Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SM-2 - 3-8 in Hindi
SM-2 - 3-8 in Hindi
III.
IV.
V. OPEC:
VI.
VII.
©
17/2012-13
2
III
3
Unit of Variable Total Product Marginal Product Average Product
input (Labour)
1 2 3 4
1 15 15 15
2 60 45 30
3 123 63 41
4 200 77 50
5 285 85 57
6 372 87 62
7 455 83 65
8 530 75 66
9 596 66 66
10 640 44 64
11 660 20 60
12 660 Zero 55
13 650 –10
4
Q
K
TP
K
Marginal Produt
Total Product
E F D
O L O C MP L
TP
A
(derivatives)MPquadrant
OCTP
AB
TP
ABB
CDMP
B
5
D
OF (=OD)
AC
B
AB
CD
IV
(Returns scale)
x
I II III
x
‘A’
‘B’
‘C’
‘ABC’
‘Isoquant’‘Isoproduct’
‘iso’‘quant’
6
K
B
4
Capital
C
O 2 4 6 L
Labour
‘A’
‘C’
‘B’‘ABC’
A, B, C
(locus)
K
E A
L B
C
M
P1
O D R S L
(smooth)‘P1’ A, B, C
‘P1’
BA
7
B
‘C’‘B’
A
‘A’ ‘B’ ‘C’ ‘D’
‘B’‘C’
‘A’‘D’‘A’
‘D’
x
‘A’ ‘B’ ‘C’
‘C’
‘A’
K
R
400
x
300
14
x
200
12 P
D
x
Capital
10
100
C
x
8
B
6
A
4
2
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 L
Labour
4K
+ 6L6K + 9L
8
100x200x4K + 6L8K + 12L
100x300x
AOEOD
BOLORAB
(=EL=AH)(=DR=HB)
AHHBAHHB
(MRTS)
MRTS
AB
AB
+
K
E A
H B
L
C
M
P1
O D R S L
K K K
R A
A P1
B
P1 C
P1
O S L O B L O L
P1
9
RS
OROS
P1
OAOB
(kinked)P1
A, BCA, BC
TPMP
K K
E A A
D
B P
D
B
O C F L O L
P
AA
(=OC)
PBB
PAB
10
(irrational)ABCDA
B
AB
K K
K
A
A C B
A
A
A P C P B
C B D
B
B
O
B'
D
O L O L
O L
11
AC = BD, DB < CA
AC = BDDB > CA
12
P1RSBDCA
(=CA)(=BD)
P1
TPA
P1P1P1
X-Y-
P1BC(LM
= BN)OLOMOROS
= RS = NCBNNC
P1
P1
P1
(MRS)
MRS
MRS
K/L+(factor-
intensity)P1BY-CoordinateX-
CoordinateOL/OR
OA, OBOC
A
A
13
K K
P1 P1
S S
C C
R R
Total Output
Total Output
A T A T
O B D L O B D L
Labour Labour
II
K
50
0x
40
P
0x
300
x
K
200
Capital
H
x
F
K C D
E b
K' K
OP
(K)
KK
14
‘E’
‘F’××
K
KK‘E’‘B’OP
KK
<
>
R
Y
P
Q
D'
Output
‘O’
OAOAOD OD
‘OR’
15
ODODOBOB
OD
ODOCOC
(multiple)x, 2x, 3x
OP,
OP
(OA = AB = BC = CD)OP
K
P
5x
4x
3x
E
Capital
D
2x
C
1x
B
A
O Labour L
OP
K K
6x
P
5x
P
4x
3x
F
E E
Capital
Capital
2x
D D
C C
1x
5x
B
B
4x
A
3x
2x
1x
O Labour L O Labour L
16
(ED < CD < BC < AB)
K
P
P( 2
00
P( 1
x)
50
x)
C
2K
P (1
00)
B D E
K K
O 1L 2L L L
x x
LLK
x
K 30 P
0 x
20
0x
18
0x
15
0x
Capital
2K
10
C
0x
B D
K K
O 1L 2L
Labour
17
EP
L
LKCP
D
K K
P P
P( 3
P( 3
00
P( 2
00x
x)
00x
P( 1
P( 2
)
)
75
00
x)
x)
4K C 2K
C
P( 1
P( 1
Capital
B
00
00
x)
x)
A D
K K K K
D
B
L L
O 2L 4L O L 2L
Labour
18
VI
(Revenue)(Cost)
= R—C
R = Px.X,XxPxxPx
19
K
K
A'' A
A
C
A'
P4
D x
M
K
P3
P2
P1
O B' B B'' L O L
x
B
= LPx.X– C PxC
X
P1 Pk(=C)
OAOBAB
CD
OA = C/PkOB = C/P1ABOA/OB
OAOBC/PkC/P1ABOA/
OB = C/Pk + C/P1 = C/PkxI/C = P1Px
ABAB
AB
AOB
AB
P2
