UNIT TWO CNC PROGRAMMING 667
BLOCK #170
N170 M03 S550
Spindle start with clockwise rotation at a speed of
550 rpm.
The remaining blocks are essentially repeats using G81
for drilling with a new speed and feed rate for the material
being machined. At the completion of the program, the tool
is returned to a reference point. The miscellaneous func-
tion command M30 appears by itself as the last block of the
program.
Linear Interpolation
Modes for CNC Milling
Drilling is a point-to-point operation. The tool needs only
to be positioned as quickly and as efficiently as possible to a
point where a machining operation is to be done. The path
that the tool takes to get to the hole location is not particularly
important. Milling, on the other hand, requires the cutting
tool to follow a specific path from point to point. This may be
a straight line, an angle, an arc, a circle, or a multidimensional
contour.
Interpolation is a term from mathematics that refers
to the establishment of a set of “best-fit” reference points
on a path between two established reference points. One
of the greatest capabilities of a CNC machine tool is its
ability to perform continuous path milling. Tool paths
may be in a straight line along any axis, at an angle to
any axis or axes, along an arc (circular) path, or in a mul-
tiaxis three-dimensional contour. To do this, the CNC
control must be able to look at a programmed tool path
from point A to point B, then be able to calculate a mul-
tiaxes move. This is called interpolation. In CNC pro-
gramming several common interpolation modes are used.
These modes include linear interpolation, circular inter-
polation, and helical interpolation. Parabolic and cubic
interpolations are also used for multidimensional contour
milling requirements.
Linear Interpolation Linear interpolation is invoked
by the preparatory function command G01 and is used for
straight-line milling either along any axis or at any angle to
any axis.
The next program example will be used to cut a 4-in.
square step (see Figure M-33) around a 4.50-in square alu-
minum plate.
The job will be done on a vertical spindle machin-
ing center. The program is developed in the general Fanuc
CNC code format. Remember that in the actual input, words
wouldn’t need to have spaces between them. At the end of
each block the EOB key or Enter key must be pressed.
O00030
The first block is the program number.
N10 G90 G20 G80 G40
N10 is the block or sequence number.
G90 Establishes absolute positioning mode
G20 G20 designates inch input
G80 Cancels canned cycles
G40 Cancels tool radius compensation
Figure M-33 Milling example.
668 SECTION M COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL AND OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES
This standard “insurance block,” because it ensures that
certain modal computer modes are canceled before begin-
ning a new program run. This adds a degree of safety and
prevents the numerical control computer from executing a
modal command that may still be resident in memory from
a previous program.
BLOCK #20
N20 M06 T1
The M06 tool change command performs an auto-
matic tool change. The T1 command tells the automatic tool
changer to pick tool number 1. In this case, tool number 1 is
a .500 in.-diameter end milling cutter.
BLOCK #30
N30 G00 G54 X0.0 Y-1.0 M08
The G00 establishes rapid traverse positioning.
Rapid traverse is used only to position the tool to a loca-
tion. The G54 activates the workpiece coordinate setting.
The work coordinates setting informs the control where
the part is located on the table. The lower left corner of
the part is the absolute X and Y zero point for this part
(Figure M-33).
The tool rapidly positions to the absolute workpiece
coordinates of X0.0 and Y-1.0. This position is off of
the part. You don’t want to plunge down onto the part.
The M08 starts the coolant. The position coordinates
are to the center of the cutter, therefore, to compensate
for the radius of the cutter the position will have to be
adjusted otherwise the finish part size would be reduced
by the amount of the cutter radius. Cutter radius com-
pensation will be covered later in this section. Cutter
radius compensation allows the programmer to program
the exact part shape.
BLOCK #40
N40 G43 H01
A G43 activates a Z tool length offset. The H01 is the
particular height offset for tool 1.
BLOCK #50
N50 M03 S1600
Spindle start with clockwise rotation at a speed of 1600
rpm.
BLOCK #60
N60 G00 Z0.1
Rapid traverse position mode positions the tool to a
clearance point .10 in. above the top of the part.
BLOCK #70
N70 G01 Z-.250 F5.0
Modal G01 command invokes a linear interpolation
command. In block, N70 the tool feeds down to depth at a
feed rate of 5 inches per minute.
BLOCK #80
N80 G01 Y4.50 F10.0
In block N80, the modal G01 command invokes a lin-
ear interpolation command and feeds the tool to point 2. The
modal feed rate that was active in block N70 has been changed
to a feed rate of 10 inches per minute. The G01 command is
modal and will remain in effect until rapid traverse or another
interpolation mode is invoked. It was repeated in this line only
for clarity. The tool is fed around the part in a clockwise direc-
tion. This was done to perform climb milling. In CNC milling,
it is considered best to climb mill. Unlike a conventional milling
machine, the CNC’s ball screws will permit climb milling with
no backlash problems. Climb milling will produce a better sur-
face finish and possibly better dimensional control of the part.
BLOCK #90
N90 X4.5
In N90, once again, the G01 modal command executes
another linear interpolation to point 3. Because the G90
absolute positioning mode is invoked, it is not necessary to
program the Y word address because the Y coordinate posi-
tion is the same as position 2.
BLOCK #100
N100 Y0.0
In N100, the G01 modal command executes another
linear interpolation to point 5.
BLOCK #110
N110 X-1.0
In N110, the G01 modal command executes another
linear interpolation to point 5. Point 5 is off the part. Feed-
ing the tool off of the part will ensure that no tool marks will
be left on the finished part.
N120 Z.10
In N120, the tool feeds up to a Z-axis clearance position.
As you become a more experienced programmer a rapid
move to a clearance position might be more appropriate.
BLOCK #130
N130 G28
On line N130, the machine returns to a reference point.
Some CNC machines may require additional coordinate
 UNIT TWO CNC PROGRAMMING 669

