AE.1 Lecture 1

Lecture-1
Basic Semiconductor Theory
Martha T/Giorgis
Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Applied Electronics I
ECEG-2131
2019/20 AY, Semester-I

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 1 / 40
Overview
Overview
1 Overview
2 Objective
3 History of Semiconductor
4 Atomic Structures
5 Solid-State Materials
Groups of Solid State Materials
6 Energy Band
7 Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Doped (Extrinsic) Semiconductors
p-type doped semiconductor
n-type doped semiconductor
8 Current Flow in Semiconductors
Drift Current
Diffusion Current
Relationship between D and µ
Objective
Lecture Objectives
In this lecture you will learn the following:

The basic properties of semiconductors and, in particular, silicon –
the material used to make most modern electronic circuits.
How doping a pure silicon crystal dramatically changes its
electrical conductivity – the fundamental idea in underlying the
use of semiconductors in the implementation of electronic devices.
The two mechanisms by which current flows in semiconductors –
drift and diffusion charge carriers.

History of Semiconductor
History of Semiconductor

Atomic Structures
Atomic Structures
The ultimate concern of the field Electronics is predicting and control-
ling the flow of atomic charges. As a result, understanding how atomic
structure influences the electrical properties of material is prerequisite.
Every chemical element is composed of atoms.
An atom is composed of
Nucleus- Contains positively charged particles proton and
electrically neutral neutron
Electrons- Negatively charged particles.

Atomic Structures
The following terms are used to characterize atoms.

Atomic Number It is the number of protons in nucleus.
Valence Electron It is electron in the outer most shell of an atom.
Electron Shells and Orbits In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy
bands called shells. There is energy level difference between
shells and with in shells.
Free Electron Electrons that has escaped their shells

Atomic Structures
Over the time different theory where proposed to model the atom.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Thomson’s Model
Rutherford’s Planetary Model
Bohr’s Energy Level Model
Bohr’s Energy Level Model
Energy Level Model: Electrons are arranged in circles around the
nucleus. Each circle has a different energy.
Electrons are in constant motion, travelling around the circle at
the speed of light.
Electrons can ”jump” from one circle to the next
But they can’t go to the nucleus they are travelling too fast to be
fully attracted

Atomic Structures
He proposed the following:

1 Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus
2 Electrons can only be certain distances from the nucleus.
3 The electrons orbit the nucleus at fixed energy levels.
4 The electrons must absorb or emit a fixed amount of energy to
travel between these energy levels

Solid-State Materials Groups of Solid State Materials
Solid-State Materials
Groups of Solid State Materials
Solid-state materials can be grouped into three classes;
Insulators Semiconductors Conductors
The number of free electrons in the conduction band is the key for con-
ductivity.
1 Insulator
Material that does not conduct electric current
Valence electron are tightly bound to the atom - less free electron
E.g. Rubber, Glass, Teflon, Mica, etc.
2 Conductor
Material that easily conducts electrical current.
The best conductors are single-element material (copper, silver,
gold, aluminum)
One valence electron very loosely bound to the atom - free electron
Solid-State Materials Groups of Solid State Materials
3 Semiconductor
Material between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct
electric current
In its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator
Most commonly used semiconductor ; silicon(Si) and
germanium(Ge).
Contains four valence electrons

Energy Band
Energy Band
Energy gap The difference between the energy levels of any two
orbital shells
Band Another name for an orbital shell (valence shell = valence
band)
Conduction band The band outside the valence shell.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors
Semiconductor: a material whose conductivity lies between that of

conductors (copper) and insulators (glass).
single-element: such as germanium and silicon.
compound : such as gallium-arsenide.
Valence electron: is an electron that participates in the formation of
chemical bonds.
Atoms with one or two valence electrons more than a closed shell
are highly reactive because the extra electrons are easily removed
to form positive ions.
Covalent bond: is a form of chemical bond in which two atoms share
a pair of atoms.
It is a stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between
atoms when they share electrons.