MP2P2
MOK*OL*
20
= R—C
= Px.X—C
Y
A4
A3
A2
A1
Capital
K*
K M
P*
O L* B1 B2 B3 B4 x
Labour
Px(X)C
CC
ML*K*
P*
MRSlk = P1/Pk
MRSlk
MRS1k = K/LK
L
MRSlk = K/L = P1/Pk
K.Pk = L.P1
21
L, P1 > K.Pk
L, P1 < K.Pk
K
E1
E2
A'
O B B' L
LP.LK
P.KP-
P* = 2V.PoPoV
V = O,V = 1,
V > 1
V < 1OE1
OE2K/L
AB
AB
Y-
OE2OE1OE2OE1
22
OE
K
E
O B L
X-
X-
E
K
M3
A
M2
Capital
P
M1
N K
K
P2
P1
O L1 B L2 L
Labour
OEM1, M2M3M1K
OL1P1
KP2KKP2
OL2AB
P2M2
P2
NP2KK
23
XY
LK
Y
A
C
E B
O D F X
P
PPXY
yxAB
yCExDF
PPyx
yxMRTy,x
YxPP
MRTxY
MRTy
x
x
24
MRT
PP
PP
Y
A'
A
A"
C
O B" B B' X
AB Y-A
YX-BX
CAB
(=Px/Py)ABAB
AB
Y
A4
A3
A2
A1
C' M
P
O D B 1 B2 B3 B4 x
25
M
A1B1
A2B2A3B3M
A4B4M
A3B3PPPPA3B3
>, =<
26
27
28
RevenueMR
Marginal CostMC(MR)(MC)
(MC)(MR)
(MR
> MC)(MC > MR)
(MC = MR)
(MC > MR)
VI
MR = MC MC > MR
(MC = MR)
>
(MC > MR)
MC MR
MC, AC, TCAR, MR, TR
VI
SECTION I
29
(Entrepreneur)
VIII
30
31
Px AVC TVC TFC TC TR Loss
1. — — — 100 100 — 100
2. 4 4 50 100 150 40 110
3. 5 5 50 100 150 50 100
4. 6 5 50 100 150 60 90
Px
AVC
VC
TFC
TC
TR
Loss TC—TR
(Price > AVC but < AC)
32
(Price > AVC < AC)
(AC)
(AVC)
(AC)
TC = TFC + TVC
(Total Cos)
(Total Cost—
TC)(TC)(Total
Fixed Cost—TFC)(Total Variable Cost—TVC)
+
(TC = TFC + TVC)
AC = AFC + AVC
(Average Cost—AC)
33
+
(AC = TC + Number of units produced)
+
(TC = TFC + TVC)
(AFC = TFC Number of units produced)
(AVC = TVC Number of units produced)
+
(AC = AFC + AVC)
(TFC)
(TFC) = 10000
(AFC) = 10000 ÷ 100 = 100
(TVC) = 5000
(AVC) = 5000 ÷ 100 = 50
(AC) = 100+50
= 150
(Marginal Cost—MC)
(TC)(MC)
n(MCn), n(TCn)(n – 1)(TCn)
n= n– (n – 1)
MCn = TCn – TCn–1
34
MCn = TCn—TCn–1
(Marginal Fixed
Cost—MFC)(MC)(MFC)
(MVC)
(Marginal Variable Cost—MVC)
MCn = MVCn
=+
(MC = MFC + MVC)
(MFC) =
(MC) =(MVC)
AC MC, AC
(AC)(MC)
(TC)
(150x 100 + 251 = 15251 ÷ 101 = 151)
(150x100 + 49 = 15049 ÷ 101 = 149)
(150x100 + 150 = 15150 ÷ 101 = 150)
35
N N (N + 1) (N + 1) (N + 1)
1. 10.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 9.5
2. 9.5 19.0 8.0 27.0 9.0
3. 9.0 27.0 7.0 34.0 8.5
4. 8.5 34.0 6.0 40.0 8.0
5. 8.0 40.0 8.0 48.0 8.0
6. 8.0 48.0 8.0 59.0 8.0
7. 8.0 56.0 8.0 64.0 8.0
8. 8.0 64.0 8.0 72.0 8.0
9. 9.0 72.0 18.0 90.0 9.0
10. 9.0 90.0 20.0 110.0 10.0
11. 10.0 110.0 22.0 132.0 11.0
12. 11.0 132.0 24.0 156.0 12.0
(N + 1)N
(N + 1)
(N + 1)N(N + 1)
(N + 1)N
(N + 1)
AC MC
(AFC)
AC MC AC MC
AFC
36
(AFC)
(AFC)
K
C B
F E
AFC
L K
AFC
A D H
O X
UNITS OF OUTPUT
AFCX TFC
OABC, ODEF, OHKL
x (TFC)
OABCOC XOA
(TFC)
(TFC)
(AVC)
(plant)
37
(Law of Diminishing Returns or the Law of Variable Proportions)
