Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

Chapter 1
REVIEW OF VECTOR CALCULUS

1.1 A Short Review of Vector Calculus

a. Field

E lectromagnetic theory is essentially a study of some particular field. We define a field

as a function which specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a region. If the
quantity is a scalar (or vector), the field is said to be scalar (or vector) field. Examples of
scalar fields include temperature distribution in a building, sound intensity in a theater and
electric potential in a region. The gravitational force on a body in space, the velocity of
raindrops in the atmosphere and the velocity of fluid particles in a fluid motion are
examples of vector fields. The field may change with time (time-varying field) or remains
the same (static/ stationary field).

b. Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

Given a vector field A and a curve L, the integral
b

∫ L
A ⋅ dl = ∫ A cos θ dl
a
1.1

is called the line integral of A around L (fig. 1.1).

It is the integral of the tangential component of A along the curve L. If the path of

b
A

c
θ
dl

fig. 1.1

integration is a closed curve, such as abca, Eq. 1.1 becomes a closed contour integral

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

∫ A ⋅ dl
L
1.2

which is called the circulation of A around L.

Exercise 1
If B = x 2 y a x + xy 2 a y , find the circulation of B around the path L shown below. (Answer: 0)
y

1
2
1

x
3 1

Exercise 2
Given that F = x 2 a x − xz a y − y 2 a z , calculate the circulation of F around the closed path shown

below. (Answer: − 16 )
z

4 3

1 y
2 1
1

Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S, the surface
integral or flux of A through S (fig. 1.2) is defined as

∫
ψ = A ⋅ ds
S
1.3
= ∫ A ⋅a n ds = ∫∫ A cos θ ds
S S

where at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S. For a closed surface (defining a
volume), Eq.1.3 becomes

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

∫
ψ = A ⋅ ds
S
1.4

which is referred to as the net outward flux of A from S. Notice that a closed surface
defines an open surface while a closed surface defines a volume.

an
θ

fig 1.2

The integral

∫ ρ dv = ∫∫∫ ρ dv
V
v v 1.5

is defined as the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the volume V.

The physical meaning of a line, surface or volume integral depends on the nature of the
physical quantities represented by A or ρv.

Note that in Cartesian coordinates:

dl = dx a x + dy a y + dz a z
ds = dydza x + dxdz a y + dxdy a z
dv = dxdydz

∇)
c. The Del Operator (∇
The del operator,∇, is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates:

∂ ∂ ∂
∇≡ ax + ay + az 1.6
∂x ∂y ∂z

The operator is useful in defining:

i. The gradient of a scalar V, written as ∇V

ii. The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇ ⋅ A

iii. The curl of a vector A, written as ∇ × A , and

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

iv. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇ 2V .

i. The Gradient of a scalar

The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and
directions of the maximum space rate of increase of V.

Let V1, V2, and V3 be surfaces on which V, say temperature, is constant.

Let dV be the difference in the field between points P1 and P2 (fig. 1.3). We want to know
how V changes over the infinitesimal distance dl.

V3
∆V
V 2 = V 1 +∆ V
V1

P1 G
θ
P2

∆V
fig. 1.3

∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂V ∂V ∂V 
=  ax + ay + (
a z  ⋅ dx a x + dy a y + dz a z )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂V ∂V ∂V
Let G= ax + ay + az ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
then dV = G ⋅ dl = G cos θ dl , or
dV
= G cos θ
dl
where dl is the differential displacement from P1 to P2 and θ is the angle between G and dl.
dV
is maximum when θ = 0, i.e., when dl is in the direction of G, hence:
dl
dV
=G
dl max

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

Thus G has its magnitude and direction as that of the maximum rate of change of V. By
definition, G is the gradient of V. Therefore,

∂V ∂V ∂V
grad V ≡ ∇V = ax + ay + az 1.7
∂x ∂y ∂z

Fundamental Properties of the gradient of a scalar field V:

1. The magnitude of ∇V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance.

2. ∇V points in the direction of maximum rate of change in V.

3. ∇V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface which passes through that
point.( dV = ∇V ⋅ dl = 0 ⇒ ∇V ⊥ dl )

4. The projection (or component) of ∇V in the direction of a unit vector a is ∇V ⋅ a

and is called the directional derivative of V along a.
Example 1
A metal plate occupies the region 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 of the xy plane. The temperature of the plate
is known to be T = xy (1 − x)(1 − y ) . In what direction should an insect at the point (¼, ⅓) move in
order to cool off as quickly as possible?

Exercise 3
1. Prove:
i. ∇(U + V ) = ∇U + ∇V
ii. ∇(UV ) = U∇V + V∇U
 U  V∇U − U∇V
iii. ∇  =
V  V2
iv. ∇U n = nU n −1∇U

2. Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:

b. U = e − z sin 2 x cosh y

c. V = x 2 y + xyz
dW
3. Given W = x 2 y 2 + xyz , compute ∇W and the directional derivative in the direction
dl
3a x + 4a y + 12a z at (2,-1,0). (Answer: − 44
13 ).

4. Given Φ = xy + yz + xz , find the gradient of Φ at point (1,2,3) and the directional derivative at
the same point in the direction toward (3,4,4). (Answer: 5a x + 4a y + 3a z ,7)

ii. Divergence of a Vector Field and the Divergence Theorem

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed surface S is obtained
from the integral ψ = ∫ A ⋅ ds (Eq. 1.4.) The divergence of A is defined as the net
S

outward flow of flux per unit volume over a closed incremental surface. In other
words, the divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as
the volume shrinks about P. Hence:

div A = ∇ ⋅ A = lim
∫ A ⋅ ds
S
1.8a
∆V → 0 ∆V

In Cartesian coordinates:

∂Ax ∂A y ∂Az
∇⋅A = + + 1.8b
∂x ∂y ∂z

The divergence of a vector field can be viewed as simply the limit of the field’s
source strength per unit volume (or source density). It is positive at a source point
and negative at a sink point in the field, or zero where there is neither sink nor
source.

