lubricants
Article
Static Friction in a Cable-Driven Transmission—Modeling and
Identification of Load Effects
Giovanni Torres-Charry 1, *
Citation: Torres-Charry, G.;
Gómez-Mendoza, J.-B. Static Friction
in a Cable-Driven
Transmission—Modeling and
Identification of Load Effects.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100. https://
doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10050100
Received: 1 March 2022
Accepted: 7 May 2022
Published: 16 May 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10050100
and Juan-Bernardo Gómez-Mendoza 2
1 Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Pereira 660003, Colombia
2 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
Manizales 170002, Colombia; jbgomezm@unal.edu.co
* Correspondence: gtorres@utp.edu.co
Abstract: Although many friction models have been developed by various researchers over the years,
a general model does not exist yet. In this article, we present the work that was developed to identify
and propose an empirical model that represents the behavior of friction in a cable-driven transmission.
We designed and built a test bench that allowed us to study the incidence of friction as evidenced
by the type of cable thread, the dimensions of the pulley and the capstan and the application of an
external load for pulley-cable type transmissions in a variety of configurations. The results obtained
show a marked influence of the external load on friction behavior. Based on these results, we propose
a friction model that involves the external load and the transmission ratio. During the validation of
the model, it was found that the proposed model reproduced the friction behavior better than the
LuGre model, obtaining errors up to 44% lower, mainly for high loads and low speeds.
Keywords: cable-driven; transmission; friction; load; modeling; identification
1. Introduction
In the past decades, many researchers have worked on modeling and experimental
identification of the friction phenomenon [1–9]. These models and some of their variations
have been widely used for friction modeling in industrial robots [10–15]. However, most
of these models only consider the relative speed between the interacting surfaces in their
formulation. On the other hand, depending on the type of transmission, there is a complex
interaction of components in the joint of a robot, such as pinions, shafts, cables or bearings
that rotate or slide at different speeds; hence, a general model can hardly include all these
behaviors for the entire spectrum of possible transmission types.
Empirically motivated friction models have been developed over time by observing
the phenomenon of friction, some of which have demonstrated good performance in many
applications, including robotics [16–19]. These empirical friction models consider a set
of states X and parameters Φ, which are arranged in functions f i . These models are then
described as the sum of N functions f i ; in this way, the behavior of friction can be described
by Equation (1).
N
Ff ( X, Φ) = ∑ fi (X, Φ) (1)
i =1
The structure of the models is influenced by the choice of X. A typical choice is
h .i
X = z, θ, θ , where z is a state variable that is related to the dynamic behavior of friction,
.
θ is a generalized variable (traditionally position) and θ = dθ
dt [20].
Among the empirical models, the LuGre model [21,22] is a common choice in the
industrial and robotics community. Described by Equation (2), the LuGre model uses the
state variable z, which is interpreted as the average deformation of the bristles between
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Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 2 of 18

the contact surfaces. Seven parameters are used to describe the LuGre model, as shown in
Table 1. .
.
T f = σ0 z + σ1 z + σ2 θ
. 
. .
 
θ  (2)
z = ϕ − σ0  .  z
g θ

Table 1. LuGre model parameters.

Static Parameters
FC Coulomb friction
FS Static friction (stiction)
σ2 Viscous friction coefficient
α Shape factor
.
θs Stribeck velocity
Dynamic Parameters
σ0 Stiffness of the bristles
σ1 Damping of the bristles

.
The function g θ captures the decrease in friction at low velocities with increasing
.
speed (θ). The function g θ is generally modeled by Equation (3).
. α
. −| .θ |
g θ = Fc + ( Fs − Fc )e θ s (3)

According to the structure of empirical

h .i friction models (Equation (1)), the LuGre
model is defined by two states X = z, θ and seven parameters, four of which are static
h . i
Φs = Fc , Fs , θ s , σ2 and three of which are dynamic Φd = [σ0 , σ1 , α]. As mentioned before,
.
the LuGre model depends only on z and θ; however, some authors have established the
influence of other variables, such as temperature and external load, on friction behav-
ior [22–24]. These works have been carried out on manipulator robots with gear transmis-
sions. Taking into account the increasing use of cable transmissions in robot manipulators
and devices that must interact with humans [25–29], it is important to obtain data on the
behavior of friction in this type of transmission; in addition, a friction model consistent
with actual experiments is required for appropriate simulation, design and evaluation.
There is some work related to the determination and modeling of friction in cable-
driven parallel robots. For example, Miyasaka [30,31] developed a model of Coulomb cable-
pulley interaction and viscous friction based on experimental measurements; the model and
experimental procedures can be applied to cable-driven systems with structure, tension,
load and cable and pulley parameters similar to RAVEN II [32]. Choi [33] proposed a Dahl
friction model to predict stress during fast transitions in cable-driven parallel robots; then,
the Dahl equation of friction was derived for a combination of pulleys connected in series.
Lee [34] proposed a friction analysis method according to a claim and an experimental
method for friction analysis presented by him; the correlation between pretension and
friction is estimated by analysis. However, the constructive and operating characteristics
of the systems evaluated in these works are different from those of a cable-pulley-type
transmission for an industrial-type robotic arm, such as the one that concerns us in this
work. Cable-driven industrial robotic arms typically have larger pulleys than those used in
parallel robots. Also, there are typically multiple turns of cable winding on the capstan,
and they run at higher speeds. On the other hand, these works also do not include the
effect of the payload on the friction behavior.
This work addresses the determination of static friction in a cable-driven transmission,
including the effect of a payload. The experiments are performed on a test bench designed
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 3 of 18

and built for this purpose at Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, in partnership with Uni-
versidad Nacional de Colombia [35]. The test bench is loosely based on the articulations of
a Barrett WAM arm created at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology [36]. The payload
of the test bench is provided on the transmission shaft by a perforated disc and pairs of
masses assembled on the disc. The distribution of the masses in the disc allows several
configurations of the payload (external load and external torque). Three external load
configurations, two transmission ratios and two types of cable threading are examined.
From the empirical observations, a useful model structure is proposed, with the form
n
τ f ( X, Φ) = ∑ f i ( X, Φ)
h . i =1 i (4)
X = θ m , N, Lr
.
where θ m is the input rotation speed of the transmission, N is the transmission ratio and Lr
is the resulting relative external load applied perpendicular to the degree of freedom (DOF).
The remainder of this document is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the method
used to estimate static friction on the test bench, along with the guidelines used during the
experiments. In Section 3, the empirical analysis, modeling and validation are presented.
Finally, Section 4 draws the conclusions and proposes future work.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Device
The determination of the friction behavior is carried out on the experimental test bench
designed by Torres [35]. On the test bench, the transmission module is configured by a steel
cable (a), a capstan system (b) and a pulley system (c). The payload for the tests is supplied
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19
to the shaft of the pulley system, using pairs of masses (d) assembled on the perforated
disc (e) of the test bench (Figure 1).

