Biotic Regions (or) Biomes of the World

On this planet, they are different things which have been categorized in to different groups
and subgroups based on their feat u res. Different scientists used various methods or
schemes for classifying every living thing to understand the relationship between different
organisms. There are many group s, including different sorts of food we eat, the
clothes we wear, sexes, ages, and a lot more. To make sense of complexity. We have
categorized different types of environments found on Earth.

The word "Biome” was suggested by an ecologist Frederic Edward Clements within the year
1916 which mentioned the word community.

Kinds of Biomes

Desserts, different types of forest, polar regions, national parks, bird sanctuaries, zoos,
aquatic l if e are some of the examples of Biomes. Based on certain similarities and
to make the classification simpler, the biomes are main groups according to the
predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms.

Types of Biomes

1. Terrestrial or Land Biomes

2. Aquatic or Water Biomes
The terrestrial or the land biomes are categorized and termed consistent with the climate
and therefore the climax vegetation of the region during which they are found. Th e climax
vegetation is also called the biol1ogical community of plants, animals,. birds an d other
l i v i n g species that 's stable and dominant after the various years of evolutionary
development.
Since plants are important source of nutrition and are the producers in the ecosystem, they
determine the nature of the inhabiting animal population. Therefore the climax vegetation
governs the animal population.
Major kinds of Biomes in the world

 Tundra
 Desert
 Savana
 Mountains
 Grasslands
 Rain forest
 Polar region
 Tropical Forest
 Taiga (Boreall Forest)
 Northern Conifer Forest
 Mediterrian scrub Forest
 Temperate Deciduous Forest

Aquatic or Water Biomes

Water is the most vital and essential element in biological community. The
total earth's surface is covered by water which is nearly 70 to 80 per cent.
Therefore aquatic biomes are the most import ant and widest biome within
the world. There are numerous species of aquatic plants and animals, both
large and little. According to the taxonomy records, the marine habitats
are older than the terrestrial habitats, as life originated in the oceans about
billions of years ago.
Aquatic biomes are the foremost stable ecosystems on this planet and with the
absence of water, most of the life forms would be unable to sustain
themselves and therefore the earth would be life less and desert like place.
As the water temperature varies, the aquatic areas tend to be more humid and
the temperature of the air on the cooler side. Thus water biome mainly
consists of aquatic plants and animals.

The aquatic biome provides a huge array of habitats which support

a staggering diversity of species . Scientists believe that they form the
basis of aquatic food webs and contribute between 70 to 85 percent of the
oxygen i n t h e atmosphere.
 As much as 80 to 85 percent of the atmospheric oxygen gives rise to
food production

(Photosynthesis) takes place in water. There are two major sorts of aquatic
biomes within the world:

 Marine biomes
 Freshwater biome
The following points highlight the eight major biomes of the world.
The biomes are:
1. Tundra 
2. Northern Conifer Forest 
3. Temperate Deciduous Forests 
4. Tropical Rain Forest 
5. Chapparal 
6. Tropical Savannah 
7. Grassland 
8. Desert.
 Biome 1. Tundra: The literal meaning of word Tundra is north of the timberline.

Tundra

 Treeless biome in the far north with

harsh, cold winters and extremely
short summers.

 Precipitation - 10-25 cm/yr.

 Temperature - Short growing

season/50-160 days.

 The tundra extends above 60°N

latitude. It is almost treeless plain in the
far northern parts of Asia, Europe and
North America. Tundra consists of
plains characterised by snow, ice and
frozen soil most of the year.

 The permanent frozen soil of tundra

is called permafrost. Winters are
 very long on the tundra with little
daylight. In contrast summers are
short but there are many daylight
hours. Precipitation is low,
amounting to only 25 cm or less per
year, because cold air can hold
relatively little moisture.

 The ground is soggy in the summer

because moisture cannot soak into
the permanently frozen ground.
Ponds, small lakes and marshes are
abundant due to the nearly flat
terrain.
 There are no upright trees on the
tundra. Only trees such as dwarf
willows and birches, which grow
low to the ground, can escape the
drying effect of the wind which
upright trees would experience. This
biome consists mainly of mosses,
grasses, sedges, lichens and some
shrubs. Seasonal thawing of the
frozen soil occurs only up-to a few
centimetres depth, which permits the Reindeer lichen
growth of shallow rooted plants.

Cotton grass
Perennials

Woody shrubs
Heaths
 Carbon, arctic hare and musk ox are
important herbivores of tundra biome.
Some important carnivores that prey on the
herbivores are the arctic fox, arctic wolf,
bobcat and snowy owl. Polar bears live
along coastal areas, and prey on seals.

