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C H A P T E R 1
Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics
1.1 Introduction
Electromagnetism deals with the interaction, interpretation, and applications of electric and magnetic
fields. Electromagnetism finds its application in electric machines, satellite communications, remote
sensing, antennas, radio, television, optical fibres, radars, lasers, etc. The topics discussed relating to
electromagnetism are the gradient, the divergence, the relation between electric field and electric
potential, the displacement current, and Maxwell’s equations. The changing electric and magnetic
fields produce electromagnetic disturbance; this disturbance moves in the form of electromagnetic
waves. The topics explained relating to electromagnetic waves are the electromagnetic waves in free
space and its velocity, the rate of flow of electromagnetic energy (Poynting theorem), and the elec-
tromagnetic spectrum. Dielectrics are insulators; there is no free charge carriers in them. The topics
explained relating to dielectrics are the dielectric polarization and the types of polarization.
1.2 Gradient of a scalar

The gradient is a differential operator. It is a vector and it has been represented as ∇ (read as del bar)
∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

where i , j , and k are the unit vectors along X, Y, and Z directions, respectively. The gradient of a
scalar V is a vector and it has been represented as
Modified Date: Thu, Jul 21, 2011 03:36:57 PM Output Date: Thu, Jul 21, 2011 03:54:41 PM
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1-2 Engineering Physics
∂V ∂V ∂V
grad V = ∇V = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V
The component represents the rate of change of ∇V along the X-direction. Similarly
∂x
∂V ∂V
and represents the components of ∇V along Y and Z directions, respectively.
∂y ∂z
In electrostatics, the electric potential (V) is a scalar and the intensity of the electric field ( E ) is a
vector. If the electric potential in a region is the same at different points in the region then there is no
electric field in that region. If the electric potential is different at different points in the region then
the electric field exists in that region. The direction of the electric field is in the direction in which the
potential decreases. The relation between the electric potential and the electric field is given by
∂V ˆ
E =− r
∂r

where r̂ is the unit vector along the direction of field and the negative sign shows that the field is in
the direction of the decreasing potential. Thus, the gradient makes the relation between the vector and
the scalar physical quantities.
1.3 Curl of a vector

The curl of a vector
represents the rotation of a vector in vector field. As shown in Fig. 1.1. The circula-
tion of a vector A over the surface area ‘S ’ is represented as

∫ (curl A ).ds = ∫ (∇× A ).ds
S S

The curl of a vector A is defined as the circulation
of
the vector along
the contour (l) enclosed
by unit surface area. This is represented by curl A = ∇× A . The symbol ∇× is read as “del bar cross”

i j k

∴ curl A = ∇× A = ∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
⎛ ∂A ∂A y ⎟⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ ∂A y ∂Ax ⎟⎞

= i ⎜⎜⎜ z − ⎟⎟ + j ⎜⎜ − ⎟ + k ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎟⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠⎟

where i , j , and k are the unit vectors along X, Y, and Z directions, respectively.
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Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-3
Figure 1.1 Surface enclosed by a closed path ‘l’
Surface, s
ds
dl
1.4 Divergence of a vector

The divergence of a vector in an electric field or magnetic field or velocity field represents that as
many
field lines come out of a volume as those that could enter into it. The divergence of a vector
A is defined
as the volume integral of the divergence of A and is equal to the total outward flux of
a vector A through the surface, S, enclosed by the volume, V. Mathematically this has been repre-
sented as

∫ (∇. A ) dV = ∫ A . ds
V S
where dV represents an infinitesimal volume element inside the field region enclosed by surface S, and
ds represents a small areal element on the surface S enclosing the volume V. The above equation is also
known as Gauss divergence theorem.
In electrostatics, the Gauss divergence
theorem can be defined as the volume integral of the
divergence of electric flux density ( D ) throughout the volume (V ) enclosed by the surface (S) and
this is equal to the surface integral of the normal component of electric flux density D over the closed
surface,

i.e. ∫ (∇ . D )dV = ∫ D .ds
V S

The total flux coming out from the volume enclosed by the surface S is ∫ (∇ . D )dV . The value
V
D . ds represents the flux through a small area ds and ∫ D . d s represents the flux over the entire
closed surface. S
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1.5 Relationship between the electric field ( E )
and electric potential (V )

the attractive force ( F ) on a negative charge Q is at a point A where the intensity
In the electric field,
of electric field E is – E Q. The work done (dW ) in displacing the charge by a small distance dl is

dW =− F .dl = −QE .dl ___________ (1.1)
The negative sign shows that the work is being done by the field. As shown in Fig. 1.2, let the
work done to move the charge Q from A to B be

Figure 1.2 A charge Q moves from A to B in the electric field, E
B

W = −Q ∫ E .dl ___________ (1.2)
A
The work done or the potential energy required per unit charge in moving from point A to point B is
the potential difference VAB between the points.
W
B

∴ V AB = = − ∫ E .dl ___________ (1.3)
Q A
The potential difference VAB is measured in volts.

From Equation (1.2), the work done in moving a unit charge through dl in the electric field is

dW = − E .dl = dV

∴ dV = − E .dl = − E .(i dx + j dy + k dz ) ___________ (1.4)
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The potential dV can also be expressed as
∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
⎛ ∂V ∂V ∂V ⎞⎟
= ⎜⎜⎜i +j +k ⎟⎟⎟ .(i dx + j dy + k dz )
___________ (1.5)
⎝⎜ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Comparing Equations (1.4) and (1.5),
⎛ ∂V ∂V ∂V ⎟⎞
E = − ⎜⎜⎜i +j +k ⎟⎟ = −∇V
⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠

or E =−∇V ___________ (1.6)
Equation (1.6) shows the relation between electric field and potential at a point in field.
1.6 The displacement current

From Faraday’s law, we know that the time-varying magnetic field [i.e. ∂B/∂t] generates electric
field. Maxwell (1865) put forward that a time-varying electric field [i.e. ∂E/∂t] can produce mag-
netic field; with this, Maxwell generalized Ampere’s law with an additional current term called
displacement current; this produces the time-varying magnetic field. This has been explained below.
Ampere’s law is

∇× H = J ___________ (1.7)
Taking divergence on both sides of Equation (1.7), we have

___________ (1.8)
∇.(∇× H ) = ∇. J
The left hand-side of Equation (1.8) is zero, because the divergence of curl is zero.
___________ (1.9)
∴ ∇. J = 0

But in general ∇. J is not equal to zero. So Maxwell generalized Ampere’s law by adding a term JD,
called displacement current density to include the time-varying electric fields.
Thus, Ampere’s law is

∇× H = J + J D ___________ (1.10)
Taking divergence on both sides of Equation (1.10), we have

∇.(∇× H ) = ∇. J + ∇. J D

0 = ∇. J + ∇. J D ___________ (1.11)
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We know the continuity equation
∂ρ ___________ (1.12)
∇. J = −
∂t
So Equation (1.11) becomes
∂ρ
0=− + ∇. J D
∂t
∂ρ
or ∇. J D =
∂t
∂(∇.D )
or ∇. J D = [From Gauss’s law, ∇.D = ρ ]
∂t
The above equation reduces to

∂D ___________ (1.13)
JD =
∂t
So the generalized Ampere’s law is

∂D ___________ (1.14)
∇× H = J +
∂t
This is one of Maxwell’s equation.