(Marginal Physical Product)
MPAP
38
Y
Q P
MP
AP
AP/MP A B
O UNITS OF LABOUR x
EMPLOYED
XY
OAMPOAMP
PMPAPAP
AP MP AC MC
MPAPAP MPAP
AP = MPAPMPAP AP
AP Q PMP
MP APMP
APAP P MP AP
MP>APAP P
MP
39
(TVC)
(MVC)(TVC)
(MVC)(TVC)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5 = 2 ÷ 3) (6) (7)
1. 100 50 50 2.00 50 2.00
2. 200 110 55 1.82 60 1.67
3. 300 174 58 1.72 64 1.56
4. 400 236 59 1.69 62 1.61
5. 500 285 57 1.75 49 2.04
40
AB(AP)(MP)
(AVC)(MVC)
Y
F16.A
P
Q
AP
MP
AP/MP
A B
O UNITS OF VARIABLE x
FACTOR EMPLOYED
Y
P F16.B
MVC AVC
AVC/MVC
A B
O x
OUTPUT
7.3 (A)
7.3 (B)
41
AP7.3 AAVC 7.3 B
APAVCAP
AVC
APAVCMPMVC
AVC MVC ‘U’
(MVC)
‘U’
‘U’7.3 (B)AVC
MVCAVCMVC
AVC
MVCAVCAVCMVC
+
(AC)
(AFC)
(AVC)
1. 100 00 100 40 40 40 140 40 140
2. 100 00 50 70 30 35 170 30 85
3. 100 00 33.3 90 20 30 190 20 63.3
4. 100 00 25 136 46 34 236 46 59
5. 100 00 20 200 64 40 300 64 60
6. 100 00 16.7 300 100 50 400 100 66.7
7. 100 00 14.3 434 134 62 534 134 76.3
42
(MC)
(MVC)(AC),(AFC)(AVC)
(MC)(AC)
(AFC)(AVC)
(AC)
AVC MVC AC ‘U’
Y
Fig. A
AFC
AFC
A B
O OUTPUT x
Y
Fig 16.B MC
AC
AVC
P
AVC/AC/MC
O OUTPUT A B x
43
AC
AV
OB AC
MCACAC
(MC = AC),PAC
ACPMCAC
AC
‘U’
(AVC)(MVC)‘U’
(AC)(MC)‘U’MC
MVCACAVC
(AFC)
SECTION – II
(Long Run Cost Curve)
(Long run cost)
(Long-run total cost-LTC)
(Long-run Average Cost-LAC)
(Long-run Marginal Cost-LMC)
(Long-run total cost-LTC) :
(TFC)(TVC)(STC)
(LTC)
(The long run total cost is the minimum cost at which each level of output can be produced.)
44
Y STC LTC
STC
Q
oq Total Cost
y ykxr
O Q Q x
mRiknu OUTPUT
(The long run total cost of production (LTC) is the least possible cost of producing
any given level of output when all inputs are variable- Leibhafasky)
(Locus)
(i)(ii)
(Least cost factor proportion)
LTC STC
LTC
Y
Total Cost
y ykxr
Q
oq
O mRiknu Output X
(Least Costs)
(Tangent)
STC1STC2
(LTC)
(Tangent)LTCSTC
(Envelope)
(LTC)S (Inverse S)
45
(i) oOY
(ii) LTC
(iii)
(Long Run Average Cost Curve-LAC or Enve-
lope Curve) :
(LAC)
(The long-run average
cost curve (LAC) is that curve which shows the minimum cost per unit of producing each output
level, corresponding to different scales of productivity-Mansfield)
LAC
(SAC)
(LAC)
SAC1
SAC2
Y
SAC1
SAC2
A D
Total Cost
LAC
y ykxr
C
B
Q
oq
X
O M N
mRiknu OUTPUT
46
ONCN
ONDN
(LAC) OM
(SAC1)ON(SAC2)
Y
Total Cost
SAC1
SAC2 LAC
SAC1 SAC SAC3
2
y ykxr
M
Q
oq
X
O mRiknu Q OUTPUT
(LAC)
M
(point of tangency)
M(LAC)(negative)
(SAC)
MM
M
(Point
of Tangency)
(The
lowest point on each SAC curve, however, may not be the point of tangency with the LAC curve.