4.00''

t
cu
of
ction
Angular re
Di
interpolated
tool path

Y Axis 3.000
3.00'' 4.00''

X Axis

4.000
Cutter
Nxx G01 X 4.000 Y 3.000

Figure M-34 Milling at an angle using linear interpolation

requires simultaneous motion in two or more axes. .50''
.25''

entries. On most machines the reference point is a machine Figure M-35 Workpiece drawing of the hexagonal boss angular
home position. The home position of the machine is nor- linear interpolation program.
mally at the furthest extent of machine travels.

M30 mathematics to calculate the tool motions required. A skilled

The miscellaneous function command M30 resets the
program back to the beginning. M30 always appears by itself
as the last block of the program.
Angular Linear Interpolations Angular milling is also
done in the G01 linear interpolation mode. Two or more axes
are programmed simultaneously to generate the required an-
gular tool path. Figure M-34 shows an example of an angular
path being milled in the X–Y plane by the following codes.
Nxx G90 G01 Z−.350 F10.0
The cutting tool feeds into the work at 10 ipm to the
required depth using G01 linear interpolation.
Nxx X4.000 Y3.000
G01 is modal and remains in effect from the previous
block. The simultaneous programming of the X and Y axes
permits the computer to generate the angular linear interpo-
lated tool path as shown.
Nxx G00 Z.350
At the end of the cut, G00 rapid is invoked, and the cut-
ter is withdrawn from the work.
Basic Angular Linear Interpolation Program This
example consists of a hexagonal boss milled on a plate
(Figure M-35). A job of this type may require some
programmer will be able to use trigonometry or use a CNC
programming system to generate the required code. Only
the portion of the program used to mill the hexagon outline
is shown. Other linear interpolation cuts will be needed to
mill off the material outside the hexagon feature.
Keep in mind that when cutting any geometric shape
inside or outside, the final dimension of the shape will be
smaller or larger by one diameter of the cutter, because an
amount equal to the cutter radius will be removed from each
side of the feature. Therefore, the cutter radius must be com-
pensated for when the positioning moves are programmed.
Cutter compensation can be programmed by the appro-
priate G codes. The advantage in using cutter radius com-
pensation is that drawing dimensions may be used directly
without the need to recalculate dimensions. For the purpose
of this example, cutter radius compensation will not be used.
This topic will be discussed in more detail later in this unit.
In this example, cutter radius is compensated for by
expanding the dimension of the hexagonal feature an amount
equal to the cutter diameter plus the .020-in. finish allow-
ance. The distance across the flats then becomes 3.540 in.,
allowing for a .250-in. cutter radius all around and .020-in.
finish allowance on all sides.
The other important consideration in milling regular
polygons is getting around the corners properly. In each lin-
ear interpolation move, the cutter must travel far enough so
that it is tangent to the projected angle line of the next surface.
The tool motions for climb milling the shape are illustrated in
Figure M-36. The illustration also shows the cutter overtravel
required to arrive at the tangent positions so as to be properly
aligned for the next angular interpolation motion.
670 SECTION M COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL AND OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

Figure M-36 The angular linear Point Point Cutter Surface projection
interpolated tool path around the 2 3
hexagonal boss, illustrating how to
move the cutter around the corners
properly.
Hex
corner
Point Point
1 4
Tangent
points
Cut
direction
Point Tangent
5 points
Surface
Hex projection
Entry Cutter corner
point