Figure1.1.Details
Figure Detailsof
ofthe
thecable-driven
cable-driventransmission,
transmission,disc
discand
and masses.
masses. (a)(a) steel
steel cable,
cable, (b)(b) capstan
capstan sys-
system,
tem, (c) pulley system, (d) masses and (e) perforated
(c) pulley system, (d) masses and (e) perforated disc. disc.

Toestimate
To estimatethe thefriction
frictiontorque
torqueininthe
thetransmission,
transmission,thethereactive
reactivetorque
torquemeasurement
measurement
was implemented in the motor. Unlike estimating torque from electrical
was implemented in the motor. Unlike estimating torque from electrical power and power andmotor
motor
rotationalspeed,
rotational speed,thethereactive
reactive torque
torque measurement
measurement doesdoes
notnot include
include the effect
the effect ofelectrical
of the the elec-
power dissipated
trical power in thein
dissipated motor and the
the motor andcontroller. Two S-type
the controller. load load
Two S-type cells,cells,
mounted at the
mounted at
rear of the
the rear motor
of the motorandand located equidistant
located equidistantfrom thethe
from motor
motorshaft,
shaft,restrict
restrictthe
themotor
motorbody
body
rotation
rotationand
andareareused
usedto tomeasure
measurethethereactive
reactiveforce
force(Figure
(Figure2).
2). With
With this
this configuration,
configuration,oneone
of the cells is subject to a compressive force, while the other is subject to a tensile
of the cells is subject to a compressive force, while the other is subject to a tensile force. force.
 To estimate the friction torque in the transmission, the reactive torque measurement
was implemented in the motor. Unlike estimating torque from electrical power and motor
rotational speed, the reactive torque measurement does not include the effect of the elec-
trical power dissipated in the motor and the controller. Two S-type load cells, mounted at
the rear of the motor and located equidistant from the motor shaft, restrict the motor body
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 4 of 18
rotation and are used to measure the reactive force (Figure 2). With this configuration, one
of the cells is subject to a compressive force, while the other is subject to a tensile force.

Figure2.2. Details
Figure Detailsof
ofthe
theassembly
assemblyof
oftype
typeSSload
loadcells.
cells.

From
Fromthe
thepoint
pointof ofview
viewofof mechanics,
mechanics,and
and according
accordingto
to the
the free-body
free-bodydiagram
diagramshown
shown
in
inFigure
Figure3,3,the
thestatic
staticequilibrium
equilibriumisisgiven
givenby
byEquation
Equation(5):
(5):

𝑇𝑚 T−m(𝐹
−1 (·F𝐿11·)L1−) (𝐹
− 2( F· 2𝐿·2L)2 =
) =0 0 (5)
(5)

where T𝑇m𝑚isisthe
where themotor torque,F1𝐹and
motortorque, 1 and F2 𝐹are
2 are
thethe forces
forces measured
measured in the
in the loadload
cellscells
andandL1
𝐿1 and
and 𝐿2 the
L2 are aredistances
the distances between
between the the
point point of application
of application of the
of the force
force andand
thethe geomet-
geometric
ric axis
axis of rotation
of rotation of motor.
of the the motor. Intest
In the the bench,
test bench,
L1 was𝐿1 made
was made
equalequal
to L2 ,to
and𝐿2then
, andthethen
Tmthe
is
𝑇 is calculated
calculated
𝑚
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in in
EquationEquation
(6) as (6) as 5 of 19
Tm = ( F1 + F2 )· L (6)
𝑇𝑚 = (𝐹1 + 𝐹2 ) · 𝐿 (6)
with L as the distance between the load cells.
with L as the distance between the load cells.

Figure 3. The
Figure 3. The free-body
free-body diagram
diagram for
for mounting
mounting the
the swing
swingarm
armmotor.
motor.

In
In the
the test
test bench
bench tuning
tuning process,
process, each
each load
load cell
cell was
was calibrated,
calibrated, and
and creep
creep adjustment
adjustment
relationships were also established.
relationships were also established.
The
The cable
cableused
usedininour
ourexperiments
experimentsisisa aSAVA
SAVA 1064
1064(Carl Stahl
(Carl Low-Stretch)
Stahl Low-Stretch)[37], featur-
[37], fea-
ing 49 strands (7 strands of 7 wires each) made of 304 stainless steel and an outer
turing 49 strands (7 strands of 7 wires each) made of 304 stainless steel and an outer di- diameter of
1/16” (1.59 mm). The torsional stiffness of the transmission was modeled as
ameter of 1/16″ (1.59 mm). The torsional stiffness of the transmission was modeled as a a combination
of three springs
combination of on each
three side ofon
springs theeach
pulley,
sideasofproposed byas
the pulley, Werkmeister
proposed by [38]. Figure 4 shows
Werkmeister [38].
the variation of the torsional stiffness of the designed transmission, evaluated as a function
Figure 4 shows the variation of the torsional stiffness of the designed transmission, eval-
of the transmitted torque, where Tpr is the preload tension in the cable. The torsional
uated as a function of the transmitted torque, where Tpr is the preload tension in the cable.
stiffness is high when the transmitted torque is close to zero. As the transmitted torque
The torsional stiffness is high when the transmitted torque is close to zero. As the trans-
increases, the torsional stiffness of the transmission decreases.
mitted torque increases, the torsional stiffness of the transmission decreases.
 turing 49 strands (7 strands of 7 wires each) made of 304 stainless steel and an outer di-
ameter of 1/16″ (1.59 mm). The torsional stiffness of the transmission was modeled as a
combination of three springs on each side of the pulley, as proposed by Werkmeister [38].
Figure 4 shows the variation of the torsional stiffness of the designed transmission, eval-
uated as a function of the transmitted torque, where Tpr is the preload tension in the cable.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 5 of 18
The torsional stiffness is high when the transmitted torque is close to zero. As the trans-
mitted torque increases, the torsional stiffness of the transmission decreases.