The lowest point on an SAC Curve is tangent to the LAC Curve only at the lowest point of the LAC
Curve. - Holland).M(optimum use)
(LAC)
(The long-run average cost curve is a planning curve, in the sense that it is a guide to the
entrepreneur in his decision to plan the future expansion of his output.- Kautsoyiannis)
(LAC) U-
U
LACLAC
LAC(Constant)LAC
(economies)(diseconomies)U-
47
(Economies of Scale) :LAC
(i) (Division and Specialisation of Labour)–
(ii) (Economies of indivisibility)– (J.S. Bain)
(iii) (Technical economies)–
(Diseconomies of Scale)–
(co-ordination)(diseconomies
of scale)
(Long Run Marginal Cost)
Y
Total Cost
LMC
y ykxr
Q
oq
X
O mRiknu OUTPUT
48
(Long run marginal cost is the
addition to total cost attributable to an additional unit of output when all inputs are operationally
adjusted.- Ferguson)
LMC
(i) (Relation between Long run and Short run
Marginal Cost)
(Envelope)(LMC)
(SMC)SMCSAC(LAC)
(Tangent)
Y
SMC
Total Cost
LMC
SAC
P
y ykxr
LAC
Q
oq
X
O mRiknu Q OUTPUT
OQSMCLMC
OQSMCLMC
OQSMCLMC
(LMC)(SMC)(flatter)
(iii) Relation between LMC and LAC)LMC
LACLMCLAC
LACLMCLACPLMC
LMCLAC
P SAC = SMC = LAC = LMC
(Deriving Lon-Run Marginal Cost Curve)
49
(slope)
Y SMC 3
LAC
SAC1 LMC3
SMC1
Total Cost
K
H SMC2 SAC2
M
Q
y ykxr
N
Q
oq
X
O A mRiknu B Output C
nh?kZ
d kyhu l hekUr ykxr oØ dh O
;q
RifÙk
LAC
OA
LACHSAC1
OASAC1
SMC1SAC1LAC
HSMC1N
OAAN
OBLACQ
QLACSAC2
QSMC2OB
QOBOC
M
LACSAC3M
SMC3KOCCK
OCKN, QK
LMC
(Technical Change : The Very Long Run)
(positive)MPL
(output generate)
(Iso-cost Line)
50
(Least Cost Combination)
MPL/PL = MPK/PK
(Innovation)
(Schumpeter)(exponent)
(economic
signals)
(change response)
(manufacturing)
“A”
(comptitiveness)
(endogenous)
(response)
1
51
×
÷
÷
=÷
15001550
n n n (n – 1)
n= n– (n – 1)
MRn = TRn—TR(n–1)
AR MR AC MC
98×21–100×20 = 2058–
2000=58
102×21–100×20
= 2142–2000 = 142
100×21–100–20 = 2100–2000 = 100
AR
52
2
AR MR
53
Y
(PRICE) AR
E F H K
D D
A B C L
O X
QUANTITY SOLD
DDOAOBOCOL
OD(OD=AE=BF=CH=LK)
54
AR MR
55
×
AR MR
56
Y
P B
F C
P1
AR/MR
AR
MR
A E
O X
QUANTITY SOLD
OPOAOE
OP OP1OAOABP
OEOECP1
AECF
XPP1FBX
MR = TR
57
AR MR
Y
C
AR(PRICE)/MR
F
B
AR
E
MR
A D
O X
QUANTITY SOLD
OAACAB
58
ODDFDE
SECTION – III
MC = MR
MC > MR
Y
MC
Q R
P
AR/MR
AR/MR
A B
O X
QUANTITY SOLD
59
QRQ
RR
R
>
MC MR AR
MC
Y
P4 D
AR/MR 4
P3 C
PRICE
B AR/MR 3
P2
A AR/MR 2
P1
AR/MR 1
X
O OUT PUT Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
60
OP1OQ1
OP2OQ2
OP3OP4
OQ3OQ4
AR/MR MC
Fig. A Fig. B
Y Y
D S
MC
PRICE
P B Q
P
AR/MA
D1
S
A A
x O x
O
QUANTITY DEMANDED/SUPPLIED OUTPUT (IN THOUSANDS)
(IN MILLIONS)
ASS1
DD1BOP(=BA)
OA
BOAQ
OA
61
'U'
Y Y Y (FIG. C)
(FIG. A) (FIG. B)
AC
AC
MC
C
C
C
M
C
AV
AV
AC
C
Ar/MR-AC/MC
B
AV
F D
P F
AR/MR P
F
N P
D B AR/MR
E L
A A A
O O O
X X OUTPUT X
OUTPUT OUTPUT
A
AFABBF
PFBD
BPDBF(=OP=AF)
(AB)BFC
F
MC AR/MC
B
BAF
ALLF
BFOA
62
AB
63
FIG.A FIG.B
D S1
Y Y MC
S2
AC
P1 Q1 S3 P1 Q1
AR/MR1
P2 P2 Q2
Q2 AR/MR2
S
P3
PRICE
P3 Q3
Q3 AR/MR3
S
S D
A1 A2 A3 A3 A2 A1
O O x
x OUTPUT
QUANTITY DEMANDED/SUPPLIED
(IN MILLIONS)
AR/MR ‘U’ AC
A
BOP1
B
SS1
7.12 ASS2SS2DD
Q2OP2OA2
OP1OP2AR/MR1
BAR/MR2MCQ2
64
Q2
(=OP2)
A
SS3OP3OP3
BAR/MR3‘U’ACQ3
Q3
Y Y
AC C
C
M
AV
D S2
S1
PRICE
PRICE
Q2 D B AR/MR 2
P2 P2
P1 P1
Q2 AR/MR 1
Q1
S
Q1
S D
A2 A1 A1 A2
O O
X OUTPUT X
QUANTITY DEMANDED/SUPPLIED
(IN MILLIONS) (In thousands)
AR/MR
AC
OP1BQ1
(=A1Q1)(=A1B)
SS1A
AR/MR
A
SS2OP2BAR/
MR2‘U’Q2Q2
65
(Long run supply curve)
(i) (Long run supply curve of a firm) —
LMC = MR
= LAC = AR(Normal profit)
Long run supply curve of firm is that portion of its marginal cost curve
that lies above the minimum point of its average cost curve.