Arctic fox (Small ears Insulation, thick

Coat)

Polar Bear

Snowy owl Grizzly Bear

 Because of the severe winters, many of the animals are migratory and
move from one region to another with the change in seasons. Many
shorebirds and water fowls, such as ducks and geese, nest on the tundra
during the summer but migrate south for the winter. The tundra makes a
very delicate ecosystem, and may be recovered from any disturbance very
slowly.
The Arctic Tundra

 Located between the North Pole and

Coniferous Forest or Taiga region. It
is extremely cold temperatures and
land that remains frozen year-round.
 A layer of permanently frozen
subsoil called permafrost exists
consisting mostly of gravel and finer
material.
 The growing season ranges from 50-
60 days.
 Location: North America- Northern
Alaska, Canada, Greenland and
Scandinavia.

Alpine Tundra

 Located on mountains throughout the

world at high altitude where trees
cannot grow.
 The growing season is approximately
180 days.
 Very windy. Typically covered in
snow for most of the year.
 Location:
North America- Alaska, Canada, U.S.A.
and Mexico
Northern Europe- Finland, Norway, Russia,
and Sweden
Asia- Southern Asia( Mt. Himalayan ) and
Japan (Mt. Fuji)
Africa- Mt. Kilimanjava
South America- Andes Mountains

Threats to Tundra

 One of the most fragile biomes on the planet.

 Oil drilling is proposed in Alaska and other areas!
 The tundra is slow to recover from damage.
Biome 2. Taiga (Northern Conifer Forest/Boreal Forest): The northern
coniferous forest or taiga is a 1300-1450 km wide band south of the tundra.
Taiga
 A region of coniferous forests in the
northern hemisphere.

 Just south of tundra - Covers 11% of

earth’s land.

 Growing Season - A little longer

than tundra.

 Precipitation - ~ 50 cm/yr.

 Taiga extends as an east-west band

across North America, Europe and
Asia.

 This area also has long, cold winters,

but summer temperatures may reach
10-12°C, and the summer and the
growing season are longer than in
the tundra.

 Precipitation is higher than in the

tundra, ranging from 10 to 35 cm
annually.
 Soil is not fertile. It takes very long
for needle like leaves to decompose
and decomposition is very slow in
cold weather.

 A layer of snow covers the ground

during much of the year. Soil
beneath the snow is greyish on top
and brown below and lacks minerals
needed by plants to grow.
 The moisture is the combined result
of summer rains and winter snows.
Lakes, ponds and bogs are abundant.

 The duration of growing period of

plants is only about 150 days. Since
five physical conditions are variable,
the organisms are resistant to
fluctuations of temperature.

 The taiga makes really a northern

forest of coniferous trees such as
spruce, fir, pine, cedar and hemlock.
In disturbed areas, deciduous trees
such as birch, willow and poplar are
abundant.

Fireweed

 In certain areas the trees are so dense

that little light may reach the floor of
the forest. Vines, maple and spring
wild flowers are common. Mosses
and ferns also grow in moist areas.
 The common smaller mammals are
herbivores, such as squirrels,
snowshoe hare, and predatory
martens. Important migratory
herbivores include moose, elk, deer
and carbon. Moose and carbon
migrate to the taiga for winters and
to the tundra for summers.
Moose

 Important predators are the timber

wolf, grizzly bear, black bear, bobcat
and wolverine. Many insects are
found during the warmer months.
Migratory shore birds and
waterfowls are abundant during
summer months.

Great Grey Owl

Threats to the Taiga
 Mining operations can irreparably damage this fragile ecosystem Road
construction.

 Clear cutting accelerates soil erosion, degrades wildlife habitat and leads
to the loss of diversity.
Biome 3. Temperate Deciduous Forests
The deciduous forests are found in the temperate regions of north central
Europe, east Asia and the eastern United States, that is, south of the taiga in the
Northern Hemisphere. Such forests occur in regions having hot summers, cold
winter, rich soil and abundant rain. Annual rainfall is typically around 100 cm
per year.

 Common deciduous trees are the hardwoods such as beech, maple, oak,
hickory and walnut. They are broad-leaved trees. The trees shed their
 leaves in the late fall so the biome has an entirely different appearance in
the winter than in the summer.

 The fallen leaves provide food for a large variety of consumer and
decomposer populations, such as millipedes, snails and fungi living in or
on the soil. The temperate deciduous forest produces flowers, fruits and
seeds of many types which provide a variety of food for animals.

 The common herbivores of this biome are deer, chipmunks, squirrels,

rabbits and beavers. Tree-dwelling birds are abundant in number and
diversity. Important predators are—black bears, bobcats, and foxes.
Predatory birds are also found, such as hawks, owls and eagles. The cold-
blooded or ectodermic animals, such as snakes, lizards, frogs, and
salamanders are also common.