Figure 4. Effect
Figure 4. Effect of
of transmitted
transmitted torque
torque on
on transmission
transmission torsional
torsional stiffness.
stiffness.
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Figure 5 shows the variation of the torsional stiffness of the transmission evaluated as
Figure 5 shows the variation of the torsional stiffness of the transmission evaluated
a function of the applied preload, where TL is the transmitted torque.
as a function of the applied preload, where TL is the transmitted torque.

Effectofofpreload
Figure5.5.Effect
Figure preloadtension
tensionon
ontransmission
transmissiontorsional
torsionalstiffness.
stiffness.

To carry out the experiments, capstans and pulleys of different diameters and groove ori-
To carry out the experiments, capstans and pulleys of different diameters and groove
entations were manufactured. Table 2 shows the physical characteristics of the elements used.
orientations were manufactured. Table 2 shows the physical characteristics of the ele-
ments used.
Table 2. Physical specifications of the transmission elements.
Table 2. Physical specifications of the transmission
Useful Length elements.
Diameter Weight Inertia
Useful
[mm] Length Diameter
[mm] Weight
[N] [kg·mm2 ]
Inertia
Capstan 25 [mm]
140 [mm]
25 [N]
7.95 [kg· mm2]
65.39
Capstan
Capstan3525 100140 3525 9.62
7.95 145.72
65.39
Pulley 7535
Capstan 105100 7535 25.46
9.62 1769.15
145.72
Pulley 104 140 104 23.49 4024.90
Pulley 75 105 75 25.46 1769.15
Pulley 104 140 104 23.49 4024.90

2.2. Transmission Model

The cable-driven transmission can be described using the simplified model of me-
chanical transmission (Figure 6) [36]; this model is governed by Equation (7):
 Figure 5. Effect of preload tension on transmission torsional stiffness.

To carry out the experiments, capstans and pulleys of different diameters and groove
orientations were manufactured. Table 2 shows the physical characteristics of the ele-
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 6 of 18
ments used.

Table 2. Physical specifications of the transmission elements.

2.2. Transmission Model
Useful Length Diameter Weight Inertia
The cable-driven transmission can be described using the simplified model of mechan-
[mm]this model is[mm]
ical transmission (Figure 6) [36]; [N]
governed by Equation (7): [kg· mm2]
Capstan 25 140 25 7.95 65.39
   ..  .
Capstan 35 100 J2 + JL 35 BL 9.62 TL 145.72
TM = ( J M + J1 ) + θ M + BM + 2 θ M + + Tf s (7)
Pulley 75 105 N2 75 N 25.46 N 1769.15
Pulley 104 140 104 23.49 4024.90
where TM is the motor torque, TL is the load torque, J M is the motor inertia, JL is the load
inertia, J1 is the capstan inertia, J2 is the pulley inertia, N is the transmission ratio, B M is
2.2. Transmission Model
the viscous damping coefficient of the motor, BL is the viscous damping coefficient of the
.
The cable-driven transmission..can be described using the simplified model of me-
load, θ M is the speed of the motor, θ M is the acceleration of the motor and T f s quantifies
chanical transmission (Figure 6) [36]; this model is governed by Equation (7):
the friction torque without considering the viscous component.

Figure 6. Schematic of the simplified model of the cable-driven

cable-driven transmission.
transmission.

The identification of friction in the transmission was performed in a steady state.

𝐽2 + 𝐽𝐿 masses about𝐵the 𝐿 𝑇
In the steady state,𝑇𝑀using
= [(𝐽pairs of balanced
𝑀 + 𝐽1 ) + (
̇𝑀 + 𝐿axis
)] 𝜃̈𝑀 + (𝐵𝑀 + 2 ) 𝜃pulley + 𝑇𝑓𝑠(in this case the
(7)
𝑁 2 𝑁 𝑁 using
payload only implies an external load and not an external torque) and the same type
of bearings
Where and
𝑇𝑀 is thegrease
motorfortorque,
the capstan
𝑇𝐿 is and the pulley,
the load torque,Equation
𝐽𝑀 is the(7)motor
takes the form:𝐽𝐿 is the
inertia,
load inertia, 𝐽1 is the capstan inertia, 𝐽2is the pulley inertia, 𝑁 is the transmission ratio,
N 2motor,
+ 1 . 𝐵 is the viscous damping coefficient

𝐵𝑀 is the viscous damping coefficient
TM = B M of the θ M + Tf s
𝐿 (8)
N2

2.3. Guidelines for the Experiments

Friction identification was carried out offline. During the experiments, records of the
position of the input shaft to the transmission and the forces in the load cells, the external
force applied and the corresponding sampling time were kept. Data acquisition was done
at 1 kHz (T = 0.001 s). The data of the angular position were filtered using wavelets [39,40],
employing the Wavelet Toolbox of Matlab [41]. The wavelet chosen was of the Daubechies
with 10 levels and universal threshold. Filtered data were used to calculate the rotational
speed. The values of the forces in the load cells were used to calculate the reactive torque
in the motor using Equation (6).
The motor control was used to move the input shaft at the desired speed (w M ), for
which trapezoidal speed profiles were used at different positive and negative speeds. Data
acquisition start times in the tests were adjusted to perform the measurements in the same
physical position of the cable in the pulley and the capstan. Sampling times were adjusted
to cover the same axial displacement of the cable over the pulleys; therefore, low-speed
tests take longer to perform and collect data than high-speed tests. An example of the
measurement of the position and reactive torque in the transmission is presented in Figure 7,
for a speed of 1000 rpm in the motor. The data segment in the box in the figure corresponds
to the linear change in position that is used to calculate joint velocity.
 C25P104GX-D2M 25 mm 104 mm X Yes 2
C25P104GX-D4M 25 mm 104 mm X Yes 4
C35P75GX 35 mm 75 mm X No 0
C35P75GX-D 35 mm 75 mm X Yes 0
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 C35P75GX-D2M 35 mm 75 mm X Yes 2 7 of 18
C35P75GX-D4M 35 mm 75 mm X Yes 4

Figure Measurement of
7. Measurement
Figure 7. of the
the position
position and
and reactive
reactive torque
torque in
in the
the transmission
transmission without
without external
external load,
load,
for a speed of 1000 rpm (105 rad/s) in the motor.
rad/s) in the motor.