Y
LMC
LAC
Total Cost
P
AR=MR
X
O Q OUTPUT
66
(constant cost industry)
(Horizontal straight
line)
Y
SS
Total Cost
SS
C
P2
A B S
P1
dd
dd
X
O Q Q
OUTPUT
A OP1OQ
OP1OQ1
dd1dd2SS1OP2
C
OQ2
SS1SS2Bdd2SS2
B
SL
(Horizontal straight line)
67
(Increasing Cost Industry)
Y SS1
P2 SS2
P3 B
P1 S1
A
dd2
dd1
O Q1 Q2 Q3
(i)dd1dd2(ii)(iii)
(iv)
SS1SS2
BBA
AC2MC2
BOP1E2
ABSL
(decreasing cost industry)
68
Y D2 S1
D1
P2
B S2
A
P1
P3
S1
O Q1 Q2 Q3 X
OP3
AB
‘U’
>
69
AV C
MC
A
C
AR/MR-AC/MC
B
P
C
E
A
AR
MR
Q
O
OUTPUT X
MCMRAOQ
OPEPBC
(= OP)(= QC)
MCMR
Y
AC
MC
C
AV
AR/MR-AC/MC
C
E
P
A
AR
MR
Q
O
X
OUTPUT
AMCMR
PEBCOP (= QB)(=QC)BC
70
(The Allocative Inefficiency of Monopoly)
(Deadweight Loss of Monopoly)
Y
MCM= MCC
PM R
PC S EC AR C
MRC
EM
ARM
MRM
O X
QM QC
ARCMCCEC
PCQC
ARMMRMEM
PMQM
PMRSPC
R EM EC
RSEC
RSSECS EM EC
SEC
71
R EM EC
‘U’
>
(Fig. B)
AC
(Fig. A)
MC
Y
Y
C
AV
AV AC
MC
C
AR/MR-AC/MC
C
P
B
B E
E P
R C
AR
R AR
MR
Q Q MR
O O
OUTPUT X X
OUTPUT
MCMRRA
PEBC
(=QC)(=QB)B
PEBCOP (=QC)(=QB)
AR MR
72
AR‘U’
AR
7.17
(Fig. A) (Fig. B)
Y Y
MC
AC
MC
AV AC
C
C
AV
AR/MR-AC/MC
AR/MR-AC/MC
P
B
P
C
E
R AR R
AR
MR MR
Q Q
O O
OUTPUT X X
OUTPUT
AR MR
APECB
AR
BB
AC
AR
ARMRAR
‘U’
AR MR
AR/MR
ARAR
73
MRAR
ARMR
MCMR
ARMRMC = MR (=AR)
AR
ARMR
(1) MC = MR(2) AC = AR
ARMRMC = MR
= AR = ACAR
(1) MC = MR
(2) AC = ARMRARMCAC
ACMC
AC
(Excess Capacity)
(Excess Capacity)
74
Y
LM C LA C
R
M
E AR
MR
O X
Q Q1
75
(Consumer and Producer Theory in Action)
(OPEC)
AVCMC
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1)
S Y
D
MC
S1 MC
S11 SAC
E
1500 1500
E' SAC
1200 1200
E"
900 900
D
S
S1 S11
O X O X
20 25 30 100 125
76
'A' 'B' 200
E 1500
20 200 1500 100
MC MC1 SAC SAC1
S1 S1 E1 1200
25 100 125
S11 S11
E11 900 100
30 200 300
(Changes in Technology)
(One time technological change)
AC<ARAC
AR <
AVC
(Continous Technical Change)
AVC AR AVC AR
AC MC Y
Y Y MC
MC
AC
AC
AVC AVC
AVC
E AR AR AR
P P P P P P
MR E MR E MR
PO SHUTDOWN
POINT
O X O X O X
Q Q Q
77
E1 OP OQ1 AC> AR AVC
AR OPO
AVC
OP OQ2
AC2 > AR AVC2< AR AC1 AVC3<AR
(Effect of Taxes on Price & Output)
1. (Per unit tan)
(a) (Unit tax) (b) (Ad Valorem tax)
2. (Lump sum tan)
3. (Tanes on Profit)
1.