Semiconductors
Silicon Atom
four valence electrons
requires four more to
complete outermost shell
each pair of shared forms a
covalent bond
the atoms form a lattice
structure
Silicon at low temps Figure 1: Two-dimensional representation of the
silicon crystal. The circles represent the inner
all covalent bonds-are core of silicon atoms, with +4 indicating its
intact positive charge of +4q, which is neutralized by the
no electrons–are available charge of the four valence electrons. Observe how
for conduction the covalent bonds are formed by sharing of the
valence electrons. At 0K, all bonds are intact and
conductivity–is zero no free electrons are available for current
conduction.
Semiconductors
Silicon at room temps

some covalent bonds –
break, freeing an
electron and creating
hole, due to thermal
energy
some electrons – will
wander from their
parent atoms, becoming
available for conduction
Figure 2: At room temperature, some of the covalent
conductivity – is bonds are broken by thermal generation. Each broken
greater than zero bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of
which become available for current conduction.

Semiconductors Intrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductor: is one which is not doped
One example is pure silicon.
Generation: is the process of free electrons and holes being

created.
generation rate – is speed with which this occurs.
Recombination: is the process of free electrons and holes

disappearing.
recombination rate – is speed with which this occurs.

Intrinsic semiconductor: is one which is not doped
One example is pure silicon.
Generation: is the process of free electrons and holes being

created.
generation rate – is speed with which this occurs.
Recombination: is the process of free electrons and holes

disappearing.
recombination rate – is speed with which this occurs.
Generation may be effected by thermal energy. As such, both

generation and recombination rates will be (at least in part)
a function of temperature.

Thermal generation – effects equal concentration of free electrons

and holes.
Therefore, electrons move randomly throughout the material.
In thermal equilibrium, generation and recombination rates are
equal.
In thermal equilibrium, the behavior below applies. . .
−Eg /2kT
ni = |BT 3/2 e{z } (1)
equal to p and n
Where;
ni = number of free electrons and holes/unit volume
p= number of holes
B= parameter which is 7.3 ×15 cm−3 K −3/2 for silicon
n= number of free electrons
T = temperature (K)
p= number of holes
Eg = bandgap energy which is 1.12eV for silicon
k= Boltzman constant (8.62 × 10−5 eV /K)
Example (1)
Calculate the value of ni for silicon at room temperature (T ≈ 300K).

Example (1)
Calculate the value of ni for silicon at room temperature (T ≈ 300K).
Solution:
Substituting the values given above in equation-1 provides

−5 ×300)
ni = 7.3 × 1015 (300)3/2 e−1.12/(2×8.62×10
= 1.5 × 1010 carriers/cm3
Although this number seems large, to place it into context note that
silicon has 5 × 1022 atoms/cm3 .Thus at room temperature only one in
about 5 × 1012 atoms is ionized and contributing a free electron and a
hole!
Note that: the product of the hole and free-electron concentration as:
pn = n2i (2)
Question:
Why can’t thermal generation be used to effect meaningful current con-
duction?

Question:
duction?
Answer:
Silicon crystal structure described previously is not sufficiently conduc-
tive at room temperature.
Additionally, a dependence on temperature is not desirable.

Question:
duction?
Answer:
Is there any other method to substantially change the carrier concentra-

tion in a semiconductor crystal?

Question:
duction?
Answer:
Is there any other method to substantially change the carrier concentra-

tion in a semiconductor crystal?
Yes, doping.
Doping: is the intentional introduction of impurities into

an extremely pure (intrinsic) semiconductor for the purpose
of changing carrier concentrations..

Semiconductors Doped (Extrinsic) Semiconductors
Doped (Extrinsic) Semiconductors

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor
Silicon is doped with element Silicon is doped with element
having a valence of 3. having a valence of 5.
To increase the concentration To increase the concentration
of holes (p). of free electrons (n).
One example is boron, which is One example is phosphorus,
an acceptor. which is a donor.
Figure 3: p-type semiconductor. Figure 4: N-type semiconductor.