To reduce
3. Results the temperature variation in the bearings, the transmission is operated for
and Discussion
30 min before starting the tests. After each data measurement, the transmission returns
First, the influence of the type of cable thread on the friction behavior is measured,
to its initial position and a time interval equal to the double-time used in the previous
and then the effect of the external load on the friction behavior is measured. Based on the
test is waited before carrying out the next test. The bearings used in all cable-driven
results obtainedwere
configurations in the experiments,
SKF 61905 deepan empirical
groove ball equation
bearings. isThe
proposed that of
same type involves the
cable was
effectin
used ofall
speed,
tests:the external
SAVA 1064 load
[38], and the transmission
featuring ratio.
49 strands (7 strands of 7 wires each) made of
For the experiments in which the effect of loading
304 stainless steel and an outer diameter of 1/16” (1.59 mm). was evaluated, a perforated disc
and pairs of configurations
Several balanced masses attached
of the to the disc
transmission werewere used;tothis
planned assembly
identify is attached
the effect at
of certain
the end of the pulley shaft (Figure 1). Table 4 shows the inertial characteristics
construction and operating parameters on the friction behavior. Those configurations are of the per-
forated
set up bydisc and the
varying themasses.
diameter of the capstans and pulleys, varying the use of grooves in
the pulleys, changing the type of cable threading and applying an external load (Table 3).
For each type of test, 20 runs are performed non-consecutively. The speed used at the input
of the test bench ranges from 1 rad/s to 105 rad/s (10–1000 rpm). The average velocity w M
and torque T (w M ) in each test, given as ordered pairs [ T (w M ), w M ], shape the friction
velocity map. The torque and speed pairs during the constant speed stage of the trajectory
were averaged and used to build the friction speed map and the friction model.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 8 of 18

Table 3. Transmission configurations evaluated.

Configuration Capstan Pulley Thread Disc Masses

C25P104GP 25 mm 104 mm P No 0
C25P104GP-D 25 mm 104 mm P Yes 0
C25P104GP-D2M 25 mm 104 mm P Yes 2
C25P104GP-D4M 25 mm 104 mm P Yes 4
C25P104GX 25 mm 104 mm X No 0
C25P104GX-D 25 mm 104 mm X Yes 0
C25P104GX-D2M 25 mm 104 mm X Yes 2
C25P104GX-D4M 25 mm 104 mm X Yes 4
C35P75GX 35 mm 75 mm X No 0
C35P75GX-D 35 mm 75 mm X Yes 0
C35P75GX-D2M 35 mm 75 mm X Yes 2
C35P75GX-D4M 35 mm 75 mm X Yes 4

3. Results and Discussion

First, the influence of the type of cable thread on the friction behavior is measured,
and then the effect of the external load on the friction behavior is measured. Based on the
results obtained in the experiments, an empirical equation is proposed that involves the
effect of speed, the external load and the transmission ratio.
For the experiments in which the effect of loading was evaluated, a perforated disc
and pairs of balanced masses attached to the disc were used; this assembly is attached
at the end of the pulley shaft (Figure 1). Table 4 shows the inertial characteristics of the
perforated disc and the masses.

Table 4. Inertial specifications of the perforated disc and the additional masses.

Weight Inertia
[N] [kg·mm2 ]
Perforated disc 11.28 3790.2
Disc and one pair of masses 21.09 12,910.6
Disc and two pairs of masses 30.90 22,031.1

The load on the bearings results from the effect of the weight of the transmission
elements (shafts, capstan and pulley), the tension in the cable and the external load applied
to the transmission. Particularly in the configurations of the developed transmission, the
external load and weight are applied in cantilever, so their effect on the bearings that
support each axis depends on the dimensions of the transmission for each configuration.
Figures 8 and 9 show the free-body diagrams for the pulleys and the capstan; in bearings A
and B there are reactive forces in the y and z directions; it is assumed that the weight of the
element is concentrated in the center of gravity (cg) and directed in the negative y-direction,
and at point D it is assumed that the resultant force of the cable is applied in the z-direction
and the external load is applied at point E. The dimensions of the pulleys and capstans are
given in Table 5.
 support each axis depends on the dimensions of the transmission for each configuration.
Figures 8 and 9 show the free-body diagrams for the pulleys and the capstan; in bearings
A and B there are reactive forces in the y and z directions; it is assumed that the weight of
the element is concentrated in the center of gravity (cg) and directed in the negative y-
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 direction, and at point D it is assumed that the resultant force of the cable is applied 9inofthe
18
z-direction and the external load is applied at point E. The dimensions of the pulleys and
capstans are given in Table 5.

Figure8.
Figure 8. Free-body
Free-body diagram
diagram of
of the
the transmission
transmission pulleys
pulleys of
of the
the test
test bench: (A), (B)
bench: (A), (B) bearings
bearings position,
position,
(cg)center
(cg) centerofofgravity,
gravity,(D)
(D)point
pointofofapplication
applicationof
ofthe
the cable
cable force,
force, (E)
(E) external
external force
force application
application point,
point,
and (a–e) shaft dimensions.
and (a–e) shaft dimensions.