 The temperate deciduous forest makes a very complex biome. Many

changes take place during the year, and a large variety of species inhabit
the soil, trees and air.

Biome 4. Tropical Rain Forest:

This biome is situated in the equatorial regions having the annual rainfall more
than 140 cm. However, the tropical rain forest makes an important biome across
the earth as a whole. This biome is found in Central America, the Amazon
Basin, Orinocon Basin of South America, Central Africa, India and Southeast
Asia.

 Tropical rain forests have high rainfall, high temperature all year, and a
great variety of vegetation. Plant life is highly diverse reaching up-to a
framework of 200 species of trees per hectare. The warm, humid climate
supports broad- leaved evergreen plants showing peculiar stratification
into an upper storey and two or three under storeys.

 The tallest trees make an open canopy, but the under storied plants block
most of the light from the jungle floor. The climbers and lianas reach the
highest level of the trees in search of light.

 An enormous variety of animals lives in the rain forest, such as insects,

lizards, snakes, monkeys and colourful birds. The ant eaters, bats, large
carnivorous animals, and a variety of fish in the rivers are quite common.
About 70-80 per cent of the known insects are found in tropical rain
forests. Such rich animal diversity is linked to plant-animal interaction for
pollination and dispersal of fruits and seeds.

Biome 5. Chapparal:
This biome is also known as Mediterranean scrub forest. This is marked by
limited winter rain followed by drought in the rest of the year. The temperature
is moderate under the influence of cool, moist air of the oceans. The biome
extends along the Mediterranean.

 Pacific coast of North America, Chile, South Africa and South Australia.
This biome has broad-leaved evergreen vegetation. The vegetation is
generally made up of fire resistant resinous plants and drought-adapted
animals. Bush fires are very common in this biome.

Biome # 6. Tropical Savannah:

The savannahs are warm climate plants characterized by coarse grass and
scattered trees on the margins of tropics having seasonal rainfall. Primarily they
are situated in South America, Africa and Australia. However, there is no
savannah vegetation in India. The average total rainfall in such regions is 100 to
150 cm. There is alternation of wet and dry seasons.
Plants and animals are drought tolerant and do not have much diversity. The
animal life of tropical savannah biome consists of hoofed herbivorous species,
such as giraffe, zebra, elephant, rhinoceros and several kinds of antelope.
Kangaroos are found in the savannahs of Australia.

Biome # 7. Grassland:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Some grasslands occur in temperate areas of the earth and some occur in
tropical regions. Temperate grasslands usually possess deep, rich soil. They
have hot summers cold winters and irregular rainfall. Often they are
characterized by high winds. The main grasslands include the prairies of Canada
and U.S.A., the pampas of South America, the steppes of Europe and Asia, and
the veldts of Africa.

The dominant plant species comprise short and tall grasses. In tall-grasses
prairies in the United States, important grasses are tall bluestem, Indian grass
and slough grass. Short-grass prairies generally have blue grama grass, mesquite
grass and bluegrass. Many grasses have long, well-developed root systems
which enable them to survive limited rainfall and the effects of fire.

The main animals of this biome are-the prong-horned antelopes, bison, wild
horse, jack rabbit, ground squirrel and prairie dogs. Larks, the burrowing owl
and badgers are also found. Important grassland predators include coyotes,
foxes, hawks and snakes.
Biome # 8. Desert:
The desert biome is characterised by its very low rainfall, which is usually 25
cm per year or less. Most of this limited moisture comes as short, hard showers.
Primarily the deserts of the world are located in the south-west U.S.A., Mexico,
Chile, Peru, North Africa (Sahara desert), Asia (Tibet Gobi Thar) and central
Western Australia. Deserts generally have hot days and cold nights, and they
often have high winds.

The reason for the difference of temperature between day and night is due to the
lack of water vapour in the air. Deserts are characterised by scanty flora and
fauna. Desert organisms must meet some initial requirements if they are to
survive. The plants must be able to obtain and conserve water.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

In order to meet these requirements, many adaptations have been made by

desert plants. Such adaptations are—reduced leaf surface area, which reduces
evaporation from the plants, loss of leaves during long dry spell; small hairs on
the leaf surfaces, and the ability to store large amount of water.

The examples of important desert plants are—yuccas, acacias, euphorbias, cacti,

many other succulents and hardy grasses. Many of the small plants are annuals.

Animals also must meet the requirements of heat, cold and limited water. Many
desert animals are nocturnal in habit, and are active mainly at night. Many
reptiles and small mammals burrow to get away from the intense heat of
 midday. The other common desert animals are the herbivorous kangaroo, rat,
ground squirrel, and jack rabbit.