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

If the acceptor doping concentration is NA , where NA ni , the
hole concentration becomes:
pp = NA (3)
where the subscript p denotes p-type silicon.
Thus, here the majority carriers are holes and their concentration
is determined by NA .
The concentration of minority electrons can be found by using the
relationship:
pp np = n2i (4)
and substituting for pp from equation-3 :
n2i
np = (5)
NA
Thus, the concentration of the minority electrons will have the
same temperature dependence as that of n2i .
n-type extrinsic semiconductor

If the donor doping concentration is ND , where ND ni , he
concentration of free electrons in the n-type silicon will be:
nn = N D (6)
where the subscript n denotes p-type silicon.
Thus, here the majority carriers are holes and their concentration
is determined by NA .
The concentration of minority holes can be found by using the
relationship:
pn nn = n2i (7)
and substituting for Pp from equation-3 :
n2i
pn = (8)
ND
Thus, the concentration of the minority electrons will have the
same temperature dependence as that of n2i .
Note that: a piece of n-type or p-type silicon is electrically neutral.
Example (2)
Consider an n-type silicon for which the dopant concentration
ND = 1017 /cm3 . Find the electron and hole concentrations at
T = 300K.

Example (2)
Consider an n-type silicon for which the dopant concentration
ND = 1017 /cm3 . Find the electron and hole concentrations at
T = 300K.
Solution:
The concentration of the majority electrons is:

nn ≈ ND = 1017 /cm3
The concentration of the minority holes is
n2i
pn =
ND
From example-1 at T = 300K, ni = 1.5 × 1010 /cm3 . Thus,

(1.5 × 1010 /cm3 )2
pn = = 2.25 × 103 /cm3
1017 /cm3

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor
np will have the same pn will have the same

dependence on temperature as dependence on temperature as
n2i n2i
the concentration of holes (pn ) the concentration of free
will be much larger than free electrons (nn ) will be much
electrons larger than holes
holes are the majority charge electrons are the majority
carriers charge carriers
free electrons are the minority holes are the minority charge
charge carrier carrier

Current Flow in Semiconductors Drift Current
Current Flow in Semiconductors

Drift Current
When an electrical field E is established in a semiconductor

crystal, holes are accelerated in the direction of E, and free
electrons are accelerated in the direction opposite to that of E.
Figure 5: An electric field E established in a bar of silicon causes the holes to drift
in the direction of E and the free electrons to drift in the opposite direction. Both the
hole and electron drift currents are in the direction of E.

The holes acquire a velocity vp−drif t given by:
vp−drif t = µp E (9)
where; µp is a constant called the hole mobility: It represents the

degree of ease by which holes move through the silicon crystal in
response to the electrical field E.
For intrinsic silicon µp = 480cm2 /V s.
The free electrons acquire a velocity vn−drif t given by:
vn−drif t = −µn E (10)
where; µn is a constant called the electron mobility.

Here the result is negative because the electrons move in the
direction opposite to E. .
For intrinsic silicon µn = 1350cm2 /V s.
Note that: µn is about 2.5 times µp , signifying that electrons move with
much greater ease through the silicon crystal than do holes.
Let the concentration of holes be p and that of free electrons n.

Consider a plane perpendicular to the x-direction of the silicon bar
shown in figure-5.
In one second, the hole charge that crosses that plane will be
Ip = Aqpvp−drif t (11)
Where;
A = the cross-sectional area of the silicon bar
q = the magnitude of electron charge (1.602 × 10−19 C)
Substituting vp−drif t from equation-9, we obtain
Ip = Aqpµp E (12)
We are usually interested in the current density, Jp , which is the
current per unit cross sectional area,
Ip
Jp = = qpµp E (13)
A
Similarly, the current component due to the drift of free electrons

is
In = −Aqnvn−drif t = −Aqnµn E (14a)

In
Jn = = qnµn E (14b)
A
The negative sign in equation-14a is because of electrons drifting
from right to left which result in a current component from left to
right.
The total drift current density can now be found by summing Jp
and Jn from equations-13 and (-14b)
J = Jp + Jn = q(pµp + nµn )E (15)
This relationship can be written as

E
J = σE = (16)
ρ
E
J = σE =
ρ
where the conductivity, σ, is given by
σ = q(pµp + nµn ) (17)
and the resistivity, ρ, is given by

1 1
ρ≡ = (18)
σ q(pµp + nµn )
Observe that equation-16 is a form of Ohm’s law and can be

written alternately as
E
ρ= (19)
J
V /cm
Thus the units of ρ are obtained from: = Ω · cm
A/cm2
Example (3)
Find the resistivity of (a) intrinsic silicon and (b) p-type silicon with
NA = 1016 /cm3 . Use ni = 1.5 × 1010 /cm3 , and assume that for
intrinsic silicon µn = 1350cm2 /V.s and µp = 480cm2 /V.s, and for the
doped silicon µn = 1110 cm2 /V.s and µp = 400cm2 /V.s.

