CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS

Charts and graphs represent an extremely useful and flexible medium for explaining, interpreting and
analysing numerical facts largely by means of points, lines, areas and other geometric forms and symbols.
They make possible the presentation of quantitative data in a simple, clear, and effective manner and
facilitate comparison of values, trends and relationships.

Functions of a Graph
Graphic presentation of frequency distributions facilitate easy understanding of data presentation and
interpretation. The shape of the graph offers easy answers to several questions. The same information can
also be obtained from tabular presentation of a frequency distribution, but the same is not as effective in
highlighting the essential characteristics as explicitly as is possible in the case of graphic presentation.
The shape of the graph gives an exact idea of the variations of the distribution trends. Graphic presentation,
therefore, serves as an easy technique for quick and effective comparison between two or more frequency
distributions. When the graph of one frequency distribution is superimposed on the other, the points of
contrast regarding the type of distribution and the pattern of variation become quite obvious. All these
advantages necessitate a clear understanding of the various forms of graphic representation of a frequency
distribution.

Advantages and Limitations of Diagrams (Graphs)

Advantages Few of the advantages and usefulness of diagrams are as follows:
(i) Diagrams give an attractive and elegant presentation: Diagrams have greater attraction and effective
impression. People, in general, avoid figures, but are always impressed by diagrams. Since people see pictures
carefully, their effect on the mind is more stable. Thus, diagrams give delight to the eye and add the spark of
interest.
(ii) Diagrams leave good visual impact: Diagrams have the merit of rendering any idea readily. The impression
created by a diagram is likely to last longer in the minds of people than the effect created by figures. Thus
diagrams have greater memorizing value than figures.
(iii) Diagrams facilitate comparison: With the help of diagrams, comparisons of groups and series of figures
can be made easily. While comparing absolute figures, the significance is not clear but when these are
presented by diagrams, the comparison is easy. The technique of diagrammatic representation should not be
used when comparison is either not possible or is not necessary.
(iv) Diagrams save time: Diagrams present the set of data in such a way that their significance is known
without loss of much time. Moreover, diagrams save time and effort which are otherwise needed in drawing
inferences from a set of figures.
(v) Diagrams simplify complexity and depict the characteristics of the data: Diagrams, besides being attractive
and interesting, also highlight the characteristics of the data. Large data can easily be represented by
diagrams and thus, without straining one's mind, the basic features of the data can be understood and
inferences can be drawn in a very short time.
Limitations: We often find tabular and graphical presentations of data in annual reports, newspapers,
magazines, bulletins, and so on. But, inspite their usefulness, diagrams can also be misused. A few
limitations of these as a tool for statistical analysis are as under:
(i) They provide only an approximate picture of the data.
(ii) They cannot be used as alternative to tabulation of data.
(iii) They can be used only for comparative study.
(iv) They are capable of representing only homogeneous and comparable data.
General Rules for Drawing Diagrams
To draw useful inferences from graphical presentation of data, it is important to understand how they are
prepared and how they should be interpreted. When we say that ‘one picture is worth a thousand words’, it
neither proves (nor disproves) a particular fact, nor is it suitable for further analysis of data. However, if
diagrams are properly drawn, they highlight the different characteristics of data. The following general
guidelines are taken into consideration while preparing diagrams:
Title: Each diagram should have a suitable title. It may be given either at the top of the diagram or below it.
The title must convey the main theme which the diagram intends to portray. Size:
The size and portion of each component of a diagram should be such that all the relevant
characteristics of the data are properly displayed and can be easily understood.
Proportion of length and breadth: An appropriate proportion between the length and breadth of the diagram
should be maintained. As such there are no fixed rules about the ratio of length to width. However, a ratio of
2 : 1 or 1.414 (long side) : 1 (short side) suggested by Lutz in his book Graphic Presentation may be adopted as
a general rule.