The important predators are—coyotes, badgers, kit fox, eagles, hawks, falcons
and owls. Ants, locusts, wasps, scorpions, spiders, insect-eating birds, such as
swifts and swallows, seed-eating quails, doves and various cats are other
common desert animals.

 Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems

o Tundra Biome
o Taiga or Boreal Biome
o Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British
Type Climate)
o Temperate Rainforest Biome
o Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern
USA
o Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
o Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
o Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
o Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
o Tropical Rain Forest Biome
o Desert Biome
 Aquatic Ecosystems
o Aquatic Organisms
o Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats
 Sunlight
 Dissolved oxygen
 Temperature
 A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which
functions as a unit and is capable of maintaining its identity.
 There are two main categories of ecosystems: 1) Terrestrial ecosystem or
Biomes and 2) Aquatic ecosystem

Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems

 The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions

called biomes.
 No two biomes are alike. They are characterized, by distinct climate
(precipitation and temperature mainly), vegetation, animal life and general
soil type.
 The climate determines the boundaries of a biome and abundance of
plants and animals found in each one of them.

Tundra

 Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome

Forest

 Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)

 Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe – British Type
Climate)
 Temperate Rainforest Biome
 Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
 Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
 Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
 Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
 Tropical Rain Forest Biome

Grassland

 Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome

 Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome (Tropical Shrublands and
Grasslands)

Desert

 Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome

For detailed explanation ad maps, you must go through Geography >

Climatology > Climatic Regions.
Tundra Biome

 There are two types of tundra – arctic and alpine.

 Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line. E.g. High
ranges of the Himalayas, Andes, Alps etc.
 There are no trees in the tundra (due to permafrost).
 The lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens are sparsely found on
bare rocks.
 Coastal lowlands reindeer moss which provides the only pasturage
for reindeers.
 In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on the numerous insects which
emerge when the snow thaws.
 Insects have short life cycles which are completed during the favourable
period of the year.
 Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk-ox, polar bear,
lemming, arctic hare, arctic willow live in tundra region.
 Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
 Most of the animals have long life, e.g. arctic willow has a life span of
150 to 300 years.
 They are protected from chillness by the presence of thick
cuticle and epidermal hair or fur.
 Mammals have a large body size and small tail and ear to avoid the
loss of heat from the surface.

Taiga or Boreal Biome

 Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and are rather poor.

This is because:
 The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments
 the litter derived from conifer needle (leaf) is decomposed very
slowly and is not rich in nutrients (humus content is low).
 conifers do not shed their leaves frequently.

Podzols

 Podzols are the typical soils of a coniferous or boreal biome.

 The top layer of the soil is very thin and is overlain over sandy or loamy
subsurface which has no organic matter (lost due to leaching of
nutrients to the bottom layers).

 The soils are characterized by low levels of moisture (excessively

drained) and nutrients and are loamy or sandy. Others have shallow rooting
 zones and poor drainage due to subsoil cementation.
 A low pH further compounds issue. The low pH (acidic) is due
to excessive leaching of alkaline matter which if present would neutralise
the organic acids of the accumulating litter.

 Hence, most Podzols are poor soils for agriculture. They are mostly
used for grazing.
 The predominant vegetation is an evergreen coniferous forest with
species such as spruce, fir and pine.
 The conifers require little moisture are best suited to this type of sub-
Arctic climate.
 The productivity of boreal forest is lower than those of any other forest
ecosystem.
 Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx,
wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.

Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type

Climate)

 Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep.

 The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous.
 The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
 This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow
and frost.
 Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season. Growth begins in spring.
 Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and
poplar.

Temperate Rainforest Biome

 This is a small biome in terms of area covered. The main stretch of this
habitat is along the northwestern coast of North America from northern
California through southern Alaska.
 There are also small areas in southern Chile, New Zealand, Australia and
a few other places around the world.
 Big coniferous trees dominate this habitat, including Douglas fir,
Western red cedar, Mountain hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka spruce and
Lodgepole pine.
 In addition to the trees, mosses and lichens are very common, often
growing as epiphytes.
 Grizzly bears are the common mammals found in Alaska.

Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA

 Supports luxuriant vegetation.

 The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous
trees (hardwood).
 On the highlands, various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses
are important.
 Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold
season.

Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome

 They are practically treeless, and the grasses are much shorter.

 Grasses are fresh and nutritious.
 Poleward, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of
wooded steppes where some conifers gradually appear.
 Do not have much animal diversity.

Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)

 Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.

 Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by low, broad-leafed
evergreen trees (mostly evergreen oaks).
 Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the
adaptation of the plants enable them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
 Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive
evaporation and prolonged droughts.
 They are, in short xerophytic (drought tolerant).

Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)

 Tropical Monsoon Forests are also known as a drought-deciduous forest;

dry forest; dry-deciduous forest; tropical deciduous forest.
 Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry are
some of the important species.

Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome

 The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees.

 The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to
prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration, e.g. acacias.
 Trees usually have broad trunks, with water-storing devices to survive
through the prolonged drought.
 Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the
strong winds.
 Savanna biome is rich in mammal, bird and reptile diversity.

Tropical Rain Forest Biome

 High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rain

forest.
 The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees, e.g.
mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
 In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
 All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a
peculiar layer arrangement (canopy).
 Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits without troubling the
host): An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such
as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and
sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
 Q. Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/characteristics of
equatorial forests?

1. Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns forming a continuous

canopy
2. Coexistence of a large number of species
3. Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

a. 1 only
b. 2 and 3 only
c. 1 and 3 only
d. 1, 2 and 3

Answer: d) All

Desert Biome

 The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts

is xerophytic or drought-resistant.
 This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and
scattered dwarf acacias.
 Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather
moisture, and search for ground water.
 Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery,
hairy or needle-shaped to reduce the loss of water through
transpiration.
 The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough
skins to protect them while they lie dormant.

Aquatic Ecosystems

 Aquatic ecosystems refer to plant and animal communities occurring in

water bodies.
 Aquatic ecosystems are classified into two subgroups: 1) Freshwater
ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes and ponds; 2) Marine ecosystems, such as
oceans, estuary and mangroves.
 Aquatic ecosystems are classified on the basis of salinity into the
following types:
 Freshwater ecosystems: water on land which is continuously cycling
and has low salt content (always less than 5 ppt) is known as fresh water.
 There are two types of freshwater ecosystems: 1) Static or still water
(Lentic) ecosystems, e.g. pond, lake, bogs and swamps. 2) Running water
(Lotic) ecosystems, e.g. springs, mountain brooks, streams and rivers.
 Marine ecosystems: the water bodies containing salt concentration equal
to or above that of seawater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g. shallow seas and
open ocean.
 Brackish water ecosystems: these water bodies have salt content in
between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and
forests.

Aquatic Organisms

 The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis of their zone of

occurrence.
 Neuston: These organisms live at the air-water interface, e.g. floating
plants.
 Periphyton: These are organisms which remain attached to stems and
leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud such
as sessile algae.
 Plankton: Microscopic floating organisms such as algae, diatoms,
protozoans and larval forms are called plankton. This group includes both
microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans
and protozoans (zooplankton).
 The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their
distribution is controlled, largely, by currents in the aquatic ecosystems.
 Nekton: This group contains powerful swimmers that can overcome the
water currents.
 Benthos: The benthic organisms are those found living at the bottom of
the water mass.
Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats

 Sunlight and oxygen are the most important limiting factors of the aquatic
ecosystems.

Sunlight

 Sunlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it passes down the column of

water.
 The depth to which light penetrates a lake determines the extent of plant
distribution.
 Suspended particulate matters such as clay, silt, phytoplankton, etc. make
the water turbid.
 Turbidity limits the extent of light penetration and photosynthetic activity
in a significant way.
 Based on light penetration and plant distribution they are classified
as photic and aphotic zones.

Photic zone

 Photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the portion that extends from the lake
surface down to where the light level is 1% of that at the surface. The depth
of this zone depends on the transparency of water.
 Photosynthetic activity is confined to the photic zone.
 Both photosynthesis and respiration activity takes place.

Aphotic zone

 The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and
plant growth are restricted forms the aphotic zone (profundal zone). Only
respiration activity takes place in this zone.
 The aphotic zone extends from the end of the photic zones to bottom of
the lake.

Dissolved oxygen

 In freshwater the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 10 parts

per million by weight.
 This is 150 times lower than the concentration of oxygen in an equivalent
volume of air.
 Oxygen enters the aquatic ecosystem through the air-water interface and
by the photosynthetic activities of aquatic plants.
 Dissolved oxygen escapes the water body through the air-water interface
and respiration of organisms (fish, decomposers, zooplankton, etc.).
 The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water is also influenced by
temperature.
 Oxygen is less soluble in warm water. Warm water also enhances
decomposer activity. Therefore, increasing the temperature of a water body
increases the rate at which oxygen is depleted from the water.
 When the dissolved oxygen level falls below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic
organisms are likely to die.

Winterkill

 An ice layer on the top of a water body can effectively cut off light.
Photosynthesis stops but respiration continues in such water body.
 If the water body is shallow, the oxygen gets depleted, and the fish die.
This condition is known as winterkill.

Temperature

 Since water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic

organisms have narrow temperature tolerance limit.
 As a result, even small changes in water temperature are a great threat to
the survival of aquatic organisms when compared to the changes in air
temperatures in the terrestrial organisms.
 3.3 Terrestrial Biomes
 

Figure 1. Each of the world’s eight major biomes is distinguished by

characteristic temperatures and amount of precipitation. Polar ice caps
and mountains are also shown.