(a) E
OP OQ 't' E1 MS
S'E1 OP1
OQ1 OQ1 E1M
MS
S
Y
E t
P
P F
M
S
D
O
Q Q X
(b) D
OPO OQO D1
OP1 OQ1
OP11 P1P11
OPO
78
S1 OPO
OQO OQ2
Y
S
P
S
P
P
D
P
t
D
O
Q Q Q X
2.
'E' OPO OQO
SE OP1
OQ1
Y
S
E
P S
P F
O
Q Q X
3.
79
OPEC :
(OPEC: A Case Stury of a Cartel)
(Organisation of Patroleum Exporting Countries) OPEC 1960 5
(a)
(b)
1973 13 70% 80% 87%
OPEC OPEC
400%
Sw OPw OPEC
SN OPEC Pw
OQO oq1 OPEC q1q0/OPEC OPEC
S1w P1w
OPEC OQ2 OPEC q2q3 OPEC
OPEC OPEC
OPEC 1980 OPEC
1. OPEC
OPEC
SN
EW
Y
PW
PW SW
O 1 2 2 1
q q q q X
80
2.
3.
4. OPEC
OPEC
1.
2.
3.
4.
(Principal Agent Theory)
(dividend)
(Non-Maximising Theories)
(Satisfactory)
81
1920
82
(Pareto Optimality)
(MC)
1.1
a b
(P=MC)
83
P=MC
11
P>MC
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. P#MC
(Cartels)
(Oligopolists)
U.K.
U.K.
1980 U.K.
84
(P=SMC)
(ATC) MC<ATC
AR = AC
U.K.
OFTEL OFGAS OFWAT
(Oligopoly)
– U.K. 1945 1980
USA
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
85
BT,
1996
1990 1991
W.T.O.
86
(Monopoly and Oligopoly)
I
87
I
(Marginal
Revenue Product)
MRP
MRP
(Marginal Product)
(Marginal Physical Product)
MPP
MPP
(MP)
(MRP)
88
(MRP)
(MRP) (1)
(2)
(MPP)
(MR) (MRP) = (MPP)×
(MR)
(MPP)
(MPP)
(Value of Marginal Product–VMP)
VMP = MPP × AR
= ×
(MRP) (VMP)
MRP = MPP × MR VMP = MPP × AR
MPP MPP
MR AR
(AR) (MR)
MRP (=MPP × MR) VMP (MPP × AR) AR MR
MRP VMP
MR AR
MRP (MPP × MR) VMP = (MPP × AR)
MR AR
MRP VMP MRP
VMP
(1)
MRP (MPP × MR) = VMP (MPP × AR) MR = AR
(2)
MRP (MPP × MR) < VMP (–MPP × AR) MR<AR
89
MPP
MRP (= 220×100–
200 × 100) = 20 × 100= 2000 VMP (MPP × AR) (20 × 100)
98
MRP 220 × 98 – 200 × 100 = 1560) VMP (MPP × AR)20 × 98 =1960
MPP VMP
MPP = 20
(MPP) (=20 × 98 = 1960)
MRP 1960 – 400 = 1560
MRP VMP
MRPVMP(=98
× 20 = 1960)
(MRP)
MRP MPP MR
MRP M PP MR
MPP MPP
MPP
8.1
8.1
(–)
90
MPP 8.1
1
Y
MPP/AFP
M PP
APP
O
A B X
UNITS OF LABOUR EMPLOYED
MRP/VMP
O
A B X
UNITS OF LABOUR EMPLOYED
91
MRP MPP MRP
MRP VMP
MR AR
VMP MPP
MPP MPP
MR, AR MRP VMP
8.3
VMP MRP
8.2 VMP MRP
C
B
MPP/AFP
VMP
MRP
O
A X
UNITS OF FACTOR EMPLOYED
8.2
(MPP)
AR TR MRP VMP AR TR MRP VMP
92
1. MPP =
2. TR = × AR
3. MRP =
4. VMP = MPP × AR
8.2
(1)
(2) MRP VMP
(3) MRP VMP
MRP
MRP
MFC (Marginal Factor Cost) = MRP ...(1)
=
AFCMFC
AFC = MRP ...(2)
Y
a
W
W1 b
MRP/WAGE RATE
W2 c
d
W3
MRP
O
A B C D X
UNITS OF FACTOR DEMANDED
MRP
MRP MRP
93
MFC =
AFC) MRP 8.4