Figure9.9.Free-Body
Figure Free-BodyDiagram
Diagramofofthe Test
the Bench
Test BenchTransmission
Transmissioncapstans: (A),(A),
capstans: (B) bearings position,
(B) bearings (cg)
position,
(cg) center of gravity, (D) point of application of the cable force, and (g–j) shaft dimensions.
center of gravity, (D) point of application of the cable force, and (g–j) shaft dimensions.

Table5.5.Dimensions
Table Dimensionsof
ofthe
thecapstans
capstansand
andpulleys.
pulleys.

Dimensions
Dimensions[mm]
[mm]
Element
Element
g g h h i i j j
Capstan
Capstan 35 mm
35 mm 18 18 52 52 41 41 134134
Capstan
Capstan 25 mm
25 mm 18 18 80 80 60 60 195195
a b c d e
Pulley 75 mm 30 31 31 32 139
Pulley 104 mm 30 70 46 20 190

3.1. Friction in a Cable-Driven Transmission and Effect of the Cable Threading

In this phase, two base configurations were used: C25P104GP and C25P104GX. Both
consist of a 25 mm diameter capstan and a 104 mm diameter pulley, with guide grooves on
their surface but different pulley groove directions. Table 2 shows the physical characteris-
tics of the elements. The bearings were lubricated with Timken premium industrial grease
LC2, with a nominal viscosity of 200–240 cSt at 40 ◦ C.
To establish whether there is a significant difference in friction behavior based on the
type of cable thread, experiments were carried out for the same physical configuration
with different threads: C25P104GP (parallel cable threading) and C25P104GX (eight cable
threading). Figures 10–12 show the results obtained in the test.
 grease
ToLC2,
teristics with
of the
establish a nominal
elements.
whether Theviscosity
bearings
there ofwere
200–240
is a significant cSt at 40with
lubricated
difference °C.friction
in Timken premium
behavior industrial
based on the
type To
grease establish
ofLC2,
cable with whether there
a nominal
thread, is awere
viscosity
experiments significant
of 200–240difference
carried cSt at
out in
°C.friction
for40the behaviorconfiguration
same physical based on the
type To
with of cable
different thread,
establish
threads:experiments
whether there is awere
C25P104GP carried
significant
(parallel out for the
difference
cable threading) same
in friction physical
behaviorconfiguration
and C25P104GX based
(eighton the
cable
with different
type of cable
threading). threads:
thread,
Figures C25P104GP
experiments
10–12 (parallel
show the were cable
carried
results threading)
out in
obtained forthe
the and C25P104GX (eight cable
same physical configuration
test.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 threading).
with different Figures 10–12
threads: show the (parallel
C25P104GP results obtained in the test.
cable threading) and C25P104GX (eight cable
10 of 18
threading). Figures 10–12 show the results obtained in the test.

Figure 10. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP and C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 10. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP and C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 10. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP and C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 10. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP and C25P104GX configurations.

Figure 11. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP-D2M and C25P104GX-D2M configurations.
Figure11.
Figure Speed−torque
11.Speed−torque curves
curves forfor
thethe C25P104GP-D2M
C25P104GP-D2M and
and C25P104GX-D2M
C25P104GX-D2M configurations.
configurations.
Figure 11. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP-D2M and C25P104GX-D2M configurations.

Figure12.
Figure Speed−torque
12.Speed−torque curves
curves forfor
thethe C25P104GP-D4M
C25P104GP-D4M and
and C25P104GX-D4M
C25P104GX-D4M configurations.
configurations.
Figure 12. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP-D4M and C25P104GX-D4M configurations.
The curves obtained present a similar profile between configurations, with a slight
Figure 12. Speed−torque curves for the C25P104GP-D4M and C25P104GX-D4M configurations.
difference in the values. In the cases in which an external load was applied, it was ob-
served that a peak develops between 15 and 21 rad/s and a valley develops between
30 and 40 rad/s; then, friction begins to grow steadily and nonlinearly with a decay af-
ter 80 rad/s. Peak values are higher for eight threading conditions, while valley values
are similar.
It was expected that by having lower loads on the shafts, which are transmitted to
the bearings, the friction values for the eight threading conditions would be much lower
than those for the parallel threading conditions. However, the behavior obtained is similar;
this can be explained by the fact that in eight threading, there is a more marked friction
effect between the cable and the grooves than in parallel threading. This effect is due to
the cable being threaded in an eight-shape, where the grooves on the surface of the pulley
must be opposite to the grooves of the capstan, which, in turn, causes the cable at both
the entrance and the exit of the capstan and the pulley to rub sideways against the groove.
The experiments in this work were carried out with a distance between the centers of
150 mm. For the eight-shape threading, it should be noted that if the distance between
centers decreases, so will the resulting load of the cable on the shaft, likely causing a lower
value of friction in the bearings and therefore, a lower total value of friction. The latter will
be tested in future work.
 The experiments
entrance and the in this
exit ofwork were carried
the capstan and theoutpulley
with atodistance between
rub sideways the centers
against of 150
the groove.
mm. For the eight-shape threading, it should be noted that if the distance
The experiments in this work were carried out with a distance between the centers of 150 between centers
decreases,
mm. For the soeight-shape
will the resulting load itofshould
threading, the cable on thethat
be noted shaft, likely
if the causing
distance a lowercenters
between value
of friction in
decreases, so the
willbearings and therefore,
the resulting load of thea cable
loweron total
thevalue
shaft,of friction.
likely Thealatter
causing lowerwill be
value
tested in future work.
of friction in the bearings and therefore, a lower total value of friction. The latter will be
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 11 of 18
tested in future work.
3.2. Friction in a Cable-Driven Transmission, Effect of the Transmission Ratio
3.2. Friction
Due to inthea lower
Cable-Driven Transmission,
loads on Effecteight
the driveshafts, of the threading
Transmission Ratio
is preferred over parallel
3.2. Due
Friction
threading. In in a Cable-Driven
this phase, Transmission,
testing was done Effect
for of the Transmission
configurations
to the lower loads on the driveshafts, eight threading is preferred over Ratio
using eight threading:
parallel
C35P75GX Due to
threading. and
In the C25P104GX.
thislower
phase,loads C35P75GX
on the
testing was consists
for of
driveshafts,
done a 35threading
eight mm diameter
configurations capstan
is preferred
using and paral-
over a 75
eight threading:
mmlel threading.
diameter
C35P75GX and In thisFigures
pulley. phase,C35P75GX
C25P104GX. testing
13–16 show was done
the for
of aconfigurations
results
consists attained
35 mm in using eight threading:
the experiment.
diameter capstan and a 75
mmC35P75GX
diameter and C25P104GX.
pulley. Figures C35P75GX
13–16 showconsists of a attained
the results 35 mm diameter capstan and a 75 mm
in the experiment.
diameter pulley. Figures 13–16 show the results attained in the experiment.