For static electric field, ∂D / ∂t = 0 and Equation (1.14) becomes
___________ (1.15)
∇× H = J
1.7 Maxwell’s equations

The fundamental equations derived in Gauss’s law, Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law are collected and
unified by introducing the displacement current and field by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879).
Now they are called Maxwell’s equations. The point form (or differential form) and integral form of
Maxwell’s equations in free space are given below.
The point form (or) differential form of Maxwell’s equations are:

(i) ∇ × E = − ∂B / ∂t

(ii) ∇ × H = J + ∂D / ∂t

(iii) ∇. D = ρv

(iv) ∇.B = 0
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The integral form of Maxwell’s equations are:

(i) ∫ E . dl = − ∫ (∂B / ∂t )⋅ d s
s

(ii) ∫ H . dl = I + ∫ (∂D / ∂t )⋅ d s

(iii) ∫
D.d s = ∫ ρ dv v

s v
(iv) ∫ B.d s = 0
s
The above equations are explained below:

Equation (i) is Faraday’s law of induction; this describes the relation between electric field and
the time-varying magnetic field or magnetic flux. This time-varying magnetic field induces electrical
current in a conducting loop placed in this field.
Equation (ii) is the generalized form of Ampere’s law; this describes the relation between mag-
netic field and electric currents.
Equation (iii) is Gauss’s law; this describes the relation between electric field and volume electric
charge density.
Equation (iv) is Gauss’s law in magnetism. It shows that the net magnetic flux through a closed
surface is zero.
1.8 Electromagnetic waves in free space

and their velocity
Consider an electromagnetic wave passing in free space, where there are no free charges or currents
(i.e. lossless medium).
The wave equation in this lossless free space is

2 ∂2 E
∇ E − με =0 (1.16)
∂t 2
The wave associated with Equation (1.16) will vary sinusoidally with time. So, the solution for
Equation (1.16) is of the form

E = E 0 e i ωt (1.17)

where E0 is the amplitude, ω = angular frequency of the wave and i = −1 .
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Differentiating Equation (1.17) twice with respect to t, we get

∂E ∂2 E
= i ω E0 e i ωt and = (i ω )2 E0 e i ωt = − ω 2 E (1.18)
∂t ∂t 2
Substituting Equation (1.18) in Equation (1.16), we have

∇2 E + ω 2 με E = 0 _________ (1.19)
This is called Helmholtz equation.

Suppose the wave propagates along the X-direction, then Equation (1.19) can be represented as

∂2 E
+ ω 2 με E = 0 _________ (1.20)
∂x 2

Here, E has components along the X, Y and Z-axes. For a wave travelling along the X-direction,
Ex = 0, the Ey and Ez components are present. The Ey component wave equation is
∂2 E y
+ ω 2 με E y = 0 _________ (1.21)
∂x 2
Let β2 = ω2 με; then Equation (1.21) becomes
∂2 E y
+β2Ey = 0 _________ (1.22)
∂x 2
The solution for the differential Equation (1.22) is given by
E y = C1e −i βx + C 2 e i βx _________ (1.23)
where C1 and C2 are constants.

Here, Ey represents the displacement of E in the Y-direction. The displacement Ey at time ‘t’ is
represented as Ey(t), given by
E y (t ) = E y e i ωt = [C1e−i βx + C 2 e i βx ] e i ωt
i [ ωt − β x ] i [ ωt + β x ] ___________ (1.24)
= C1 e + C2e
Equation (1.24) represents two waves travelling in the opposite direction. The first term represents
the wave travelling in the positive X-direction, and the second term represents the wave travelling
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in the negative X-direction. From Equation (1.24), we know the wave propagates with a velocity v
given by
ω
v=
β
Also, from the wave equation, we know v = 1 / με . Hence, we write
ω 1
v= = _________ (1.25)
β με
The phase velocity of the wave can be obtained from the wave travelling along the X-direction, i.e.
E y = C1 e (
i ω t −β x )
(1.26)
The real part of Equation (1.26) is

⎡ βx ⎤
E y = C1 cos[ωt − β x ] = C1 cos ω ⎢ t − ⎥ = C1 cos ω ⎢⎡ t − x με ⎥⎤
⎢⎣ ω ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ (1.27)
using Equation (1.25).

From the above equation, the phase of the wave can be represented as
ω [t − x με ] _________ (1.28)
the derivative of Equation (1.28) is
ω [dt − dx με ] = 0
dx 1
or = = phase velocity (v )
dt με (1.29)
So from Equations (1.25) and (1.29), we know the phase velocity and the wave velocity are equal.
1 ω _________ (1.30)
i.e. the phase velocity, v = =
με β
Phase velocity represents, the rate at which an electromagnetic wave travels in a medium. Equa-
tion (1.30) represents the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves in a medium.
1.9 Poynting vector

Electromagnetic waves transmit energy from the source to the receivers. The rate of energy transfer
depends on the strength of electric and magnetic fields. This energy transfer can be obtained from
Maxwell’s equation as follows:
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The magnetic field curl equation is

∂D ∂E
∇× H = J + = J +ε
∂t ∂t

Rearranging this equation for J leads to

∂E
J = ∇× H − ε _________ (1.31)
∂t

Multiplying Equation (1.31) by E gives the dimensions of power per unit volume. That is,
∂
ε _________ (1.32)
∂

From the vector algebra, the following identity holds, for E and H it is
So Equation (1.32) becomes
∂
ε _________ (1.33)
∂
From Maxwell’s equation

∂H
∇ × H =− μ _________ (1.34)
∂t
∂ ∂
μ ε _________ (1.35)
∂ ∂
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ _________ (1.36)
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
Substituting Equation (1.36) in Equation (1.35)
μ ∂H 2 ε ∂E 2
E. J = − − − ∇.( E × H ) _________ (1.37)
2 ∂t 2 ∂t
Integrating Equation (1.35) over a volume V
∂ μ ε
( E × H ) dv _________ (1.38)
∂
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Using the divergence theorem, the last term in Equation (1.38) becomes