Proper scale: There are again no fixed rules for selection of scale. The diagram should neither be too small nor
too large. The scale for the diagram should be decided after taking into consideration the magnitude of data
and the size of the paper on which it is to be drawn. The scale showing the values as
far as possible, should be in even numbers or in multiples of 5, 10, 20, and so on. The scale should specify the
size of the unit and the nature of data it represents, for example, ‘millions of tonnes’, in Rs. thousand, and the
like. The scale adopted should be indicated on both vertical and horizontal axes if different scales are used.
Otherwise, it can be indicated at some suitable place on the graph paper.
Footnotes and source note: To clarify or elucidate any points which need further explanation but
cannot be shown in the graph, footnotes are given at the bottom of the diagrams.
Index: A brief index explaining the different types of lines, shades, designs, or colours used in the
construction of the diagram should be given to understand its contents.
Simplicity: Diagrams should be prepared in such a way that they can be understood easily. To keep it simple,
too much information should not be loaded in a single diagram as it may create confusion.
Thus if the data are large, then it is advisible to prepare more than one diagram, each depicting some
identified characteristic of the same data.

Hints for line diagram 1. Graph papers usually available in the market are not equal in length and breadth. The
line diagram should by so planned that the horizontal axis is longer than the vertical axis. In Figure note that
the diagram is longer horizontally.
2.The variables represented by the two axes must be clearly shown. Note that in Figure the words ‘Year and
Month’ appear below the horizontal axis, and the words ‘Cheque Clearance’ appear on the left of the vertical
axis. 3.The horizontal
scale may not start from zero; but the zero point of the vertical scale must be shown. In cases where the
minimum observation shown by the vertical scale is well above the zero point, a break in the vertical axis
must be shown.
4. A brief but clear title must accompany the diagram.
5. If several line diagrams are shown on the same graph paper, they should preferably be drawn by distinctly
different lines, e.g., thick, thin, solid, and broken lines
4. A brief but clear title must accompany the diagram.
5. If several line diagrams are shown on the same graph paper, they should preferably be drawn by distinctly
different lines, e.g., thick, thin, solid, and broken lines

Example: Draw a line diagram of the following data, relating to cheque clearance:

No. of Diagram of Month (yearly) checque

checque
Month clearian cleariance
(yearly) ce 1000
January(21) 832 900
946 923
February 765 No. of checque cleariance
800 887 894
873 849
March 873 832 834 806 799 828
700 765 792 791 773
April 792 754
May 791 600 663
June 663 500
July 834 400
August 754 300
September 806 200
October 799
100
November 773
0
December 887
January (22) 894
February 828
March 946
April 923 Year and Month
May 849

year Export import

1937-38 301 243
1938-39 295 226
1939-40 309 230
1940-41 260 184
1941-42 276 168
1942-43 184 85
1943-44 158 89
1944-45 156 160
1945-46 182 177

Comments: (i) Values of exports generally exceed values of imports.

(ii) Exports and imports closely follow the same pattern of change.
(iii) While exports and imports showed a decreasing tendency since 1937–38 till 1943–44 an
increasing tendency was noticed during the years that followed. This indicates the presence of cyclical
fluctuations in both the series. Values of exports and imports are expected to rise further for some years after
1945–46.
 Line diagram showing Export and Import
350

300
Value at 1927-28 Prices(Rs. In crores)

250

200

150 Export
import
100

50

Years

Bar Diagram
Bar diagram consists of a group of equispaced rectangular bars, one for each category (or class) of given
statistical data. The bars, starting from a common base line, must be of equal width and their lengths
represent the values of statistical data. They are shaded or coloured suitably.
There are two types of bar diagrams–vertical bar diagram and horizontal bar diagram. Vertical bars are used
to represent time series data or data classified by the values of a variable. Horizonal bars are used to depict
data classified by attributes only.
For each of these types, we have again grouped bar diagram, sub-divided (or component) bar diagram, paired
bar diagram, etc. Grouped bar diagrams are used to show the comparison of two or more sets of related
statistical data. Subdivided or component bar diagrams are useful for comparing the sizes of the different
component parts among themselves, and also the relation between each part and the whole. The paired bar
diagram consists of several pairs of horizontal bars—one extending towards the left and the other towards
the right–starting from two vertical lines at the middle of the diagram. This may be used to represent the age
and sex composition of the population of any geographical region.
 Subdivided Bar diagram(Horizontal) showing Export and Import

1945-46 182 177

1944-45 156 160
1943-44 158 89
1942-43 184 85
Years

1941-42 276 168 Export

1940-41 260 184 import
1939-40 309 230
1938-39 295 226
1937-38 301 243
Export and import