OA a MRP
OW OA OB b MRP OW1,
OW1 OB OW2
OC MRP
MRP
MRP
MRP
MRP
MRP
MRP
MRP
8.5
Y
D
a
W
b
MRP/WAGE RATE
W1
W2 c
MRP1
MRP 2
MRP 3
D
O
A B C X
UNITS OF FACTOR DEMANDED
94
OW a OA
OW OW1
MRP
8.5 MRP1 MRPs MRP2 OW2
b OW2 MRP2
MRP3 c
MRP
a, b, c, d,
DD
MRP MFC
MFC AFC
MFC MRP AFC MRP
MFC AFC
MFC AFC
MFC AFC AFC MRP
MFC AFC
MRP
95
96
A
Y
Y
S
S
W4 W3
FACTOR PRICE
W2
PRIE
W3
W1
W2
O
O A B C X
A B C D X
QUANTITY OF FACTOR SUPPLIED
UNITS OF LABOUR SUPPLIED
W3
WAVE FAT
W2
W1
O
A B C X
QUANTITY OF LABOUR SUPPLIED
98
AFC
Y S Y Y
D S
D
D
D D
D D
FACTOR PRICE
D
FACTOR PRICE
FACTOR PRICE
S S
D3
D2
D3 D3
D2 D2 S
D1 D1
D1
O
X O X O
S UNITS OF FACTOR SUPPLIED
UNITS OF FACTOR SUPPLIED
UNITS OF FACTOR SUPPLIED CRORES (IN HUNDREDS) (IN THOUSANDS)
A
B
C
99
I
I
1.1
1.1
Y Y
D S
B C
W1 N M
WAGE RATE
P W L
W AFC/MFC
W2 H
F
S
VMP/MRP ARP
O
A X O A X
A P
AP (=OW) OA OW
A OW1
BC
OW2
HF
B
(
A
MRP MRP VMP
100
MRP VMP1
MRP VMP
MRP
B OA MRP
L ARP LM
WLMN
MRP
MRP
MRP ARP
MRP ARP ARP MRP
ARP MRP ARP
ARP
1.2
Y Y
D
S
WAGE RATE
W P W P
C
AFC/MFC
F
S
D
VMP/MRP ARP
O
A X O A X
1.2 B
101
ARP MRP
ARP
MRP ARP
1.3
S
V
B
W
W1 F
H
WAGE RATE MRP
MRP
MR
W A D X
MRP
= 99 × 51 – 100 × 50)
MRP
1.3 H
102
F
MRP AB
DF(= OA)
(OD)
(AB > DF)
(OA < OD)
(AFC)
MFCAFC
(MFC) (= 100 × 51 – 100 × 50) MRP
MFC AFC MFC MRP
AFC MRP
1.4
MFC AFC MRP
E E MFC MRP
OA OW (OW1)
(=OB) (MRP ) AFC F
MFC AFC
Y
E
W1 F
WAGE RATE MRP
W H
MRP
O A B X
103
MRP
(MR)
AFC
AFC MR
AFC (MFC) (AFC)
MFC MRP
1.5
Y MFC
AFC
D
MRP/WAGE RATE
W
W1 E
MRP
MR
O B A X
QUANTITY OF LABOUR DEMANDED/ SUPPLIED
104
(VMP) (MPP) (AR)
AFC = VMP (MPP × AR)
= (= × )
(MRP) (MPP)
(MR)
MPR = MPP × MR
= × MRP
(MPP)
MPP MPP
MRP
MRP MRP
(MRP)
(MFC) 50
51 2000 2100
MRP MFC MRP MFC
MFC MRP
105
MFC
MRP MFC
MRC
MFC
MRP X,
Y Z
MFCx = MRPx
MFCy = MRPy
MFCz = MRPz
MFC MRP
MRP MFC MRPx/MFCx = MRPy/MFCy = MRPz/MEPz
MRPx/ MFCx
MRP MRPx/MFCx MRPy, / MFCy, MRPz/ MFCz
MRP
(MRP MFC
MRP
MRP X
Y Z
MRPz : MRPx : MRPz = MFCz: MFCx: MFCz
MRPx MRPy MRPz
MFCx MFC y MFCz
AFC = VMP (= MPP × AR)
= (= × )
MFCMRP
AFC= VMP
MFC = MRP
(1) MFC = MRP (MPP × MR)
(2) AFC = VMP (= MPP × AR)
106
MFC = AFC
MRP = VMP
MRP VMP
(AR) (MR)
MRP VMP (MPP)
MRP VMP
MRP = VMP
MFC = AFC
MFC AFC MFC AFC
(MFC) (AFC)
MFC MFC (= 100
× 51 – 100 × 50) (AFC)
1.6
Y
SWAGE RATEWMP/MRP
B
W
AFC/MFC
VMP
MRP
O A X
QUANTITY OF LABOUR DEMANDED/ SUPPLIED