 There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical rainforests, savannas,

subtropical deserts, chaparral, temperate grasslands, temperate forests,
boreal forests, and Arctic tundra. Biomes are large-scale environments
that are distinguished by characteristic temperature ranges and amounts
of precipitation. These two variables affect the types of vegetation and
animal life that can exist in those areas. Because each biome is defined by
climate, the same biome can occur in geographically distinct areas with
similar climates (Figures 1 and 2).
  Figure 2.
Precipitation and temperature are the two most important climatic
variables that determine the type of biome in a particular location. Credit:
“Climate influence on terrestrial biome” by Navarras is in the Public
Domain, CC0

 Tropical rainforests are found in equatorial regions (Figure 1) are the

most biodiverse terrestrial biome. This biodiversity is under extraordinary
threat primarily through logging and deforestation for agriculture.
Tropical rainforests have also been described as nature’s pharmacy
because of the potential for new drugs that is largely hidden in the
chemicals produced by the huge diversity of plants, animals, and other
organisms. The vegetation is characterized by plants with spreading roots
and broad leaves that fall off throughout the year, unlike the trees of
deciduous forests that lose their leaves in one season.

 The temperature and sunlight profiles of tropical rainforests are stable in

comparison to other terrestrial biomes, with average temperatures ranging
from 20oC to 34oC (68oF to 93oF). Month-to-month temperatures are
relatively constant in tropical rainforests, in contrast to forests farther
from the equator. This lack of temperature seasonality leads to year-round
plant growth rather than just seasonal growth. In contrast to other
ecosystems, a consistent daily amount of sunlight (11–12 hours per day
year-round) provides more solar radiation and therefore more opportunity
for primary productivity.
 The annual rainfall in tropical rainforests ranges from 125 to 660 cm (50–
200 in) with considerable seasonal variation. Tropical rainforests have
wet months in which there can be more than 30 cm (11–12 in) of
precipitation, as well as dry months in which there are fewer than 10 cm
(3.5 in) of rainfall. However, the driest month of a tropical rainforest can
still exceed the annual rainfall of some other biomes, such as
deserts.Tropical rainforests have high net primary productivity because
the annual temperatures and precipitation values support rapid plant
growth. However, the high amounts of rainfall leaches nutrients from the
soils of these forests.

 Figure 3. Species
diversity is very high in tropical wet forests, such as these forests of
Madre de Dios, Peru, near the Amazon River. (credit: Roosevelt Garcia)

 Tropical rainforests are characterized by vertical layering of vegetation

and the formation of distinct habitats for animals within each layer. On
the forest floor is a sparse layer of plants and decaying plant matter.
Above that is an understory of short, shrubby foliage. A layer of trees
rises above this understory and is topped by a closed upper canopy—the
uppermost overhead layer of branches and leaves. Some additional trees
emerge through this closed upper canopy. These layers provide diverse
and complex habitats for the variety of plants, animals, and other
organisms. Many species of animals use the variety of plants and the
complex structure of the tropical wet forests for food and shelter. Some
organisms live several meters above ground, rarely descending to the
forest floor.
 Figure 4. A MinuteEarth video about
how trees create rainfall, and vice versa.

 Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees and are found in Africa,

South America, and northern Australia (Figure 4 below). Savannas are
hot, tropical areas with temperatures averaging from 24oC –29oC (75oF –
84oF) and an annual rainfall of 51–127 cm (20–50 in). Savannas have an
extensive dry season and consequent fires. As a result, there are relatively
few trees scattered in the grasses and forbs (herbaceous flowering plants)
that dominate the savanna. Because fire is an important source of
disturbance in this biome, plants have evolved well-developed root
systems that allow them to quickly re-sprout after a fire.

 Figure 5. Although
savannas are dominated by grasses, small woodlands, such as this one in
Mount Archer National Park in Queensland, Australia, may dot the
landscape. (credit: “Ethel Aardvark”/Wikimedia Commons)

 Subtropical deserts exist between 15o and 30o north and south latitude

and are centered on the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
(Figure 6 below). Deserts are frequently located on the downwind or lee
side of mountain ranges, which create a rain shadow after prevailing
 winds drop their water content on the mountains. This is typical of the
North American deserts, such as the Mohave and Sonoran deserts.
Deserts in other regions, such as the Sahara Desert in northern Africa or
the Namib Desert in southwestern Africa are dry because of the high-
pressure, dry air descending at those latitudes. Subtropical deserts are
very dry; evaporation typically exceeds precipitation. Subtropical hot
deserts can have daytime soil surface temperatures above 60oC (140oF)
and nighttime temperatures approaching 0oC (32oF).  Subtropical deserts
are characterized by low annual precipitation of fewer than 30 cm (12 in)
with little monthly variation and lack of predictability in rainfall. Some
years may receive tiny amounts of rainfall, while others receive more. In
some cases, the annual rainfall can be as low as 2 cm (0.8 in) in
subtropical deserts located in central Australia (“the Outback”) and
northern Africa.