Figure 13. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX and C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 13. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX and C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 13. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX and C25P104GX configurations.

Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

Figure 14. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D and C25P104GX-D configurations.
Figure 14. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D and C25P104GX-D configurations.
Figure 14. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D and C25P104GX-D configurations.

Figure 15. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D2M and C25P104GX-D2M configurations.
Figure 15. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D2M and C25P104GX-D2M configurations.
Figure 15. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D2M and C25P104GX-D2M configurations.

Figure16.
Figure Speed−torque
16.Speed−torque curves
curves forfor the
the C35P75GX-D4M
C35P75GX-D4M and
and C25P104GX-D4M
C25P104GX-D4M configurations.
configurations.
Figure 16. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D4M and C25P104GX-D4M configurations.
As in previous tests, the curves obtained present a similar profile between configura-
As in previous tests, the curves obtained present a similar profile between configu-
tions.
AsInin the cases in
previous which
tests, theexternal load was applied,aitsimilar
curves obtained is observed that a peakconfigu-
develops
rations. In the cases in which external load was present profile
applied, it is observed between
that a peak develops
rations.
betweenIn15the cases
and in which
21 rad/s andexternal
a valleyload was applied,
develops betweenit30is observed thatthen,
and 40 rad/s; a peak develops
the friction
between
begins to15grow
and 21 rad/s and
steadily andanonlinearly
valley develops
with between
a decay 30
afterand8040rad/s.
rad/s;The
then, the friction
values in the
begins to grow
peaks are highersteadily
for the and nonlinearly
C25P104GX with a decay
configurations, afterthe
while 80 values
rad/s. The values
in the in the
valleys are
peaks are higher for the C25P104GX configurations, while the values in the
higher for the C35P75GX configurations. Recognizing that there may be an effect due to valleys are
 Figure 16. Speed−torque curves for the C35P75GX-D4M and C25P104GX-D4M configurations.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 12 of 18

As in previous tests, the curves obtained present a similar profile between configu-
rations. In the cases in which external load was applied, it is observed that a peak develops
between 1515 and
and 2121rad/s
rad/sandanda avalley
valley develops
develops between
between 30 30
andand 40 rad/s;
40 rad/s; then,then, the friction
the friction
begins to grow
begins to grow steadily
steadilyand
andnonlinearly
nonlinearlywith
withaa decay
decay after
after 80 80 rad/s.
rad/s. TheThe values
values in the
in the
peaks are
are higher
higherfor forthe
theC25P104GX
C25P104GXconfigurations,
configurations, while
while thethe values
values in the
in the valleys
valleys are are
higher for
higher forthe
theC35P75GX
C35P75GXconfigurations.
configurations. Recognizing
Recognizing that there may be
that there mayan be
effect
an due to due
effect
variables
to thatthat
variables are not
are being considered,
not being the difference
considered, in the values
the difference in the of the peaks
values of theand val- and
peaks
leys of the
valleys friction
of the curve
friction seemseem
curve to beto
related to theto
be related applied external
the applied load, which,
external load, for the for
which,
C25P104GX configuration, is positioned further away from the transmission
the C25P104GX configuration, is positioned further away from the transmission bearings. bearings. Fig-
ures 17 and
Figures 17 and18 show the the
18 show friction behavior
friction for the
behavior cases
for the evaluated
cases in the
evaluated in C35P75GX
the C35P75GX and and
C25P104GX configurations, respectively.
C25P104GX configurations, respectively.

Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of

Figure 17. Friction torque variation as a function of speed and external load for the C35P75GX 19
con-
Figure 17. Friction torque variation as a function of speed and external load for the C35P75GX config-
figuration.
uration.

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Friction torque variation
variation as a function of speed and external
external load for the C25P104GX
C25P104GX con-
configuration.
figuration.

3.3. IdentificationofofFriction
3.3. Identification FrictionininCable-Driven
Cable-Driven Transmission
Transmission Based
Based on on
thethe LuGre
LuGre Model
Model
The LuGre
LuGre model
modelisisone
oneofofthe
themost
most used
used in in
thethe robotics
robotics community;
community; therefore,
therefore, a first
a first
approximation
approximation of the friction
friction model
model evaluated
evaluated for cable-driven transmission
transmission is based on this
this model.
model. Starting
Starting fromfrom the static
the static LuGre
LuGre model,
model, thethe identification
identification tasktask consists
consists of of deter-
determining
mining
the the parameters
parameters of the The
of the model. model. The parameters
parameters identified
identified for the for the configurations
configurations evaluated
evaluated
are are presented
presented in Tables 6inandTables
7. 6 and 7.