∫ ∇.( E × H ) dv = ∫ ( E × H ).ds
v S
Then Equation (1.38) becomes
∂ ⎛ μ H 2 εE 2 ⎟⎞
⎜⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ dv − ∫
( E × H ).ds _________ (1.39)
∂ ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ s
The left-hand side of Equation (1.39) represents power dissipated in volume V; this volume is
covered by a closed surface S. This power dissipation has been explained from Joule’s law. Let a con-
ductor carrying current I with cross-sectional area A have a voltage drop ‘E’ per unit length. Then the
power dissipated per unit volume would be
EIl EIl _________ (1.40)
= = EJ
v lA

From Equation (1.39), E . J represents power dissipated per unit volume. From the electrostatic
field, the quantity (1/2) εE 2 represents stored electric energy per unit volume of electric field or energy
density and the quantity (1/2)μH 2 represents the stored energy density of the magnetic field. The last

term of Equation (1.39) - ∫s E × H . d s represents the rate of flow of energy into the volume through
the surface s. This term without a negative sign represents
the rate of flow of energy outward through
the surface enclosing the volume. The integral of E × H over the closed surface gives the rate of
energy flow through that surface.
× _________ (1.41)

dimensions of watt per square metre. The vector E × H in Equation (1.41) can be
This has the
represented as P , known as Poynting vector. The Poynting vector represents the magnitude and direc-
tion of outward power flow from the volume enclosed by the surface S.

∴ ∫ ( E × H ).dS = ∫ P .dS _________
(1.42)
S S
so P = E × H ___________ (1.43)
Equation (1.43) represents the Poynting vector.
1.10 Electromagnetic spectrum

A light wave is associated with electric and magnetic fields, and so it is called electromagnetic wave.
Depending on the wave length or frequency, the electromagnetic waves are divided into a number of
regions. The frequency limits of the different regions of electromagnetic spectrum are described below.
The electromagnetic waves having frequencies in the range of 101 to 106 Hz (or wave length above
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103 m) are long wave length waves. These are used for maritime and aeronautical uses. The electromag-
netic waves having frequencies from 106 to 109 Hz (or wave length 103 to 0.1 m) are radio waves. These
waves are used in radio and television communication. The electromagnetic waves having frequencies
in the range 109 to 1012 Hz (or wave length 0.1 to 10−3 m) are microwaves. The electromagnetic waves
having frequencies in the range of 1012 to 1014 Hz (or wave length 10−3 to 10−6 m) are infrared waves.
The electromagnetic waves having frequencies in the range of 1014 to 1015 Hz (or wave length 10−6 to
10−7 m) are the visible region. The electromagnetic waves having frequencies in the range 1015 to 1017
Hz (or wave length 10−7 to 10−8 m) are ultra violet waves. The electromagnetic waves having frequen-
cies in the range 1017 to 1020 Hz (or wave length 10−8 to 10−11 m) are X-rays and the electromagnetic
waves having frequencies in the range 1020 to 1024 Hz (or wave length 10−11 to 10−16 m) are γ-rays.
These regions are shown diagramatically in Fig. 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
101 10 103 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 10 21 10 22 10 23 10 24 Hz
Radio Micro IR
Long waves Visible UV X-Rays γ-Rays
waves waves waves
Frequency (in Hz)
1.11 Dielectric polarization

Dielectrics are insulators, they do not possess free charge carriers. The applied electric field can polar-
ize the dielectric material and create electric dipoles. A dipole consists of equal positive and negative
charges (q) separated by a small distance (dl ). The electric dipole moment ( p) is the product of one of
the charge and separation between the charges.
∴ p = q × dl
The dipole is directed from positive charge to negative charge. It is measured in Debye. The dipole
moment per unit volume of the material is called polarization. In the absence of applied electric field
the centers of positive and negative charges are coincided in the atoms and molecules of non-polar sub-
stances. By applying the electric field on these substances, the centers of positive and negative charges
are separated in the atoms as shown in Fig. 1.4. This produces electronic polarization. The same electric
field produces change in distance between ions in the molecules. This gives ionic polarization.
If the substance is polar dielectric, then rotation of dipolar molecules also takes place in addition
to electronic and ionic polarizations. The rotation of molecules produces orientational or rotational
polarizations. So, the total polarization is the sum of polarizations due to electronic, ionic, and
orientational polarizations.
When a non-polar dielectric material is placed between the capacitor plates, then the centers of
positive and negative charges in atoms and molecules are separated. The negative charges in the atoms
and molecules are attracted by the positive plate of the capacitor and the positive charges in the atoms
and molecules are attracted by the negative plate of the capacitor as shown in Fig. 1.5.
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Electronic polarization of an (a) atom in the absence of electric

Figure 1.4
field and (b) atom in the presence of applied electric field
E=0 E
dl
(a) (b)
Figure 1.5 Polarization of a dielectric in electric field (E)
The negative charges move towards the positive plate and the positive charges move towards the
negative plate. In the interior of the material the displacement of opposite charges in the molecules
and atoms would not cause any observable effect, but at the surface of the substance the effect is
observed. On the face of the dielectric towards the positive plate, negative charges are observed and on
the face of the dielectric towards the negative plate, positive charges are observed. Thus, the dielectric
between the capacitor plates in the electric field is said to be polarized.
1.12 Types of polarization

When an electric field is applied on a dielectric crystal, then the positive charges of atoms and
molecules are displaced along the field while the negative charges in a direction opposite to that of the
applied field. This is the basis for polarization of a dielectric substance.
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If a molecule has permanent dipole moment, then it is a dipolar molecule and the substance is a
dipolar substance. Example is H2O molecule. In the absence of an external electric field, the dipoles
are randomly oriented, so that polarization is zero. But when the electric field is applied, these dipoles
tend to rotate different extents in the direction of an applied electric field giving rise to dipolar or
orientational polarization. The applied field also tends to displace the positive and negative ions of
molecule in opposite directions causing a change in the ionic bond length. This change in bond length
is to produce a net dipole moment in the crystal. This dipole moment per unit volume of material is
known as ionic polarization.
The individual ions or atoms of a crystal are themselves polarized in the electric field. Fig. 1.6 shows
the polarization of an atom, the electrons in its various shells are displaced relative to the nucleus and
produce an electric dipole moment. This dipole moment per unit electric field of the material is called
electric polarizability.
Figure 1.6 (a) Unpolarized atom; (b) Polarized atom
+
+
(a) (b)
The total polarizability (α) is the sum of the various polarizabilities such as the electronic polariz-
ability (αe ), ionic polarizability (αi) and dipolar polarizability (αd). Therefore, we write α = αe + αi +
αd . Now, we study each polarization in detail.
(a) Dipolar or orientational polarization