 Figure 6. A MinuteEarth video about

the global climate patterns which lead to subtropical deserts.

 The low species diversity of this biome is closely related to its low and
unpredictable precipitation. Despite the relatively low diversity, desert
species exhibit fascinating adaptations to the harshness of their
environment. Very dry deserts lack perennial vegetation that lives from
one year to the next; instead, many plants are annuals that grow quickly
and reproduce when rainfall does occur, then they die. Perennial plants in
deserts are characterized by adaptations that conserve water: deep roots,
reduced foliage, and water-storing stems (Figure 6 below). Seed plants in
the desert produce seeds that can lie dormant for extended periods
between rains. Most animal life in subtropical deserts has adapted to a
nocturnal life, spending the hot daytime hours beneath the ground. The
Namib Desert is the oldest on the planet, and has probably been dry for
more than 55 million years. It supports a number of endemic species
(species found only there) because of this great age. For example, the
unusual gymnosperm Welwitschia mirabilis is the only extant species of
an entire order of plants. There are also five species of reptiles considered
endemic to the Namib.
 In addition to subtropical deserts there are cold deserts that experience
freezing temperatures during the winter and any precipitation is in the
form of snowfall. The largest of these deserts are the Gobi Desert in
northern China and southern Mongolia, the Taklimakan Desert in western
China, the Turkestan Desert, and the Great Basin Desert of the United
States.


Figure 7. Many desert plants have tiny leaves or no leaves at all to reduce
water loss. The leaves of ocotillo, shown here in the Chihuahuan Desert
in Big Bend National Park, Texas, appear only after rainfall and then are
shed. (credit “bare ocotillo”: “Leaflet”/Wikimedia Commons)

 The chaparral is also called scrub forest and is found in California, along

the Mediterranean Sea, and along the southern coast of Australia (Figure
7 below). The annual rainfall in this biome ranges from 65 cm to 75 cm
(25.6–29.5 in) and the majority of the rain falls in the winter. Summers
are very dry and many chaparral plants are dormant during the
summertime. The chaparral vegetation is dominated by shrubs and is
adapted to periodic fires, with some plants producing seeds that
germinate only after a hot fire. The ashes left behind after a fire are rich
in nutrients like nitrogen and fertilize the soil, promoting plant regrowth.
Fire is a natural part of the maintenance of this biome.
 Figure 8.
The chaparral is dominated by shrubs. (credit: Miguel Vieira)

 Temperate grasslands are found throughout central North America,

where they are also known as prairies, and in Eurasia, where they are
known as steppes (Figure 8 below). Temperate grasslands have
pronounced annual fluctuations in temperature with hot summers and
cold winters. The annual temperature variation produces specific growing
seasons for plants. Plant growth is possible when temperatures are warm
enough to sustain plant growth, which occurs in the spring, summer, and
fall.

 Annual precipitation ranges from 25.4 cm to 88.9 cm (10–35 in).

Temperate grasslands have few trees except for those found growing
along rivers or streams. The dominant vegetation tends to consist of
grasses. The treeless condition is maintained by low precipitation,
frequent fires, and grazing. The vegetation is very dense and the soils are
fertile because the subsurface of the soil is packed with the roots and
rhizomes (underground stems) of these grasses. The roots and rhizomes
act to anchor plants into the ground and replenish the organic material
(humus) in the soil when they die and decay.
 Figure 9. The American bison
(Bison bison), more commonly called the buffalo, is a grazing mammal
that once populated American prairies in huge numbers. (credit: Jack
Dykinga, USDA ARS)

 Fires, which are a natural disturbance in temperate grasslands, can be

ignited by lightning strikes. It also appears that the lightning-caused fire
regime in North American grasslands was enhanced by intentional
burning by humans. When fire is suppressed in temperate grasslands, the
vegetation eventually converts to scrub and dense forests. Often, the
restoration or management of temperate grasslands requires the use of
controlled burns to suppress the growth of trees and maintain the grasses.

 Temperate forests are the most common biome in eastern North

America, Western Europe, Eastern Asia, Chile, and New Zealand (Figure
9 below). This biome is found throughout mid-latitude regions.
Temperatures range between –30oC and 30oC (–22oF to 86oF) and drop to
below freezing on an annual basis. These temperatures mean that
temperate forests have defined growing seasons during the spring,
summer, and early fall. Precipitation is relatively constant throughout the
year and ranges between 75 cm and 150 cm (29.5–59 in).