Subdivided Bar diagram(vertical) showing Export and

Import

Export import
Export and Import

243 226 230

184 168
177
85 160
89
301 295 309 260 276
184 158 156 182

Years

Multiple (Vertical)Bar diagram showing Export

and Import
350
Value at 1927-28 Prices(Rs. In crores)

300
250
200
150
100 Export
50 import
0

Years
Pie Diagram These diagrams are normally used to show the total number of observations of different types in
the data set on a percentage basic rather than on an absolute basis through a circle. Usually the largest
percentage portion of data in a pie diagram is shown first at 12 o'clock position on the circle, whereas the
other observations (in per cent) are shown in clockwise succession in descending order of magnitude. The
steps to draw a pie diagram are summarized below:
(i) Convert the various observations (in per cent) in the data set into corresponding degrees in the circle by
multiplying each by 3.6 (360 ÷ 100).
(ii) Draw a circle of appropriate size with a compass.
(iii) Draw points on the circle according to the size of each portion of the data with the help of a protractor
and join each of these points to the center of the circle.
The pie chart has two distinct advantages: (i) it is aesthetically pleasing and (ii) it shows that the total for all
categories or slices of the pie adds to 100%.

Pie diagram showing Export

1945-46, 182

1944-45, 156
1937-38,
301
1943-44, 158

1938-39, 295
1942-43,
184
1939-40, 309
1941-42,
276 1940-41,
260

Pie diagram showing import

1945-46 1937-38
11% 16%
1944-45
10%
1943-44 1938-39
6% 14%

1942-43
5% 1939-40
1941-42
11% 15%
1940-41
12%
Q. The data on fund flow (in Rs. crore) of an International Airport Authority during
financial years 2001–02 to 2003–04 are given below:
2001–0 2002–0
2 3 2003–04

Non-traffic
revenue 40 50.75 70.25
Traffic
revenue 70.25 80.75 110

Profit
before tax 40.15 50.5 80.25
Represent this data by a suitable bar chart.
Draw a pie chart to represent the following data relating to the
production cost of a manufacturer:

18360 42.797 154

Cost of Labour13524 31.524 113
Direct Expences3672 8.5594 31
overhead 7344 17.119 62
42900 100 360

Pie chart for production cost of a

manufacturer:
7344

3672 18360
Cost of Labour
Direct Expences
overhead

13524
 The following are the figures of sales and net profits of a company over the last three years.

Sales growth
net profit
2002-2003 15 30
2003-2004 12 53 2004-2005
2004-2005 18 -72
2003-2004 net profit
Functions of a Graph
Sales growth
2002-2003

-100 -50 0 50 100

2004-2005
2003-2004 Sales growth
2002-2003 net profit

-100 -50 0 50 100

Draw histogram, frequency polygon and ogives (both ―lessthan‖

and ―more-than‖ types) for the following frequency distribution:
Frequency Polygon is the graphical representation alternative to histogram and may
be looked upon as derived from histogram by joining the mid-points of the tops of
consecutive rectangles. It is generally used in cases when all the classes have a common
width. In actual construction, therefore, the frequency polygon is obtained by joining
the successive points whose abscissae represent the mid-values and ordinates represent
the corresponding class frequencies. The two end-points are joined to the base line at
the mid-values of the empty classes at each end of the frequency distribution. Thus
the frequency polygon has the same area as the histogram, provided the width of all
classes is the same. The frequency polygon is particularly useful in representing
simple frequency distributions of a discrete variable (see above Fig.).
Use—The frequency polygon gives us an approximate idea of the shape of
frequency curve.
Ogive (or Cumulative Frequency Polygon)
Ogive is the graphical representation of a cumulative frequency distribution, and hence
is also called Cumulative Frequency Polygon. When cumulative frequencies are plotted
against the corresponding class boundaries and the successive points are joined by
straight lines, the line diagram obtained is known as Ogive or Cumulative Frequency
Polygon. The ogive is of ―less-than‖ or ―more-than‖ type according as the cumulative
frequencies used are of ―less-than‖ or ―more-than‖ type. The ―less-than ogive‖ starts
from the lowest class boundary on the horizontal axis and gradually rising upward
ends at the highest class boundary corresponding to the cumulative frequency N, i.e.,
the total frequency. It looks like an elongated letter S. The ―more-than
ogive‖ has the appearance of an elongated S, turned upside down . Unequal
widths of classes in the frequency distribution do not cause any difficulty in the
construction of an ogive.
Uses
Since the ogive is only a diagrammatic representation of the cumulative frequency distribution, it has
the same uses as those of the latter, but by graphical means. (1) The ogive
is used to find the median, quartiles, deciles and percentiles, or the value of the variable such that its
cumulative frequency is a specified number. (2) It is also useful in finding
the cumulative frequency corresponding to a given value of the variable; and
(3) to find the number of observations which are expected to lie between two given values.

