulic gradient

THERMAL
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY - (ability to conduct heat)
THERMAL EXPANSION - (amount of expansion per unit length die to one unit of temp)
FIRE RESISTANCE - (resisting to fire)
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY - (heat flow through a material)
SPECIFIC HEAT - (amount of energy required to change the temp of a material)
MELTING POINT - (solid to liquid (point at which))

WOOD + MASONRY

WOOD PRODUCTS - joist & stud

Trees/softwood/sugar pine/red oak/mahogany/lumber

SEASONING - moisture decreasing - shrinkage - strength increasing - framing lumber seasoned at

19% - wood is hygroscopic material

GLUE LAMINATED WOOD

WOOD FASTENERS:
nails
screws
bolts
timber connectors

 MASONRY - simple, rich, most varied, earth material, durable

MORTAR - serves as a cushion
BLENDED HYDRAULIC CEMENTS:
portland cement
blast furnace slag
hydrated lime and water
COLOR OF MORTAR - white, grey, dark grey
BRICK MASONRY - BRICK SIZE (US) 101mm x 203mm
BRICK: paving bricks, firebricks
DURABILITY
MOULDING PROCESS
COLOR
SIZE
SHAPE
CHIPPAGE (physical damage to face or visible corners)
MORTAR THICKNESS - 6-15mm
GROUT - mixture of portland cement, aggregate, water
RC BRICK WALL
ROCKS - taking rocks from earth and reducing to required size and shape
3 TYPES GEOGRAPHICALLY - igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic rock
6 GROUPS OF ROCKS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION -
granite
limestone
quartz-based stone
slate
marble
other
GRANITE -
igneous rock
mosaic of mineral crystals
hard, strong, durable
suitable for extreme weathering
LIMESTONE -
sedimentary rock
2 types:
eolithic limestone
dolomitic limestone
workable - can be low, medium or high density
QUARTZ BASED ROCK -
sedimentary
quartz sand deposits (silicon dioxide)
SLATE -
alabaster
greenstone
schist
soapstone etc.

 QUARRYING - process
RUBBLE MASONRY:
random rubble coursed rubble
random ashlar coursed ashlar
MORTAR - joins stones
POINTING MORTAR - at the face of wall good weather seal

ROCKS, STONE, CEMENT, LIME, EMBANKMENT

MINERAL
solid inorganic material of earth
known chemical composition and crystalline structure unique to that mineral
ROCK
solid aggregate of mineral brought together by rock forming process
MINERAL CHARACTERISTICS
natural
inorganic
solid
definite composition
crystal structure
6. GROUPS OF COMPOSITION
CARBONATES (carbon + oxygen) + metallic element
SILICATES (silicon + oxygen) cooling magnum
OXIDES (oxygen + one more element)
SULFATES/SULFIDES (contain sulfur)
HALIDES (halogen + 1 more element)
NATIVE ELEMENTS (pure form - gold, silver, etc.)

ELEMENTS form MINERALS form ROCKS

IGNEOUS ROCKS (formed from magma that has cooled)

MAGMA - molten underground material
LAVA - magma that reaches surface
2 ways to form:
magma hardens beneath earths surface
magma hardens on earths surface

GRANITE COMPOSITION - quartz + feldspar + biotite mica + amphibole

BALSATIC COMPOSITION- dark coloured minerals and feldspar

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
weather breaks rocks into smaller pieces (sediments)
moved by wind, water, ice, gravity

WEATHERING - breaks down rocks

EROSION - removed of rock
DEPOSITION - dropping of sediments
COMPACTION - squeezing water out of sediments

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
ELASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - formed from weathered bits of rocks and minerals
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - dissolved minerals precipitate from water solution

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
CHANGE - High temperatures, pressure
HEAT - recrystallisation, new minerals formed
PRESSURE - greater density

ROCK CYCLE - weathering - sedimentary rocks - metamorphic rock - magma - igneous rock

STONE - oldest building material, smaller pieces of rock for specified function
ROCK - contracted mass of (earthy or mineral) matter
CEMENT - stabilises soil / reduction of soil plasticity - cementation

CHEMISTRY OF LIME TREATMENT -

drying
modification
cementation reaction
carbonation
SOIL CEMENT - roads, airports, streets

AGGREGATES
inert materials mixed with binding material like cement or lime in preparation of mortar or
concrete
MINERALOGY
IGNEOUS - (‘fire’) from magma - granite
SEDIMENTARY - (‘settling’) wind water - sandstone
METAMORPHIC - (‘change’) high temp + pressure - marble
CONCRETE
10% portland cement / 6% air / 14% water / 70% aggregate

NATURAL - particle sizes - boulder or clay - once were one big mass, now only particles
MANUFACTURED - crushing, screening, separating
FINE AGGREGATE - sand, crushed stone
COARSE AGGREGATE

USE -
filler material
dimensional stability
strength
to make concrete denser

ULTRA LIGHT WEIGHT

LIGHT WEIGHT
NORMAL WEIGHT
HEAVYWEIGHT

 Testis on aggregate:
DURRABILITY, FREEZE
HARDNESS
TEXTURE AND SHAPE
UNIT WEIGHT
CLEANESS

FINAL

CEMENT - crystalline compound of calcium silicates and other calcium compounds lining
hydraulic properties
LIME and CLAY have been used as something mastered on construction through many centuries
MUD mixed with STRAW is the oldest cementing material used to bind dried bricks

NON-HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
GYPSUM AND LIME
CEMENTS BASED ON COMPOUNDS OF LIME (cancerous cements)