The expression for dipolar polarization can be obtained from Langevin-Debye theory as given below.
According to Debye, oriental polarization is due to the rotation of polar molecules in dielectric substance.
In the absence of an applied electric field, the dipoles of the substance are randomly oriented in all direc-
tions with equal probability and the resultant polarization is zero. In the presence of an applied electric
field (E ), the torque (τ) acting on a dipole to rotate it in the direction of E is given as:
  
| τ | = | F × d | = eEd sin θ = pE sin θ
where p is the dipole moment of a molecule [Fig. 1.7]. The only force that prevents permanent dipoles
from complete alignment with the field is thermal agitation.
Therefore, an equilibrium state will reach in which different dipoles will make 0 to π radian angles
with field direction, producing a net resultant polarization in the direction of the field. The potential
energy (V ) of a dipole corresponding to an angle θ between p and E direction is:
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Figure 1.7 Torque acting on a dipole
+e
eE
d q
E
eE −e
θ θ
V = ∫ τ dθ = ∫ pE sin θ dθ = − pE cos θ ___________ (1.44)
π/2 π/2
According to Boltzmann distribution law, the probability for a dipole to make an angle between θ and
θ + dθ with the field is proportional to:
⎡ pE cos θ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
2π sin θ dθ exp ⎢ ⎥
⎢ K BT ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where 2π sinθ dθ is the solid angle between θ and θ + dθ. Hence, the average component of the dipole
moment along the field direction is equal to:
⎡ pE cos θ ⎤
π
⎢ ⎥
∫ 0
p cos θ ⋅ 2π sin θ dθ exp ⎢
⎢ K BT ⎥
⎥
p <cos θ >= ⎣ ⎦ ___________ (1.45)
⎡ pE cos θ ⎤
π
⎢ ⎥
∫0 2π sin θ dθ exp ⎢⎢ K BT ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦
θ = 0 corresponds to parallel alignment and θ = π to anti-parallel alignment of the dipoles. Divid-
pE , pE
ing numerator and denominator by 2π and putting a = x = a cos θ = cos θ and dx =
K BT K BT
−a sin θ dθ. Substituting the above values in Equation (1.45), we have:
1 ∫ −a
xe x dx e a + e −a 1 1
<cos θ > = = − = cot ha − = L(a ) ___________ (1.46)
a a
e a − e −a a a
∫
x
e dx
−a
L(a) is called Langevin function, because this formula was derived by Langevin in 1905 in connection
with paramagnetism.
A graph of L(a) versus ‘a ’ has been plotted as shown in Fig. 1.8. Near the origin, the Langevin
function increases linearly so that L(a) = a/3. As ‘a ’ increases, the function continues to increase and
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Figure 1.8 A graph plotted between L(a) and ‘a’
L(a)
1.2 a /3
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PE
a=
KBT
approaching the saturation value unity as a → ∝ i.e., for high field strengths. This saturation corresponds
to complete alignment of the dipoles in the field direction, so that <cos θ> = 1
For moderate field strengths (when a << 1), L(a) = a/3
a ⎛⎜ p ⎞⎟⎟
2
so that p <cos θ > = p = ⎜⎜ ⎟E ___________ (1.46a)
3 ⎜⎝ 3K BT ⎠⎟
If there are N molecules per unit volume of the crystal, then the dipolar polarization (Pd ) is:
Np 2 E
Pd = Np <cos θ > = ___________ (1.47)
3K BT
The average dipolar dipole moment [ p <cos θ>] is proportional to the intensity of the applied elec-
tric field [E] i.e., p <cos θ> ∝ E (or) p <cos θ> = αd E, where the proportionality constant αd is called
the dipolar polarizability given as:
p <cos θ > p2
αd = = ___________ (1.48) [using Equation (1.46a)]
E 3K BT
Equation (1.48) is actually applicable to liquids and gases, because in these substances only the molec-
ular dipoles may rotate continuously and freely, as has been assumed in its derivation. In solids, a dipole
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may move back and forth between certain limits, which depends on the temperature and electric field.
Therefore, the total polarizability of a dipolar molecule can be written as:
p2
α = αei + ___________ (1.49)
3K BT
where αei is the combined polarizability from electronic and ionic contributions. The Clausius–Mosotti
equation for a dipolar system is:
⎛ ∈ − 1 ⎞⎟ ⎡
⎜ r ⎟⎟ 1 p 2 ⎥⎤
⎜⎜⎜
M ⎢
⎟ = N α
A ⎢ ei
+
ρ ⎜⎝⎜∈ r + 2 ⎟⎟⎠ 3∈ 0 ⎣⎢ 3K BT ⎥⎦⎥ ___________ (1.50)
⎛ ⎞
M ⎜⎜ ∈ r − 1 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜
Equation (1.50) is known as Debye formula. A plot can be drawn between ρ ⎜∈ + 2 ⎟⎟ versus 1/T
⎜⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
as shown in Fig. 1.9
2
The graph is a straight line, the slope of this line is proportional to p and its intercept is propor-
tional to αei . This formula leads to the determination of both the dipole moment and αei .
(b) Ionic polarization

Polarization in ionic crystals arises due to the displacement of ions from their equilibrium positions by
the force of an applied electric field.
Ionic polarization can be calculated by considering NaCl crystal. Let the masses of Na+ and
Cl ions are m and M, respectively. In the absence of an applied electric field, the Na+ and Cl− ions
−
are at equilibrium positions and the equilibrium separation between these ions is equal to r0 (say).
After application of the electric field of intensity E, on the NaCl crystal, some amount of force equal
to eE acts on each Na+ and Cl− ions in opposite directions, so that the ions get displaced by x1 and
Figure 1.9 Temperature versus dielectric constant