Example (3)
Find the resistivity of (a) intrinsic silicon and (b) p-type silicon with
NA = 1016 /cm3 . Use ni = 1.5 × 1010 /cm3 , and assume that for
intrinsic silicon µn = 1350cm2 /V.s and µp = 480cm2 /V.s, and for the
doped silicon µn = 1110 cm2 /V.s and µp = 400cm2 /V.s.
Solution:
a) For intrinsic silicon,
p = n = ni = 1.5 × 1010 /cm3
Thus,
1
ρ =
q(pµp + nµn )
1
=
1.6 × 10−19 (1.5
× 1010 × 480 + 1.5 × 1010 × 1350)
5
= 2.28 × 10 Ω.cm
Example (3)
Solution:
b) For the p-type silicon,
pp ' NA = 1016 /cm3

n2i (1.5 × 1010 /cm3 )2
np ' = = 2.25 × 104 /cm3
NA 1016 /cm3
Thus
1
ρ =
q(pµp + nµn )
1
=
1.6 × 10−19 (1016 × 400 + 2.25 × 104 × 1110)
= 1.56 Ω.cm
Observe that the resistivity of the p-type silicon is determined almost entirely by the
doping concentration. Also observe that doping the silicon reduces its resistivity by a
factor of about 104 , a truly remarkable change.
NOTE!
For intrinsic semiconductor: number of free electrons is ni

and number of holes is pi ; ni = pi
For p-type doped semiconductor: number of free electrons is np
and number of holes is pp
For n-type doped semiconductor: number of free electrons is
nn and number of holes is pn
What are p and n?
Generic descriptions of free electrons and holes.

Current Flow in Semiconductors Diffusion Current
Diffusion Current
Carrier Diffusion: is the flow of charge carriers from area of

high concentration to low concentration.
It requires non-uniform distribution of carriers.
Diffusion Current: is the current flow that results from
diffusion.

Take the following example

inject holes: By some
unspecified process, one
injects holes in to the left
side of a silicon bar.
concentration profile arises:
Because of this continuous
hole inject, a concentration
profile arises. Figure 6: A bar of silicon (a) into which
diffusion occurs: Because of holes are injected, thus creating the hole
this concentration gradient, concentration profile along the x axis, shown
holes will flow from left to in (b). The holes diffuse in the positive
right. direction of x and give rise to a hole-diffusion
current in the same direction. Note that we
are not showing the circuit to which the
silicon bar is connected.
The magnitude of the current at any point is proportional to the slope of the
concentration profile, or the concentration gradient, at that point,
dp(x)
Jpdif f = −qDp (20)
dx
Where;
Jpdif f = is the hole-current density (A/cm2 )
q= the magnitude of electron charge,
Dp = a constant called the diffusion constant or diffusivity
of holes
p(x) = the hole concentration at point x
Note that the gradient (dp/dx) is negative, resulting in a positive

current in the x direction, as should be expected.

In the case of electron diffusion resulting from an electron

concentration gradient, a similar relationship applies, giving the
electron-current density,
dn(x)
Jndif f = qDn (21)
dx
Where;
Dn = diffusion constant or diffusivity of electrons
Note that a negative (dn/dx) gives rise to a negative current, a

result of the convention that the positive direction of current is
taken to be that of the flow of positive charge
For holes and electrons diffusing in intrinsic silicon, typical values
for the diffusion constants are Dp = 12cm2 /s and Dn = 35cm2 /s.