VMP
MRP VMP
VMP 8.14
8.14 AFC/MFC B MRP B
AB VMP
107
MRP VMP
MFC
MFC
(51 × 101 – 50 × 100) (101 )
MFC AFC
VMP 8.15
VMP MRP
8.15 C MFC MRP
AB VMP MRP
VMP
(VMP)
Y MFC AFC
C
MRP/VMP/WAGE RATE
W1 D
W B
VMP/MRP
O A E X
QUANTITY OF LABOUR DEMANDED/ SUPPLIED
108
(VMP)
MFC MRP
MFC MRP
VMP
MRP VMP
MRP VMP
MRP VMP
VMP MRP
MRP VMP
MPP
109
MPP
110
II
I
111
X Y
MRP OS
D1, D2 D3
D1 OR1
D2 OR2 D3
(D1 > D2 > D3)
Y 5
D
D
R1
D
D1
R2
5 D2
O D3 X
113
114
Y S
MRP/FACTOR PRICE
D
C Q
D
D4
B P
A D3
O D1 D2 X
AMOUNT OF FACTOR DEMANDED/SUPPLIED
X
Y
D
D
E F H
S S
D2 D3
D1
O A B C X
QUANTITY OF LABOUR DEMANDED/ SUPPLIED
115
Y D S
N P
H
F
E
S D
O
A B C L X
QUANTITY OF FACTOR DEMANDED SUPPLIED
(IN THOUSANDS)
117
118
119
120
Topic-8
Antasky
121
(Natural Indowment)
(Technical Knowledge)
122
=
=
123
Y
A
B C
0.5 2 X
B C
O 1 2 X
125
ABC
126
y x y x
j s[kk
l hek
D
ouk
l aHkk
t knu
mRi
y oLrq
dh ek=kk
Ø
uk o
aHkko
y A
l
knu
mRi
y2 B
O X1 X2 t
X oLrqdh ek=kk
127
DE tt
A x x1 y y1
tt y x
A y x
A tt
B y y1 – y2 x x2 – x1
B
A B
x
y
t
t
D
y oLrq
dh ek=kk
y A
F
y2 B
X
O X1 X2 t t
X oLrqdh ek=kk
128
= 100
115
109 100 109
105
105
= 100 95
100
129
130
131
132
Y
S
dher
q1 q2
oLrq X
P1
B T t Tariff
Pn A
O Q1 Q3 Q2 Qt X
133
D S
Q0 Q1 Pw Q0 Q1
't' 't'
Pd
Q2 Q1 Pw
Pd A, B T
't' OQ2 't'
Q0 Q3
Q3 Q2 Pd
A, B C C
Pw Q3 Q2
'T' T
't' = t × Q3 Q2)
(Tariff Barriers)
(A)
(I)
(II)
134
(III)
135
GATT
GATT
GATT
GATT
GATT
GATT
GATT
WTO
136
(EETA) (NAFTA),
137
EFTA, NAFTA FTAs
EFTA
EFTA EU Europeon Economic Area (EEA)
EFTA EU
(NAFTA)
NAFTA
(i)
(ii)
Latin American Integration
Association (LAIN)
(iii) The Southern in Common Market
(iv)
EU
138
GATT, WTO, EFTA, NAFTA
139
Oligo Polein
(Main Features of Oligopoly)
140
(Causes for the existence of oligopoly)
(Causes for the existence of oligopoly)
(Firm-created Causes of Oligopoly)
141
(Price and Output determination under Oligopoly)
(Cartel)
(Kinked Demand Curve Analysis)
(Sweezy's Model)
E
P MC
D = AR
Q X
MR
DEDE DE
142
0 D
EE
E
(Nash Eqniligbrium)
(John Nash)
143
A
2/3
2/3
(Payoff Matrix)A
B
A
BAB
BAB
A
(Prisoner's Dilemma)
(Prisoner's Dilemma)
(Pareto Effiient solution)
144
(Nash Equilibrium)
(Cartel)
OPEC
(Brand Poolitiration)
(Set-up Costs)
145
(Predatory Priceng)
(Contestable Market and potential Entry)
(Oligopoly and Market Mechanism)
(Profits Under Oligopoly)
(Long-run Competition)
146