TYPES OF CEMENT
POZZOLANIC - any siliceous materials that develops hydraulic cementitious properties
when interacted with hydrated lime
HYDRAULIC LIME - only used in specialized mortars. Made from calcination of clay-rock
lime stones
NATURAL CEMENTS - made from argillaceous lime stones or inter bedded limestone and
clay
PORTLAND CEMENT - artificial cement. Made by the mixing of clinker with gypsum
PORTLAND - LIMESTONE CEMENTS - original roman cement. Mix of pozzolans with lime
MASONRY CEMENTS - portland cement with additional materials for plasticity
ALUMINOUS CEMENTS - made from limestone and bauxite. Used when rapid hardening
is required

Fundamental chemical compounds to produce cement clinker are:

LIME
SILICA
ALUMINA
IRON OXIDE

Sources of CaCO3: Marble, chalk, marl, coral, aragonite, oyster, travertine, tuff

Limestones originate from the biological deposition of shells and skeletons of plants and animals

Sources of argillaceous minerals: clay, shale, loess, silt, sandstone, volcanic ash, diaspore, bauxite

 BLENDED HYDRAULIC CEMENT

CLINKER
GYPSUM
PORTLAND CEMENT
FLY ASH
SLAG
SILICA FUME
CALCINED CLAY

CEMENT PROPERTIES AND TESTS

FIVENESS
SOUNDNESS
CONSISTENCY
SETTING TIME
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
HEAT OF HYDRATIONS
LOSS OF IGNITION
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

At the time of use cement should be free flowing and free of lumps

USE OF CEMENT:
building, transport, water, civil, agriculture
SUBSTITUTES OF CONCRETE:
alumina, asphalt, clay brick, fibreglass, glass, steel, stone wood, fly ash

Cements with low Tricalcium Aluminate contents usually generate less heat, develop higher
strengths and show greater resistance to sulphate attacks

Cement manufacturing processes

WET PROCESS
DRY PROCESS
WET + DRY PROCESS
BURNING PROCESS

Cement clinkers are formed as calcium silicate which occur due to interaction with hotter regions
of a kiln
When needed, clinkers are mixed with 2-5% gypsum to retard the setting time of cement when it
is mixed with water. Then, it is grounded to a fine powder and bagged.
Cement bags should be stoned on pallets in a dry place
Constituents of concrete: cement, aggregates, water and admixtures

 Concrete Properties
VERSITILE
PLIABLE WHEN MIXED
STRONG AND DURABLE
DOES NOT RUST OR ROT
DOES NOT NEED A COATING
RESISTS FIRE

Properties of aggregates:
compressive strength, voids, moisture context
Main types of admixtures:
chemical and mineral

Chemical Admixtures:
ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES
RETARDING ADMIXTURES
WATER - REDUCING ADMIXTURES
AIR - ENTRAFURING ADMIXTURES
FOAMING AGENTS

Mineral Admixtures
POZZDANS
FLY ASH
SILICON FRAME

Fresh concrete should be such that it can be transported, placed, compacted and finished without
harmful segregations,
The mix should maintain its uniformity and not bleed extensively
Bleeding is movement and appearance of water at the surface of freshly - placed concrete
Consistency is a measure of wetness and fluidity (measured by the slump test)
Workability is dependent on water content, fineness of cement and surface area of aggregates

Properties of hardened concrete

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
TENSILE STRENGTH
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
DURABILITY
SHRINKAGE
CREEP

Modulus of elasticity - E= S2-S1 / e2 - 0.00005

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE - dependent on alkali aggregate reaction, freeze therm degradation

and sulphate attack
CREEP is the time dependent increase in strain and deformation due to an applied constant land
(reversible and irreversible creep)

 Shrinkage is made up of plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage

plastic shrinkage occurs when the concrete is plastic and is dependent on type of cement
drying shrinkage occurs when water is lost from cement gel

Methods of Mix Design

volumetric method
proportioning from field data method
proportioning by trial mixtures method
mass proportioning method
absolute volume method

Reinforcing Steel - provides tensile strength

similar coefficient of thermal expansion
chemical compatibility
adhesion of concrete to steel

Types of reinforcing steel: vertical bans and ties

WWF - Welded Wire Fabric (grid of wires)

Eliminated Framing Systems - one way and two way

one way system - scans across parallel lines of support furnished by walls and/or beams
two way system - spans supports running in both directions

PCC - portland cement concrete:

A mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, water, and air

Concrete exists in three states; plastic, curing, and hardened

Types of Cards in hydrated cement

gel pores
capillary pores

Entrary Air - provides the path for water to migrate from larger voids to smaller voids
Curing - the application of heat and moisture to concrete after final set
MRD - Materials - Related - Distress

TYPES OF MRD
FREEZE - thaw deterioration of hardened cement
DEICER SEALING - deterioration
FREEZE - thaw deterioration of aggregate
ALKALI - aggregate reactivity
SULPHATE ATTACK
CORROSION OF EMBEDDED STEEL

 PROPER AGGREGATE STORAGE

MINIMIZE SEGREGATION
do not store in conical piles
store in horizontal layers
PREVENT CONTAMINATION
store on slabs or planking
have storage bins separated by walls
KEEP GRADUATIONS WITHIN SPECIFIED LIMITS

Free moisture must be account for when batching concrete to control mix cast and improve
quality and consistency

The most accurate way to determine the total aggregate moisture is the cookout method. The
process involves drying the sample to a have dry condition in an oven, stove top, or a microwave.

SEQUENCING - aggregate, cement, water, admixtures