Centerline
of tool path

BLOCK #10 BLOCK #20

N10 G91 G01 Z−.350 F10.0 (spindle is already running) N20 X1.0129 Y1.770

The tool has been positioned .100 over the entry point G01 linear interpolation moves the cutter to point 2.
and is plunged into the work to the required depth. The The X-axis motion is now positive. The Y-axis motion
Z-.350 command moves the tool down the .100 it is above remains positive.
the work and the .250 part thickness. G91 invokes incre-
mental positioning mode. BLOCK #30
N30 X2.0438

BLOCK #20 Modal G01 takes the cutter to point 3.

N20 X–1.0219 Y1.770
BLOCK #40
In this linear interpolation sequence, G01 and the feed N40 X1.0219 Y–1.770
rate is modal from the previous block. The move takes
the cutter to point 1 (Figure M-36). The dimensions pro- Modal G01 takes the cutter to point 4.
grammed are based on the part dimensions and the offset
due to the radius of the cutter. BLOCK #50
Because cutter radius compensation is not used, the
N50 X–1.0129 Y–1.770
tool path must be programmed to compensate for the cut-
ter radius. The finished dimension across the hex flats is Modal G01 takes the cutter to point 5.
3 in. The hex will be milled .020 in. oversized on all sides to
allow for a second finish pass. Because a .500-in.-diameter BLOCK #60
end mill will be used without cutter radius compensation,
the cutter paths must be planned to compensate for finish N60 X–2.0438
allowance and cutter radius. Adding .020 in. on all sides and
compensating for a cutter radius of .250 in. creates a new Modal G01 takes the cutter back to point of entry.
rough cut hex dimension of 3.540 in. across the flats. From
the center of the hexagon to the center of the cutter, mea- BLOCK #70
sured on the Y axis, is calculated to be 1.770 in. Calculations N70 X.0115 Y.020
must be made to determine the amount of -X@axis travel to
generate the required 30-degree angle of the hex flat to the Modal G01 moves the cutter in for the final pass. This
Y axis. This amount is 1.0291 in. move must be done correctly if the final dimensions are to
 UNIT TWO CNC PROGRAMMING 671

be achieved. For the cutter to be positioned correctly, it must
move inward toward the center of the hexagon along a radial
line passing through the corner of the hex and the part center.
This requires a move in both the X and Y axes (Figure M-37).
The illustration shows an overview of the cutter position
for roughing and for finishing. Note how the cutter must
move in so that it is tangent to the projected surfaces of the
finished hexagon. Figure M-38 shows a detail of the tool
motion. For the cutter to be correctly positioned and tangent
to the projected surfaces of the finished hex feature, a small
X-axis motion of .0115 in. is required along with the .020
in on the Y axis. This angular interpolation motion moves
the cutter in along a radial line extending through the center
of the hex boss. The illustration shows the cutter centerline
locations for both the roughing and finishing cuts. You can
see that a Y-axis move of only .020 in. will not position the
cutter correctly for the finish cut. The X-axis motion is also
required to keep the cutter centerline on the radial projec-
tion line to the center of the hex boss. The amount of X-axis
motion is calculated trigonometrically based on the .020-in.
final machining allowance and the angle along which the
cutter most move toward the center of the feature.
The rest of the program would remove the .020-in. fin-
ish allowance from the sides of the hexagon and machine
the final dimension across the flats. A new hex dimension of
3.500 would be used to compensate for the cutter radius of
.250 in. This will also necessitate new X and Y dimensions to
be calculated, because this final shape is smaller. We will not
examine the finish portion of the program. The axis motions
would be the same as for the roughing cuts. Final linear

Figure M-37 Overview of the

roughing and finishing cuts around
the hex boss showing the tool
Finish path inward toward the hex center
en e
ter

cut line
he l lin

for the final cut.

to adia
xc

Rough
R

Hex
cut line corner

Tangent
Cutter at point
start of finish cut

Cutter at Tangent
start of rough cut point .020 in.
finish cut
allowance

Hex
Cutter in corner Figure M-38 Detail showing the
finishing
position Finish cut line X-axis motion required to position
Y Axis the cutter properly for the finish
Rough cut line cut.