M Œr − 1
r Œr + 2
0 1
T
FPP Page Number: 17
x2 distances from equilibrium position. These displacements of ions produce dipole moment in the
molecules. The induced dipole moment ( p) per molecule is:
p = e (x1 + x2) ___________ (1.51)
Even though the electric field is continuously acting on the ions, the displacement between the
ions will not continuously increase because of the restoring force between the oppositely charged ions.
At equilibrium conditions the restoring force (F ) between the ions is:
F = K1x1 = K2 x2 where K1 and K2 are force constants
From the above equation, for Na+ ion of mass ‘m’,
F eE
x1 = = ___________ (1.52) [Since K1 = mω02 = force constant]
K 1 mω02
where ω0 is the natural frequency of NaCl molecule. For Cl− ion of mass ‘M ’,
F eE
x2 = = ___________ (1.53) [Since K2 = M ω02 = force constant]
K2 M ω02
From Equations (1.52) and (1.53), we have
eE ⎡1 1⎤
The total displacement (x ) = x1 + x 2 = ⎢ + ⎥ ___________ (1.54)
ω02 ⎢⎣ m M ⎥⎦
Substituting Equation (1.54) in (1.51) gives:
e2E ⎡1 1⎤
p = e ( x1 + x 2 ) = ⎢ + ⎥ ___________ (1.55)
ω02 ⎢⎣ m M ⎥⎦
This is the induced dipole moment in NaCl molecule. If N number of NaCl molecules are present
per unit volume of the crystal, then polarization P is:
Ne 2 E ⎛1 1⎞
P = Np = Nex = ⎜⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎟ ___________ (1.56)
ω02 ⎝m M ⎠
p e2 ⎛1 ⎞
The ionic polarizability, αi is αi = = 2 ⎜⎜ + 1 ⎟⎟ ___________ (1.57)
E ω0 ⎜⎝ m M ⎟⎠
Substituting the various values in the above equation, we get αi = 9.75 × 10−24 F-m2, but the
experimental value is 3.3 × 10−24 F-m2. The poor agreement between these values is that the effective
ionic charge on an ion was assumed as e, but in fact it turned out to be 0.7e.
FPP Page Number: 18
(c) Electronic polarization

Electronic polarization can be calculated by considering the atoms of a given substance. In the absence of an
applied electric field, an atom will be spherical as shown in Fig. 1.10(a). The atom consists of a point nucleus
of charge +Ze, surrounded symmetrically by an electron cloud of charge −Ze in a sphere of radius r. If an
electric field E is applied on the atom, then a force of |ZeE| acts on the nucleus in the direction of the applied
electric field and on the electron cloud in the opposite direction, so that they shift with respect to each other
by a distance ‘d ’ as shown in Fig. 1.10(b). The electron cloud is assumed to remain spherical for simplicity.
Figure 1.10 Electric polarization
r
−Ze r
3 +Ze
−Ze d3 d
+Ze r
E
(a) (b)
The distance of separation ‘d ’ between the centre of electron cloud and nucleus is such that the
restoring force on the nucleus and electron cloud is equal to the force of attraction between the nucleus
and the fraction of the charge inside the sphere of radius ‘d ’. Applying Coulomb’s law for restoring force,
⎛ d3⎞
Ze ⎜⎜⎜Ze 3 ⎟⎟⎟
1 ⎝ r ⎟⎠
F= ___________ (1.58)
4 π∈ 0 d2
This is equal to force by electric field,

F = ZeE ___________ (1.59)
Equating these forces, we have:
⎛ d3⎞
Ze ⎜⎜Ze 3 ⎟⎟⎟
1 ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
= ZeE
4 π∈ 0 d2
r 3 E × 4 π∈ 0
gives d= ___________ (1.60)
Ze
The induced dipole moment ‘pe’ is:
pe = Zed = r 3E × 4π∈0 ___________ (1.61)
The dipole moment per unit volume is polarization.
FPP Page Number: 19
If ‘N ’ number of atoms are present in unit volume of material, then electronic polarization Pe is:
Pe = Npe = N4π∈0r 3E ___________ (1.62)
and the polarizability αe is:
pe
αe = = 4 π∈ 0r 3 ___________ (1.63)
E
Using Equation (1.63), electronic polarizability can be calculated.
For monoatomic gas, Pe = N 4πε0 r 3E = ε0(εr − 1) E
Hence, we have:
εr = 1 + 4πr 3N
The value 4πr 3 N is of the order of 10–4. Hence, εr ≈ 1 for gases. In solids, εr varies from 2 to 10.
(d) Space charge (or) Interfacial polarization

This type of polarization occurs in polycrystalline or polyphase aggregates due to the differences in
conductivity of various phases as shown in Fig. 1.11. This may occur in ferrites and semiconductors. The
boundaries of multi-phases may interrupt the motion of charge carriers. By the application of electric
field some carriers may pass through these phase boundaries and reach the electrodes of opposite polar-
ity. This constitutes leakage current. The charges that are trapped at the grain or phase boundaries give
dipole moment and hence the polarization is known as space charge or interfacial polarization.
Figure 1.11 Space charge or interfacial polarization
Inter faces
Trapped Charges
FPP Page Number: 20
Formulae
1. The gradient of a scalar ‘V ’ is
(iii) ∫
D .ds = ∫ ρv dv
∂V ∂V ∂V
s v
grad V = ∇V = i + j+ k (iv) ∫
B .ds = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
s

2. The curl of a vector A over the surface ‘S’ is 8. Wave equations in free space

∫ (curl A ) ⋅ds = ∫ (∇ × A ). ds
∇2 E − με
∂2E
=0
S S
∂t 2

3. The divergence of a vector A is
∂2H
and ∇2 H − με =0
∫ ∇. A ds = ∫ A .ds ∂t 2
V S
1 ω
4. Relation between electric field intensity and 9. Velocity, v = =
με β
potential is

E = − ∇V 10. P = E×H
5. Displacement current density Np 2 E ⎫⎪

11. Pd = Np <cos θ >= ⎪⎪
⎪⎪
∂D 3K BT
JD = p <cos θ> ⎬ dipolar
∂t p2 ⎪⎪
12. αd = = ⎪⎪
E 3K BT ⎪⎪⎭
6. Maxwell’s equations in point (or) differential
e E ⎡1
2
1 ⎤⎪ ⎫
form
13. p = e [x 1 + x 2 ] = 2 ⎢ + ⎥ ⎪ ⎪
ω0 ⎣ m M ⎦ ⎪
⎢ ⎥ ⎪
∂B ⎪
⎪
(i) ∇× E = − ⎪
∂t
2
Ne E 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎪
Pi = Np = ⎢ + ⎥ ⎬ ionic
∂ D 14. ⎢
ω0 ⎣ m M ⎦
2 ⎥ ⎪
⎪
(ii) ∇× H = J − ⎪
⎪
∂t p e2 ⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎪
⎪
15. αi = = 2 ⎢ + ⎥ ⎪⎪
(iii) ∇ . D = ρv E ω0 ⎣⎢ m M ⎦⎥ ⎪
⎪
⎭