Example (4)
Consider a bar of silicon in which a hole concentration profile described
by:
p(x) = po e−x/Lp
is established. Find the hole-current density at x = 0. Let
po = 1016 /cm3 , Lp = 1µm, and Dp = 12cm2 /s. If the cross-sectional
area of the bar is 100µm2 , find the current Ipdif f .

Example (4)
Consider a bar of silicon in which a hole concentration profile described
by:
p(x) = po e−x/Lp
is established. Find the hole-current density at x = 0. Let
po = 1016 /cm3 , Lp = 1µm, and Dp = 12cm2 /s. If the cross-sectional
area of the bar is 100µm2 , find the current Ipdif f .
Solution:
dp(x)
Jpdif f = −qDp
dx
d h −x/Lp i Dp
= −qDp po e =q po e−x/Lp
dx Lp
Then, Dp
Jpdif f (0)= q po
Lp

Example (4)
Substituting the values we obtain:
23
Jpdif f (0)= 1.6 × 10−19 × × 1016
1 × 10−4
= 192 A/cm2
The current Ipdif f can be found from:
Ipdif f = Jpdif f × A
= 192 × 100 × 10−8
= 192 µA

Current Flow in Semiconductors Relationship between D and µ
Relationship between D and µ
A simple but powerful relationship ties the diffusion constant with

the mobility,
Dn Dp
= = VT (22)
µn µp
Where;
kT
VT =
q
The parameter VT is known as the thermal voltage.
At room temperature, T ' 300K, VT = 25.9mV .
The relationship in equation-22 is known as the Einstein
relationship.

Example (5)
Use the Einstein relationship to find Dn and Dp for intrinsic silicon
using µn = 1350cm2 /V.s and µp = 480cm2 /V.s.

Example (5)
Use the Einstein relationship to find Dn and Dp for intrinsic silicon
using µn = 1350cm2 /V.s and µp = 480cm2 /V.s.
Solution:
Using equation-22, we obtain,
Dn = µn VT
= 1350 cm2 × 25.9 mV
= 35cm2 /s
Similarly;
Dp = µp VT
= 480 cm2 × 25.9 mV
= 12.4cm2 /s

Questions?

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Lecture-1

Basic Semiconductor Theory

Addis Ababa University

2019/20 AY, Semester-I

In this lecture you will learn the following:

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 3 / 40

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 4 / 40

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 5 / 40

The following terms are used to characterize atoms.

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 6 / 40

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 7 / 40

He proposed the following:

2 Electrons can only be certain distances from the nucleus.

3 The electrons orbit the nucleus at fixed energy levels.

4 The electrons must absorb or emit a fixed amount of energy to

travel between these energy levels

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 8 / 40

Solid-state materials can be grouped into three classes;

Insulators Semiconductors Conductors

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Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 11 / 40

Semiconductor: a material whose conductivity lies between that of

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Silicon at room temps

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 14 / 40

Generation: is the process of free electrons and holes being

Recombination: is the process of free electrons and holes

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 15 / 40

Generation: is the process of free electrons and holes being

Recombination: is the process of free electrons and holes

Generation may be effected by thermal energy. As such, both

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 15 / 40

Thermal generation – effects equal concentration of free electrons

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 17 / 40

Substituting the values given above in equation-1 provides

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Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 18 / 40

Is there any other method to substantially change the carrier concentra-

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 18 / 40

Is there any other method to substantially change the carrier concentra-

Doping: is the intentional introduction of impurities into

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 18 / 40

Doped (Extrinsic) Semiconductors

Figure 3: p-type semiconductor. Figure 4: N-type semiconductor.

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

n-type extrinsic semiconductor

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 22 / 40

The concentration of the majority electrons is:

From example-1 at T = 300K, ni = 1.5 × 1010 /cm3 . Thus,

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 22 / 40

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

np will have the same pn will have the same

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Current Flow in Semiconductors

When an electrical field E is established in a semiconductor

Martha T/Giorgis (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-1 2019/20 AY, Semester-I 24 / 40

The holes acquire a velocity vp−drif t given by:

where; µp is a constant called the hole mobility: It represents the

vn−drif t = −µn E (10)

where; µn is a constant called the electron mobility.

Let the concentration of holes be p and that of free electrons n.

Similarly, the current component due to the drift of free electrons