Centerline
of cutter at
finish cut entry

Centerline
of cutter at
rough cut entry Y=.020

X=.0115
X Axis

Cutter in
rough position
672 SECTION M COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL AND OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES
interpolation blocks would mill the remaining material to
machine to part to the finish dimensions.
Keep in mind that there are always many ways to
accomplish almost any CNC machining task. The preceding
program examples are intended to familiarize you with the
use of some simple programming codes and common inter-
polation modes. When programming, always look for the
most efficient tool paths and optimum feeds and speeds to
fully realize the productivity of the CNC machine tool.
Cutter Radius Compensation CNC programming for
milling and drilling is always based on the center of the cutting
tool. Because every cutter has a certain diameter and radius, it
should be apparent that the outside dimensions of the work-
piece will be reduced by the amount of the cutter radius. When
an inside feature is machined, the workpiece dimensions will
be increased by the cutter radius. This will necessitate that the
programmer manually correct the tool path to compensate for
the cutter radius. The CNC control can do the offsets for us.
By invoking cutter radius compensation using G41 and G42
codes, a part may be programmed using the actual drawing
dimensions. The amount of cutter compensation is determined
by the D word address, and this information is contained in the
cutter radius compensation offset file.
The direction of radius compensation is determined
by observing the tool path direction in the first sequence as
the cutter approaches the workpiece (Figure M-39). G41 is
radius compensation to the left side of the tool path. G42
is radius compensation to the right side of the tool path.
Another advantage of cutter radius compensation is that
the cutter radius dimension may be intentionally pro-
grammed larger or smaller than it actually is. This will leave
a finish machining allowance. After the roughing cut, a new
Workpiece
Uncompensated
cutter path
G41 left cutter G42 right cutter
compensation compensation
Cutter approach Cutter approach
path, left side path, right side
Cutter
Start position
Figure M-39 G41 and G42 milling cutter radius compensation
left and right is invoked as the cutter approaches the
workpiece.
compensation dimension may be invoked and the part fin-
ish machined to the drawing specifications. Cutter radius
compensation is canceled by the G40 command, which may
appear in the initial insurance block of the program.
Circular Interpolation
Up to this point, we only looked at straight-line moves. If
a CNC machine was only capable of straight-line moves,
it would be very limited. One of the most important fea-
tures of a CNC machine is the ability to do circular cutting
motions. CNC machines are capable of cutting an arc of any
specified radius. Arc or radius cutting is known as circular
interpolation. Circular interpolation is carried out with a
G02 or G03 code.
Programming Circular Moves
There are two basic methods used to program circular moves:
IJ and radius.
Programming Circular Interpolation
Using the IJ Method
When we start cutting an arc, the tool is already positioned
at the start point of the arc (see Figure M-40). First, we need
to tell the direction of the arc. Is it a clockwise (G02) or coun-
terclockwise (G03) arc? The second piece of information the
control needs is the end point of the arc. The last piece of
information is the location of the center of the arc.
Arc Direction (G02, G03) Circular interpolation can be
carried out in two directions, clockwise and counterclock-
wise. There are two G-codes that specify arc direction (see
Figure M-40). The G02 code is used for circular interpola-
tion in a clockwise direction. The G03 code is used for cir-
cular interpolation in a counter-clockwise direction. Both
G02 and G03 codes are modal and also use a feed rate (F)
code, just like a G01.
Arc Start Point The arc start point is the coordi-
nate location where the arc starts. The tool is moved to
the arc start point in the line prior to the arc generation
line. Simply stated, the start point of the arc is the point
where the machine is positioned as it starts to cut the arc
(see Figure M-41).
Arc End Point
The arc end point is the coordinate position for the end point
of the arc. The arc start point and arc end point set up the tool
path, which is generated according to the arc center position
(see Figure M-42).
Arc Center Points
To generate an arc path, the controller has to know where
the center of the arc is. When using the IJ method, a par-
ticular problem arises. How do we describe the position of