P P
P

Positive Divergence Negative Divergence Zero Divergence

fig 1.4

The Divergence Theorem: From Eq. 1.8, one can derive the relation

∫ A ⋅ ds = ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dv
S V
1.9

It is called the divergence theorem. It states that the total outward flux of a vector field A
through a closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

iii. Curl of a Vector Field and Stokes’s Theorem

We defined the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L as the integral

∫ A ⋅ dl
L
(Eq. 1.2). The curl of A is defined as an axial (or rotational) vector whose

magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

whose direction is the normal direction of the area where the area is oriented so as to make
the circulation maximum. That is:

 A ⋅ dl 

curl A = ∇ × A =  lim L ∫  an 1.10
 ∆S →0 ∆S  max
 

where the are ∆S is bounded by the curve L; an is the unit vector normal to the surface ∆S
and is determined using the right-hand rule.

In Cartesian coordinates

ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
∇× A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az

The physical significance of the curl of a vector field provides the maximum value of the
circulation of the field per unit area (or circulation density) and indicates the direction in
which this maximum value occurs. It can also be considered as a measure of the circulation
or how much the field curls around a point P (fig. 1.5).

P P P

Curl at point P out Curl at point P into Curl at point P is zero

of the page of the page

fig 1.5

Stokes’s Theorem: From Eq. 1.10 we can derive:

∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ (∇ × A ) ⋅ ds
L S
1.11

It is called Stokes’s theorem. It states that the circulation of A around a closed path L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L (fig 1.6)

ds

S dl

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Chapter 1 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

iv. Laplacian of a Scalar

The Laplacian of a scalar field V, ∇ 2V , is defined as the divergence of the gradient of V.

Thus, in Cartesian

Laplacian V = ∇ ⋅ ∇V ≡ ∇ 2V
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V 1.12
= 2
+ 2
+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z

A scalar field is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that
region, i.e.,

∇ 2V = 0 1.13

The solution for V in Eq. 1.13 is harmonic (it is of the form of sine or cosine).

The Laplacian of a vector A is defined as the gradient of the divergence of A minus the
curl of the curl of A. i.e.,

∇ 2 A = ∇(∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ × ∇ × A 1.14

In Cartesian

∇ 2 A = ∇ 2 A x a x + ∇ 2 A y a y + ∇ 2 Az a z
 ∂ 2 Ax ∂ 2 A x ∂ 2 A x   ∂ 2 Ay ∂ 2 Ay ∂ 2 Ay 
a +  ∂ Az + ∂ Az + ∂ Az 
2 2 2
= + + a x +  + + a z
 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2   ∂x 2 ∂ y 2
∂z 2  y  ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 
     
1.15

d. Classification of Vector Fields

For a given vector field A, if ∇ ⋅ A = 0 , then A is said to be solenoidal or divergenceless.
Such a field has neither source nor sink of flux. From the divergence theorem

∫ A ⋅ ds = ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dv = 0
S V

hence, flux lines of A entering any closed surface must also leave it. Examples of
solenoidal fields are incompressible fluid, magnetic fields, and conduction current density
under steady state conditions.

Since for any vector F, ∇ ⋅ (∇ × F) = 0 , a solenoidal field A can always be expressed in

terms of another vector F, i.e.,

if ∇ ⋅ A = 0 , then
A = ∇×F 1.16

A vector field is said to be irrotational or potential if curl-free, i.e., ∇ × A = 0 .

From Stokes’s theorem

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∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ (∇ × A ) ⋅ ds = 0
L S

hence, in an irrotational field A, the circulation of A around a closed path is identically

zero. This implies that the line integral of A is independent of the path chosen. Therefore,
an irrotational field is also known as a conservative field. Examples of irrotational fields
include electrostatic fields and gravitational fields.

Since ∇ × (∇V ) = 0 , an irrotational field A can always be expressed in terms of a scalar

field V; i.e.,

if ∇ × A = 0 , then
A = −∇V 1.17
(the negative sign is inserted for physical reason.)

For this reason, A may be called a potential field and V the scalar potential of A.

A vector field A is uniquely prescribed within a region by its divergence and its curl. If we
let
∇ ⋅ A = ρv (source density), and 1.18a
∇× A = ρs (circulation density) 1.18b
any vector A satisfying Eq. 1.18 with ρv and ρs vanishing at infinity can be written as the
sum of two vectors: one irrotational and the other solenoidal. This is called Helmholtz’s
theorem. Thus
A = −∇V + ∇ × B 1.19
If we let A i = −∇V and A s = ∇ × B , then ∇ × A i = 0 , ∇ ⋅ A s = 0 , showing that Ai is
irrotational and As is solenoidal.
Exercise 4
Prove the following identities.
1. ∇ ⋅ ( A + B) = ∇ ⋅ A + ∇ ⋅ B
2. ∇ × ( A + B) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B
3. ∇ ⋅ (VA ) = V∇ ⋅ A + A ⋅ ∇V
4. ∇ ⋅ (∇ × A) = 0
5. ∇ × (∇V ) = 0
6. ∇ × (VA) = ∇V × A + V (∇ × A )
7. ∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇ ⋅ A) - ∇ 2 A

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