Table 6.
Table 6. Static
Static parameters
parametersidentified
identifiedfor
forthe
theLuGre
LuGremodel
model(C35P75GX).
(C35P75GX).
𝑭𝒄 [N· m] 𝑭𝒔 [N· m] 𝜽̇𝒔. [rad/s] 𝑭𝒗 [N· m· s/rad] α
Fc [N·m] Fs [N·m] θs [rad/s] Fv [N·m·s/rad] α
0.107 3.367·10− 8.422 7.596·10− 2
0.107 3.367·10−7 8.422 7.596·10−4 2
Table 7. Static parameters identified for the LuGre model (C25P104GX).
Table 7. Static parameters identified for the LuGre
̇ model (C25P104GX).
𝑭𝒄 [N· m] 𝑭𝒔 [N· m] 𝜽𝒔 [rad/s] 𝑭𝒗 [N· m· s/rad] α
. 7.360
F 0.112 1.405·
F [N10 7.161·10− 2α
−
c [N·m] s ·m] θs [rad/s] F [N
v ·m·s/rad]

Figure 1.405·10−4
0.112 19 shows the friction profile determined
7.360 static·10
for the 7.161
−4 2 the
LuGre model with
estimated parameters for the C35P75GX-D4M configuration.
 𝑭𝒄 [N·m] 𝑭𝒔 [N· m] 𝜽𝒔 [rad/s] 𝑭𝒗 [N·m· s/rad] α
0.107 3.367·10− 8.422 7.596·10− 2

Table 7. Static parameters identified for the LuGre model (C25P104GX).

Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 𝑭𝒄 [N·m] 𝑭𝒔 [N· m] 𝜽̇𝒔 [rad/s] 𝑭𝒗 [N·m· s/rad] α13 of 18
0.112 1.405·10− 7.360 7.161·10− 2

Figure 19 shows the friction profile determined for the static LuGre model with the
Figure 19 shows the friction profile determined for the static LuGre model with the
estimated parameters for the C35P75GX-D4M configuration.
estimated parameters for the C35P75GX-D4M configuration.

Figure 19.
Figure Static friction
19. Static frictiontorque
torqueestimated
estimatedusing
usingthethe
LuGre model
LuGre for the
model for C35P75GX-D4M configuration.
the C35P75GX-D4M configu-
ration.
The effect of the application of external load on the friction behavior (peaks and
valleys)
Thecould
effectnot be adequately
of the applicationreproduced
of external using
load onthethe
static LuGre
friction model nor,
behavior presumably,
(peaks and val-
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19
by any
leys)
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW model
could notthat does not explicitly
be adequately involve
reproduced thethe
using effect of LuGre
static externalmodel
load. nor,
Figures 2014
and
of 21
presumably,19
show the absolute value of the identification error when using the LuGre model
by any model that does not explicitly involve the effect of external load. Figures 20 and 21 for the
C35P75GX
show configurations
the absolute value ofand
theC25P104GX configurations,
identification error when usingrespectively.
the LuGre model for the
C35P75GX configurations and C25P104GX configurations, respectively.

Figure 20. Absolute error when using static LuGre model for C35P75GX configurations.
Figure 20.
Figure Absolute error
20. Absolute error when
when using
using static
static LuGre
LuGre model
model for
for C35P75GX
C35P75GX configurations.
configurations.

Figure 21. Absolute error when using static LuGre model for C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 21. Absolute error when using static LuGre model for C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 21. Absolute error when using static LuGre model for C25P104GX configurations.
3.4. Identification of Friction in Cable-Driven Transmission and Proposed Empirical Model
3.4. Identification of Friction in Cable-Driven Transmission and Proposed Empirical Model
In addition to
3.4. Identification the rotation
of Friction speed, the proposed
in Cable-Driven alternative
Transmission empirical
and Proposed model
Empirical considers
Model
In addition
the effect of the to the rotation
transmission speed,
ratio andthe proposed
external alternative empirical model considers
loads.
In addition
the effect to the rotationratio
of the transmission speed,
andthe proposed
external alternative empirical model considers
loads.
the effect of the transmission ratio and external loads.
3.5. External Load on the Transmission
3.5. External Load on the Transmission
For the friction model, we propose the use of the relative external load 𝐿𝑟 , which is
For the
calculated byfriction (9): we propose the use of the relative external load 𝐿𝑟 , which is
model,
Equation
calculated by Equation (9):
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 14 of 18

3.5. External Load on the Transmission

For the friction model, we propose the use of the relative external load Lr , which is
calculated by Equation (9):
∑ Rl
Lr = (9)
∑ Rw
where Rl is the reaction force in each bearing of the pulley for the evaluated configuration
due to the weight of its own elements, the external loads and the tension in the cable and
Rw is the reaction in each bearing of the transmission due only to the weight of the elements
(without external loads).

3.6. Transmission Ratio N

The transmission ratio N causes the pulley to rotate at a speed N times slower than the
capstan. Speed has a direct effect on viscous friction, so it is expected that the contribution
made from the pulley will differ from the contribution made from the capstan; however,
according to Equation (8), in which it is assumed that the viscous friction coefficient of the
grease is the same in the capstan and the pulley, the difference in the total contribution of
viscous friction for transmission ratios greater than 10 is less than 1% when calculated with
input speed rather than individually for the pulley and the capstan.

3.7. Empirical Model

The main objective of the developed empirical model is to include in its formulation
the effect of external load in such a way that the model can better approximate the behavior
of friction in cable-driven transmissions.
It is known that friction is related to the interaction between surfaces in contact. One of
the first phenomena observed by Coulomb was that friction varies according to the applied
load. Applying external load to the test bench would change the behavior of the Coulomb
friction component, the static friction component and the performance of the lubricant.
The results of the tests carried out reveal that Coulomb friction demonstrates non-
linear behavior with increasing external load and speed. On the other hand, due to the
design of the test equipment, the applied external load could influence the preload of the
bearings, their fits and their tolerances.
The structure of the proposed model is presented in Equation (10):
n
τ f ( X ∗ , Φ) = ∑ f i ( X ∗ , Φ)
h . i =1 i (10)
X ∗ = θ m , N, Lr
.
where θ m is the input rotation speed of the transmission, N is the transmission ratio and Lr
is the resulting relative external load applied perpendicular to the DOF.
Starting from the structure of the LuGre model, the measurements carried out support
the proposal of the following model:
" . α# " . !γ #
.  .δ
 .β

−| .θ | . N 2 + 1. θ
T f θ,N, Lr = ( Fc + Fc · Lr )θ + Fs + ( Fc + Fc · Lr )θ e θ s sgn(θ ) + Fv · θ+ (11)
N2 Lr
h . i
The proposed model involves the parameters Φ = Fc , Fs , θ s , Fv , δ, β, α, γ . The pa-
.
rameters Fc , Fs , θ s , Fv and α have the same meaning as they do in the LuGre model; β and
γ are shape factors used to implement the change of friction as a function of external load
and speed.
The first term of Equation (11) quantifies the variation of Coulomb friction as a function
of external load and speed. The second term quantifies the decrease in friction with
increasing speed at low speeds (like the Stribeck effect); this term also includes the effect of
external load and speed on increasing Coulomb friction. The last term quantifies viscous
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 15 of 18

friction as a function of speed, transmission ratio, the inverse effect of external load on
the viscous friction coefficient of the grease and its non-Newtonian behavior. In the
development of the model, the effect of temperature was not considered and there may
be some difference in temperature in the transmission between tests; however, the tests
were carried out whilst trying to limit the temperature gradient in the bearings and their
effect on the grease. Aerodynamic drag was not evaluated when adding masses to the disc;
therefore, it was not explicitly included in the model.