(iv) ∇ . B = 0 16. Pe = Npe = N 4 π∈ 0 r 3E
pe
7. Maxwell’s equations in integral form 17. αe = = 4 π∈ 0r 3
E

∂B
(i) ∫ E . dl = − ∫ ∂t .ds
s
∂D
(ii) ∫ H .dl = I + ∫ ∂t .ds
s
FPP Page Number: 21
Solved Problems

1. Find the divergence of the given vector D = 2x 2 y 2 z 2 i + 4 x 2 y 3 z j + 5x 3 y 2 z 2 k at a point P (3, 2, 4) .

Sol: D = 2x y z i + 4 x y z j + 5x y z k
2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2
So Dx = 2x 2 y 2z 2 , D y = 4 x 2 y 3z and Dz = 5x 3 y 2z 2
∂Dx ∂D y ∂Dz
= 4 xy 2z 2 , = 12x 2 y 2z and = 10x 3 y 2z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Dx ∂D y ∂Dz
div D = ∇ . D = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 4 xy 2z 2 + 12x 2 y 2z + 10x 3 y 2z
= 2xyz [2 yz + 6xy + 5x 2 y ]

The div D at point P (3, 2, 4) is obtained by putting x = 3, y = 2 and z = 4.

∴ Div D at (3, 2, 4) = 2 × 3 × 2 × 4[2 × 2 × 4 + 6 × 3 × 2 + 5 × 32 × 2]
= 48[16 + 36 + 80]
= 48 × 132 = 6336 C/m 3
2. A potential field is given by V = 200 (x2– y2). Find the magnitude of V, E and D at a point P (3, –2, 4).
Sol: Potential field, V = 200 [x2 – y2]
P = (3, –2, 4)
Potential, V at P = 200 ⎡⎣⎢32 − (−2)⎤⎦⎥ = 1000 V

Electric field, E = − ∇V
⎡ ∂V ∂V y ∂V ⎤
= − ⎢⎢ x i + j+ z
k ⎥⎥
⎣⎢ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦⎥
Vx = 200x 2 ; V y = −200 y 2 and Vz = 0
∂Vx ∂V y
= 400 x ; = − 400 y
∂x ∂y

∴ E = − [400 xi − 400 y j ]

E at P = −[400 × 3i − 400 × (−2) j ]

= −[1200 i + 800 j ] = −1200 i − 800 j

E = | E | = 1200 2 + 800 2 = 1440000 + 640000
= 2080000 = 1442.221 V/m
we know D = ε0 E = (8.854 × 10−12 ) × 1442.221
= 12.77 × 10−9 C / m 2 = 12.7 nC/m2
FPP Page Number: 22
In vectorial form

D = εo E = [8.854×10−12 ] [−1200 i − 800 j ]

= −10.62 i − 7.08 j nC/m 2
3. Find the frequency at which conduction current density and displacement current density are equal in a medium
with σ = 2 × 10–4 mho/m and εr = 81.
Sol: The electric conductivity, σ = 2 × 10–4 mho/m
Dielectric constant, εr = 81
The conduction current density, J = σE, where E is the intensity of the electrical field.
∴ J = 2 × 10–4 E A/m2 ___________ (1)
∂D
The displacement current density, J d =
∂t
D = εE = ε0 εr E = ε0 εr E0 sin ωt [since E = E0 sin ωt]
∂
∴ Jd = [ε0 εr E0 sin ωt ] = ε0 εr E0 ω cos ωt
∂t
= 8.854 × 10−12 × 81 × E0 ω cos ωt
= 8.854 × 10–12 × 81 × 2π f E0 cos ωt [where ω = 2π f ]
–12
= 4507.95 × 10 f E0 cos ωt
–12
= 4507.95 × 10 f E ___________ (2)
As given in the problem, that J = Jd, from Equations (1) and (2), we have
4507. 95 × 10–12 f E = 2 × 10–4 E
2 ×10−4 Hz 2
∴ f = −12
= × 108 Hz = 44366.06 Hz
4507.95×10 4507.95
4. In a certain region, the potential is given by V = x2 + 3y2 + 9z. Find the electric field intensity at point P (1, –2, 3) m.
Sol: The potential V is
V = x2 + 3y2 + 9z
The relation between field and potential is

E =−∇V
⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤ 2
So E = − ⎢ i + j + k ⎥⎥ [x + 3 y 2 + 9z ]= −[2xi + 6 y j + 9k ]
⎢ ∂x ∂ y ∂z
⎣ ⎦
E at point P (1, − 2, 3) is

E = −[2 × 1i + 6 × (−2) j + 9k ]

= − 2 i + 12 j − 9k
The magnitude of the field is

E = 2 2 + 12 2 + 9 2 = 4 + 144 + 81 = 15.13 V/m
FPP Page Number: 23

5. An electromagnetic wave having electric field E = 94.25 cos [ωt + 6z] i V/m is propagating in free space. Determine
(a) velocity of propagation, (b) frequency of the wave and (c) the wavelength.
Sol: From the phase constant, we know the wave is travelling along the negative Z-direction

(a) The phase velocity is v p =− 3 × 108 k m/s
(b) βo = 6 rad/m, so ω = βo vp = 6 × 3 × 108 = 1.8 × 109 rad/s
(c) Wavelength of the wave in free space is
2π 2π
λ0 = = = 1.047 m
β0 6
6. A plane wave with electric field of intensity equal to 1 volt/metre is travelling in free space. What is the magnitude
of magnetic field associated with it?
Sol: Electric field of intensity, E = 1 V/m
H=?
E
For free space η =
H
E 1
So H = = = 2.652 × 10−3 A /m
η 377
7. For a uniform plane wave travelling in the X-direction in free space, Ey = 10 sin [2π108t – βx]. Find the phase
constant, phase velocity and expression for Hz if Ez = 0 = Hy .
Sol: The wave is represented as
Ey = 10 sin[2π 108t – βx] _________ (1) and Ez = 0 = Hy
Find v = ?, β = ? and Hz = ?
1
Phase velocity, v = = 3×108 m /s
μ0 ε0
As the wave travels along the X-direction, Ex = 0.