 Deciduous trees are the dominant plant in this biome with fewer
evergreen conifers. Deciduous trees lose their leaves each fall and remain
leafless in the winter. Thus, little photosynthesis occurs during the
dormant winter period. Each spring, new leaves appear as temperature
increases. Because of the dormant period, the net primary productivity of
temperate forests is less than that of tropical rainforests. In addition,
temperate forests show far less diversity of tree species than tropical
rainforest biomes.

 The trees of the temperate forests leaf out and shade much of the ground.
However, more sunlight reaches the ground in this biome than in tropical
rainforests because trees in temperate forests do not grow as tall as the
trees in tropical rainforests. The soils of the temperate forests are rich in
 inorganic and organic nutrients compared to tropical rainforests. This is
because of the thick layer of leaf litter on forest floors and reduced
leaching of nutrients by rainfall. As this leaf litter decays, nutrients are
returned to the soil. The leaf litter also protects soil from erosion,
insulates the ground, and provides habitats for invertebrates and their
predators.

 Figure 10. Deciduous

trees are the dominant plant in the temperate forest. (credit: Oliver
Herold)

 The boreal forest, also known as taiga or coniferous forest, is found

roughly between 50oand 60o north latitude across most of Canada, Alaska,
Russia, and northern Europe (Figure 10 below). Boreal forests are also
found above a certain elevation (and below high elevations where trees
cannot grow) in mountain ranges throughout the Northern Hemisphere.
This biome has cold, dry winters and short, cool, wet summers. The
annual precipitation is from 40 cm to 100 cm (15.7–39 in) and usually
takes the form of snow; relatively little evaporation occurs because of the
cool temperatures.

 The long and cold winters in the boreal forest have led to the
predominance of cold-tolerant cone-bearing plants. These are evergreen
coniferous trees like pines, spruce, and fir, which retain their needle-
shaped leaves year-round. Evergreen trees can photosynthesize earlier in
the spring than deciduous trees because less energy from the Sun is
required to warm a needle-like leaf than a broad leaf. Evergreen trees
grow faster than deciduous trees in the boreal forest. In addition, soils in
boreal forest regions tend to be acidic with little available nitrogen.
Leaves are a nitrogen-rich structure and deciduous trees must produce a
new set of these nitrogen-rich structures each year. Therefore, coniferous
trees that retain nitrogen-rich needles in a nitrogen limiting environment
 may have had a competitive advantage over the broad-leafed deciduous
trees.

 Figure 11.
The boreal forest (taiga) has low lying plants and conifer trees. (credit:
L.B. Brubaker, NOAA)

 The net primary productivity of boreal forests is lower than that of

temperate forests and tropical wet forests. The aboveground biomass of
boreal forests is high because these slow-growing tree species are long-
lived and accumulate standing biomass over time. Species diversity is
less than that seen in temperate forests and tropical rainforests. Boreal
forests lack the layered forest structure seen in tropical rainforests or, to a
lesser degree, temperate forests. The structure of a boreal forest is often
only a tree layer and a ground layer. When conifer needles are dropped,
they decompose more slowly than broad leaves; therefore, fewer nutrients
are returned to the soil to fuel plant growth.
 The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic boreal forests and is located
throughout the Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Tundra also
exists at elevations above the tree line on mountains. The average winter
temperature is –34°C (–29.2°F) and the average summer temperature is
3°C–12°C (37°F –52°F). Plants in the Arctic tundra have a short growing
season of approximately 50–60 days. However, during this time, there are
almost 24 hours of daylight and plant growth is rapid. The annual
precipitation of the Arctic tundra is low (15–25 cm or 6–10 in) with little
annual variation in precipitation. And, as in the boreal forests, there is
little evaporation because of the cold temperatures.
 Figure 12.
Low-growing plants such lichen and grasses are common in tundra.
Credit: Nunavut tundra by Flickr: My Nunavut is licensed under CC BY
2.0

 Plants in the Arctic tundra are generally low to the ground and include
low shrubs, grasses, lichens, and small flowering plants (Figure 11
below). There is little species diversity, low net primary productivity, and
low above-ground biomass. The soils of the Arctic tundra may remain in
a perennially frozen state referred to as permafrost. The permafrost makes
it impossible for roots to penetrate far into the soil and slows the decay of
organic matter, which inhibits the release of nutrients from organic
matter. The melting of the permafrost in the brief summer provides water
for a burst of productivity while temperatures and long days permit it.
During the growing season, the ground of the Arctic tundra can be
completely covered with plants or lichens.