3.8. Empirical Model Validation

For the validation of the proposed friction model, a new set of experiments was
developed, for which the same procedure used to obtain the data in the experimental
phase was followed. The model parameters were identified using the data sets obtained in
the experimental phase and using global search algorithms (Global Search) implemented
in Matlab.
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW The measured values were compared with the values obtained from the proposed16model of 19
(Equation (11)). In Figure 22, the behavior of friction, calculated using the proposed model
and the values obtained experimentally, is compared for the C25P104GX-D4M configuration.

Figure 22. Static friction torque estimated using the model proposed for the C25P104GX-D4M con-
Figure 22.
Figure Static friction
22. Static friction torque estimated
estimated using
using the
themodel
modelproposed
proposedfor
forthe
theC25P104GX-D4M
C25P104GX-D4Mconfig-
con-
figuration.
figuration.
uration.
Figures 23
Figures 23 and
and 2424 show
show the
the value
value of
of the
the absolute
absolute identification
identification error
error when
when using
using the
the
Figures 23 and 24 show the value of the absolute identification error when using the
model proposed
model proposed
proposed forfor the
for the C35P75GX
the C35P75GX and C25P104GX configurations.
C35P75GX and C25P104GX configurations.
model

Figure 23. Absolute

Figure 23. Absolute error
error when
when using
using the
the model
model proposed
proposedfor
forthe
theC35P75GX
C35P75GXconfigurations.
configurations.
Figure 23. Absolute error when using the model proposed for the C35P75GX configurations.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 16 of 18

Figure 23. Absolute error when using the model proposed for the C35P75GX configurations.

Figure 24. Absolute error when using the model proposed for the C25P104GX configurations.
Figure 24. Absolute error when using the model proposed for the C25P104GX configurations.
Although the proposed model does not completely reproduce the friction behavior for
Althoughcable-driven
the evaluated the proposedtransmissions,
model does not completely
it presents reproduce
lower thethe
values for friction behavior
absolute error
for thecompared
when evaluatedwith
cable-driven transmissions,
the LuGre model, mainly it presents lower values
at low speeds for the
and high absolute
external er-
loads;
ror when compared
therefore, it could bewith the LuGre
considered model,
a better mainly at low
alternative. speeds
Table and high
8 presents external of
a summary loads;
the
therefore,
errors it could
obtained bethe
with considered
proposedamodel
better and
alternative. Table 8with
its comparison presents a summary
the LuGre model.of the
errors obtained with the proposed model and its comparison with the LuGre model.
Table 8. Summary of errors of the proposed friction model compared to the LuGre model.

Friction Moment (N·m)

Transmission Measured Proposed LuGre
Value Model Error Model Error
C35P75GXD 0.1427 0.1268 11.1% 0.1185 17.0%
C35P75GXD2m 0.1728 0.1507 12.8% 0.1168 32.4%
C35P75GXD4m 0.2023 0.1740 14.0% 0.1167 42.3%
C25P104GXD 0.1700 0.1679 1.2% 0.1226 27.9%
C25P104GX2m 0.2030 0.1951 3.9% 0.1226 39.6%
C25P104GXD4m 0.2318 0.2260 2.5% 0.1226 47.1%

4. Conclusions
Although the LuGre model is the most widespread in the friction modeling and simu-
lation literature due to its use in many applications and its simplicity of implementation,
its use to quantify friction in cable-driven transmissions should be reviewed. In this work,
a friction model for the cable-driven transmission is proposed that includes the effect of the
external load and the transmission ratio.
The external load is calculated as the ratio of the external forces on the transmission to
the weight of the unloaded transmission. In the validation of the proposed model, better
results were attained than those obtained with the LuGre model when including an external
load. Absolute identification errors ranged from 1.2% to a maximum of 11.1%; the model
presents the best results at high external loads and low speeds.
The absolute errors were lower than those found with the LuGre model in all cases,
obtaining errors up to 44% lower.
Despite not fully reproducing the friction behavior for the transmission, the proposed
model constitutes a suitable alternative to the LuGre model for cable-driven transmissions
and establishes a basis for further refinement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.T.-C. and J.-B.G.-M.; methodology, G.T.-C.; software,

G.T.-C.; validation, G.T.-C. and J.-B.G.-M.; investigation, G.T.-C.; writing—original draft preparation,
G.T.-C.; writing—review and editing, J.-B.G.-M.; visualization, G.T.-C.; supervision, J.-B.G.-M.; project
administration, G.T.-C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was funded by Universidad Nacional de Colombia (Project HERMES 34923)
and Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira (Project CIE 8-18-5).
Lubricants 2022, 10, 100 17 of 18

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Armstrong-Hélouvry, B.; Dupont, P.; De Wit, C.C. A Survey of Models, Analysis Tools and Compensation Methods for the Control
of Machines with Friction. Automatica 1994, 30, 1083–1138. [CrossRef]
2. Boegli, M.; De Laet, T.; De Schutter, J.; Swevers, J. A Smoothed GMS Friction Model for Moving Horizon Friction State and
Parameter Estimation. In Proceedings of the 2012 12th IEEE International Workshop on Advanced Motion Control (AMC),
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 25–27 March 2012; pp. 1–6. [CrossRef]
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