It is given in the problem that Ez = 0. Hence, the electric field is in the Y-direction only.
The magnetic field, Hx = 0 because the wave travels along the X-direction. In the problem, it is given that
Hy = 0; hence, the magnetic field is in the Z-direction only.
∴ Ey = (Ey)max sin[ωt – βx] _________ (2)
Comparing Equations (1) and (2), we have
(Ey)max = 10 V/m
ω = 2πf = 2π × 108 so f = 108 Hz
The phase constant β is
ω 2 π× 108
β= = = 2.095 rad / s
v 3 × 108
The expression for H can be represented as

Hz = (Hz)max sin(ωt – βx)
The intrinsic impedance, η = 377 Ω
FPP Page Number: 24
( E y )max
∴ = 377
( H z )max
( E y )max 10
or ( H z )max = = = 0.0265 A /m
377 377
In an electromagnetic wave, the electric field and magnetic field will have the same frequency and phase.
Hence, Hz = 0.0265 sin[2π108t – βx] A/m.
8. A 10 GHz uniform plane wave travelling in free space in the X-direction has Ez = 1 V/m. Find the value of the
magnetic field and the propagation constant.
Sol: Frequency of plane wave, f = 10 GHz = 1010 Hz
For free space μ = μ0 and ε = ε0
Ez = 1 V/m, Hy = ? and γ = ?
For free space, η = 377 Ω
Ez
η= = 377 Ω
Hy
E 1
H y= z = = 2.6525×10−3 A /m
377 377
For free space

ω
α = 0 and β = = ω μ0 ε0
c
2π f 2 × 22 ×1010
α = 0 and β = ω μ0 ε0 = = = 209.5238
c 7 × 3×108
∴ γ = α + i β = 0 + i 209.5238 = 209.5238 ∠ 90°
9. The dielectric constant of He gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the electronic polarizability of He atoms if the gas
contains 2.7 × 1025 atoms per m3.
(Set-1–Sept. 2007), (Set-4–June 2005), (Set-2–May 2004), (Set-2–May 2003), (Set-4–Nov. 2003)
Sol: The dielectric constant, ∈r = 1.0000684
Number density of He atoms, N = 2.7 × 1025/m3

Electronic polarizability, αe = ?
∈ 0 (∈ r − 1)
αe =
N
8.85 × 10−12 [1.0000684 − 1]

= = 2.242 × 10−41 F–m2.
2.7 × 10 25
10. There are 1.6 × 10 20 NaCl molecules/m3 in a vapour. Determine the orientational polarization at room tempera-
ture if the vapour is subjected to a dielectric field 5000 V/Cm. Assume that the NaCl molecule consists of sodium and
chlorine ions separated by 0.25 nm.
(Set-2–June 2005)
FPP Page Number: 25
Sol: Number of NaCl molecules, N = 1.6 × 1020/m3

Room temperature, T = 300 K
Intensity of electric field, E = 5000 V/Cm = 5 × 105 V/m
Separation between ions, x = 0.25 nm = 0.25 × 10−9 m
Orientation polarization, Pd = ?
N p2 E
Pd = ; dipolemoment, p = ex
3K BT
where KB = Boltzmann constant = 1.381 × 10−23 J/K
N ( ex ) 2 E 1.6 × 10 20 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) 2 × (0.25 × 10−9 ) 2 × 5 × 10 5

∴ Pd = 3K T =
3 × 1.381 × 10−23 × 300
B
= 1.0298 × 10−11 C-m.

11. A monoatomic gas contains 3 × 10 25 atoms/m3 at 1 atmospheric pressure and at room temperature. The radius
of gaseous atoms is 0.2 nm. Find the dipole moment per unit electric field, polarization, dielectric constant and
polarizability.
Sol: Number of atoms per unit volume, N = 3 × 10 25/m3

Radius of atoms, r = 0.2 nm = 0.2 × 10−9 m
Dipole moment p = ?
Polarization, P = ?
Dielectric constant, ∈r = ?
and Polarizability, αe = ?
Dipole moment per unit electric field, p = 4π∈0r 3
22
= 4× × 8.85 × 10−12 × [0.2 × 10−19 ] 3
7
= 8.9 × 10−40 F–m2
Polarization, P = Np = 3 × 10 25 × 8.9 × 10 −40 = 26.7 × 10 −15 C-m
To find dielectric constant, ∈r:
P
=∈ r − 1
∈0E
P = ∈ 0 [∈ r − 1]E
22
3 × 10 25 × 4 × × 8.85 × 10−12 × (0.2 × 10−9 )3 = 8.85× 10−12 [∈ r − 1] × 1
7
FPP Page Number: 26
∈r − 1 = 0.00302 (or) ∈r = 1.00302
∈ 0 (∈ r − 1) 8.85 × 10−12 × 0.00302

Polarizability, αe = =
N 3 × 10 25
= 8.91 × 10−40 F–m2
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which of the following is zero ___________ ?
(a) grad div (b) curl grad (c) div grad (d) curl curl
2. The following expression is mathematically correct ___________ .
(a) div curl (b) grad div (c) curl grad (d) grad curl
3. Which of the following is not Maxwell’s equation for static electromagnetic equation in a linear homoge-
neous medium ___________ ?

(b) ∇× B = 0 (c) ∇ A = μ J (d) ∫ B.dl = μ0 I
2
(a) ∇ . B = 0 o
4. The displacement current concept has been introduced by ___________ .

(a) Faraday (b) Lenz (c) Lorentz (d) Maxwell
5. The relation between intensity of electric field and potential is ___________ .

(c) E = ∇ V (d) E = ∇ V
2 2
(b) E = −∇V
2
(a) E = ∇V
6. The unit of 1 / με is ___________ .
(a) A-m (b) m/s (c) m/s2 (d) tesla
7. If μ0 is the magnetic permeability and ε0 is electric permittivity of free space, then 1 / μ0 ε0 is equal to
___________ .
(a) 108 m/s (b) 2 × 108 m/s (c) 3 × 108 m/s (d) 4 × 108 m/s
8. The ratio between electric field and magnetic field [i.e. E/H] is ___________ .
μ ε μ
(a) (b) ε (c) (d)
ε μ μ ε
9. The Poynting vector represents the magnitude and direction of the outward ___________ flow from the
volume enclosed by the surface S.
(a) power (b) energy (c) current (d) flux
10. The magnitudes of phase velocity and wave velocity of electromagnetic waves propagating in free space are
___________ .
(a) different (b) equal
(c) phase velocity is less than wave velocity (d) phase velocity is larger than wave velocity
11. The ratio of conduction current density to displacement current density represents ___________ .
(a) dissipation factor (b) loss tangent (c) a or b (d) none of the above
FPP Page Number: 27
12. Polarization per unit applied electric field is called:

(a) electric susceptibility (b) magnetic susceptibility
(c) electric polarization (d) dielectric constant
13. In the absence of an external electric field on a dipolar substance, the electric dipoles are:
(a) parallel (b) alternatively anti-parallel
(c) randomly oriented (d) none
14. The total polarizability of a substance is equal to:
(a) orientational and ionic polarizabilities (b) ionic and electronic polarizabilities
(c) both a and b (d) none
15. The dipolar polarizability for low applied electric fields, at temperature ‘T ’ on a dipolar substance is
[KB = Boltzmann constant and p = dipole moment]
p2 3 p2
(a) (b)
3K BT K BT
p 3p
(c) (d)
3K BT 2 K BT 2
16. Dipolar polarization is actually applicable to:
(a) gases (b) liquids (c) solids (d) both a and b

17. The observed ionic polarizability of NaCl molecule is:
(a) 1.3 × 10−24 F-m2 (b) 3.3 × 10−24 F-m2

(c) 3.1 × 10−24 F-m2 (d) 5.3 × 10−24 F-m2
18. The effective ionic charge in NaCl crystal is:
(a) 1e (b) 1.3e (c) 0.7e (d) 0.5e
19. If r is the radius of an atom and ∈0 is the permittivity of free space, then electronic polarizability is:
(a) 4π∈0r 2 (b) 4π∈0r 3 (c) 4π2∈0r 3 (d) 4π∈02r 3
20. The ionic polarization ceases at ___________ frequency of the applied electric field.
(a) 1011 Hz (b) 1013 Hz (c) 1014 Hz (d) 106 Hz
21. Dipole moment is defined as the ___________ of one of the charge and separation between the charges.
(a) product (b) sum (c) ratio (d) none
22. Dipole moment per unit volume of material is called:
(a) polarization (b) polarizability
(c) both a & b (d) none
23. In the absence of an applied electric field on a dipolar substance, the polarization is:
(a) finite (b) zero
(c) high (d) all the above
24. By applying electric field on a dipolar substance, it results in ___________ polarization.
(a) electrical (b) ionic
(c) orientational (d) all the above
FPP Page Number: 28
25. The total polarizability of a substance, it is the sum of ___________ polarizabilities:

(a) dipolar (b) ionic
(c) electric (d) all the above
26. Orientational polarization is due to the ___________ of polar molecules in dielectric substance.
(a) rotation (b) change in separation
(c) both (d) none
27. The dipolar polarization ceases at ___________ frequency of applied electric field.
(a) 103 Hz (b) 106 Hz (c) 1011 Hz (d) 1014 Hz
28. The electronic polarization exists up to a frequency of ___________ .
(a) 1015 Hz (b) 1018 Hz (c) 1020 Hz (d) 1022 Hz
Answers
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. d 5. b 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. b
11. c 12. a 13. c 14. c 15. a 16. d 17. b 18. c 19. b 20. c
21. a 22. a 23. b 24. d 25. d 26. a 27. b 28. a
Review Questions
1. Write Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential forms.

2. Show that E =−∇V .
3. Starting from Maxwell’s equations, derive the equations of wave propagation in free space.
4. Derive the wave equation for a uniform plane wave propagating in free space.
5. State and prove Poynting theorem.
6. State Poynting theorem and derive Poynting vector from Maxwell’s equation.
7. Explain electronic polarization in atoms and obtain an expression for electronic polarizability in terms of
the radius of the atom.
(Set-4–May 2007), (Set-4–May 2004), (Set-3–Nov. 2004), (Set-4–May 2003)
8. What is orientational polarization? Derive an expression for the mean dipole moment when a polar mate-
rial is subjected to an external field.
(Set-1–June 2005), (Set-3–May 2004), (Set-3–May 2003)
9. Describe the possible mechanisms of polarization in a dielectric material.(Set-4–June 2005), (Set-4–Nov. 2004)
10. What is orientational polarization? Explain. Obtain an expression for the mean dipole moment when a
polar material is subjected to an external electric field.
(Set-2–Sept. 2007)
11. Describe the phenomenon of electronic polarization and obtain an expression for electronic polarization.
(Set-3–May 2008)
FPP Page Number: 29

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Project Name: Engineering Physics ACE Pro India Pvt. Ltd.

1.2 Gradient of a scalar

1-2 Engineering Physics

1.3 Curl of a vector

⎛ ∂A ∂A y ⎟⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ ∂A y ∂Ax ⎟⎞

Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-3

Figure 1.1 Surface enclosed by a closed path ‘l’

1.4 Divergence of a vector

1-4 Engineering Physics

The potential difference VAB is measured in volts.

Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-5

The potential dV can also be expressed as

Comparing Equations (1.4) and (1.5),

1.6 The displacement current

Taking divergence on both sides of Equation (1.7), we have

Taking divergence on both sides of Equation (1.10), we have

1-6 Engineering Physics

We know the continuity equation

So Equation (1.11) becomes

The above equation reduces to

So the generalized Ampere’s law is

This is one of Maxwell’s equation.

1.7 Maxwell’s equations

Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-7

The integral form of Maxwell’s equations are:

The above equations are explained below:

1.8 Electromagnetic waves in free space

1-8 Engineering Physics

Differentiating Equation (1.17) twice with respect to t, we get

Substituting Equation (1.18) in Equation (1.16), we have

This is called Helmholtz equation.

Let β2 = ω2 με; then Equation (1.21) becomes

The solution for the differential Equation (1.22) is given by

E y = C1e −i βx + C 2 e i βx _________ (1.23)

where C1 and C2 are constants.

Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-9

Also, from the wave equation, we know v = 1 / με . Hence, we write

The real part of Equation (1.26) is

using Equation (1.25).

the derivative of Equation (1.28) is

1.9 Poynting vector

1-10 Engineering Physics

The magnetic field curl equation is

So Equation (1.32) becomes

From Maxwell’s equation

Substituting Equation (1.36) in Equation (1.35)

Integrating Equation (1.35) over a volume V

Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-11

Then Equation (1.38) becomes

Equation (1.43) represents the Poynting vector.

1.10 Electromagnetic spectrum

1-12 Engineering Physics

Figure 1.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

1.11 Dielectric polarization

Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-13

Electronic polarization of an (a) atom in the absence of electric

Figure 1.5 Polarization of a dielectric in electric field (E)

1.12 Types of polarization

1-14 Engineering Physics

Figure 1.6 (a) Unpolarized atom; (b) Polarized atom

(a) Dipolar or orientational polarization

Electromagnetic Waves and Dielectrics 1-15

Figure 1.7 Torque acting on a dipole