Calculations for Drawing Ogives

Class Boundary
Cumulative frequency
49.5 0 65
59.5 8 57
69.5 18 47
79.5 34 31
89.5 48 17
99.5 58 7
109.5 63 2
119.5 65 0
 Ogives for Wage Distribution
70

60 more than ogive

less than ogive

50

40
Frequency

Series1
30
Series2

20

10
median
median
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Wages

The diagrams commonly used to depict statistical data, given in the form of a frequency
distribution, are:
1. Histogram,
2. Frequency polygon,
3. Ogive (or Cumulative frequency polygon)
(1) Histogram
Histogram is the most common form of diagrammatic representation of a grouped
frequency distribution. It consists of a set of adjoining rectangles drawn on a horizontal base
line, with areas proportional to the class frequencies. The width of rectangles, one for each
class, extends over the class boundaries (not class limits) shown on the horizontal scale.
When all classes have equal width, the heights of rectangles will be proportional to the class
frequencies and it is then customary to take the heights numerically equal to the class
frequencies . If, however, the classes are of unequal width the rectangles will also be
unequal width, and therefore the heights must be proportional to the frequency densities ).
Because, then
Area of each rectangle = width x height
= (width of class) x (frequency density)
= (width of class) x class frequency/width of class
= class frequency.
Although vertical bar chart and histogram may appear some-what alike, the main point of
distinction between them is that the consecutive rectangles in a histogram have no space in
between, but the bar diagram must have equal spaces left between the consecutive
rectangular bars. Also, the rectangles in a bar diagram must be of equal width, but those in a
histogram are proportional to the widths of classes, and hence may also be unequal. The
histogram is, after all, an area diagram, which emphasises the widths of rectangles between
= (width of class) x class frequency/width of class
= class frequency.
Although vertical bar chart and histogram may appear some-what alike, the main point of
distinction between them is that the consecutive rectangles in a histogram have no space in
between, but the bar diagram must have equal spaces left between the consecutive
rectangular bars. Also, the rectangles in a bar diagram must be of equal width, but those in a
histogram are proportional to the widths of classes, and hence may also be unequal. The
histogram is, after all, an area diagram, which emphasises the widths of rectangles between
the class boundaries. But in a bar diagram only the height is all-important, the spacing and
the width of bars being arbitrary.

Q. Draw the histogram of the following frequency distribution and find the proportion of
firms with annual sales greater than Rs 70,000:

Solution [Note: Here, class boundaries are given. The class intervals are also of unequal
width, so that the heights of rectangles in the histogram must be proportional to frequency
densities.]
 Histogram for the Distribution of Sales
The proportion of firms with annual sales greater than Rs 70,000 is given by the proportion
of area under the histogram which lies to the right of the vertical line at 70 units (Rs ’000) on
the horizontal axis. Assuming that frequency 69 in the class interval 50–100 is uniformly
distributed in the whole interval, the proportional part of the area (i.e. frequency) between 70
and 100 units is
(100 x 70) x 1.38 = 41.4.
Therefore, the frequency above 70 units is
41.4 + 30 + 25 + 19 = 115.4.
Since the total frequency is 213,
Required proportion of firms = 115.4 / 213 = 0.54
Uses—(1) The series of rectangles is a histogram give a visual representation of
the relative sizes of the various groups, and the entire distribution of total
frequency
among the different classes becomes at once visible.
(2) The surface of the tops of rectangles also gives an idea of the nature of
frequency curve for the population, from which the given data may be assumed