Figure M-41 Arc start point, end-point, and centerpoint
location.
Figure M-42 The centerpoint of the arc is the incremental
distance from the start point position to the arc center position.
the arc center? If we use X, Y, Z coordinate position words
to describe the end point of the arc, how will the control-
ler discriminate between the end point coordinates and the
arc center coordinates? The answer is that we use different
letters to describe the same axes. Secondary axes addresses
are used to designate arc centerpoints. The secondary axes
addresses for the axes are:
I = X axis coordinate of an arc centerpoint
J = Y axis coordinate of an arc centerpoint
K = Z axis coordinate of an arc centerpoint
Because we will be cutting an arc in only two axes direc-
tions, only two of three secondary addresses will be used to
generate an arc. When cutting arcs in the X–Y axes, the IJ
UNIT TWO CNC PROGRAMMING 673
Figure M-40 The critical pieces of
information needed to cut an arc
are the arc start point, arc direction,
arc end point, and arc centerpoint
location.
Figure M-43 Absolute method of defining the centerpoint of the arc.
letter addresses will be used. If we were cutting an arc on
a turning center, the X–Z axes would be the primary axes,
and the IK letter addresses would be used to describe the arc
centerpoint.
The type of controller you are using dictates how these
secondary axes are located. With most controllers, such as
the Fanuc controller, the arc centerpoint position can be
described as the incremental distance from the arc start
point to the arc center (see Figure M-42).
On some controls, the arc centerpoint position can be
described as the absolute location of the arc centerpoint
from the workpiece zero point (see Figure M-43).
If the arc centerpoint is located below or to the left of
the start point, a negative sign (−) must precede the coor-
dinate dimension (see Figure M-44). In the example on the
right of Figure M-44 the arc centerpoint is below the start
point and also to the left of the start point. Note the I value
is −.435. This means that the arc center is −.435 in the
x direction from the start point. The J value is −1.952 in
the Y direction. This means that the arc center is −1.952
in the Y direction from the start point. This can be
confusing. Please study the example until you thoroughly
understand it.
Remember that the I and J values are normally incre-
mental. The I and J values must be the incremental distance
and direction. The direction is shown by the plus or minus
sign. Also remember that the distance and direction is taken
from the start of the arc to the center of the arc.
674 SECTION M COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL AND OTHER ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

Figure M-44 Incremental method

of specifying arc centerpoint.

Circular Interpolation Using Figure M-48 shows an arc that is less than 180 degrees.
the Radius Method The code to machine this arc would be G02 X2.0625 Yl.0625
R-2.5. G02 means that it is a clockwise arc. The X value is the
Circular interpolation can also be programmed using the distance in the X axis from the start point to the end point.
radius value. The general format is G02 (or G03) X Y R. Note that it is positive in this example. The Y value is the
Figure M-45 shows an example of a circular cut using the distance from the start point to the end point in the Y direc-
radius method. The code for this cut would be G02 X8.250 Y tion. Note that it is positive in this example. The R value is
4.250 Rl0.0. The G02 means that it will be a clockwise circular the value of the radius of the arc. Note that it must be nega-
cut. The X value is 8.250 in. (incremental value) from the start tive in this example because the arc is less than 180 degrees.
point to the end point in the X direction. The Y value is 8.250 in. The radius method cannot be used to program a full
(incremental value) from the start point to the end point in circle. The IJ method should be used for full circles.
the Y direction. The R value is the length of the radius value.
In this example, it is a plus 10.0 in.
Study Figure M-46. Note that there are two potential
Parabolic and Cubic Interpolations
arcs with the same start point and same end point. Note also These advanced interpolation modes are usually used to cre-
that there are two possible centerpoints. One arc is greater ate three-dimensional shapes such as those used on forming
than 180 degrees and the second one is less than 180 degrees. dies for automobile parts.
We tell the controller which one to use by giving the radius
value a plus or minus sign.
Figure M-47 shows an arc that is more than 180 degrees.
The code to machine this arc would be G02 X2.0625 Yl.0625
R2.5. G02 means that it is a clockwise arc. The X value is the
distance in the X axis from the start point to the end point.
Note that it is positive in this example. The Y value is the dis-
tance from the start point to the end point in the Y direc-
tion. Note that it is positive in this example. The R value is
the value of the radius of the arc. Note that it must be positive
in this example because the arc is more than 180 degrees.

Figure M-46 Specifying which arc to machine.

Figure M-45 When using absolute centerpoint positioning, the

centerpoint is the coordinate position from the part zero. Figure M-47 Arc of more than 180 degrees.

Figure M-48 Arc of less than 180 degrees.
Tapping
Tapping is another extremely useful capability of the CNC
machine tool, especially on the machining center (Figure
M-49). Tapping, like drilling, is a canned cycle invoked by a
G84 code. During the cycle, the tap goes to depth, and then
the spindle reverses and the tap is withdrawn. G84 is a modal
command, so it is important to turn it off with G80 where the
cycle is not to be executed, such as over a point where there is
no drilled hole to be tapped.
It is recommended that a .50 in. offset above the top of
the workpiece be used when tapping. Increasing the offset to
.50 in. ensures that the tap will screw completely out of the
hole as it retracts. Some CNC’s use a special spring-loaded
or floating tool holder for tapping. This tool holder allows
the tap to pull out ahead of the Z-axis down feed so that the
spindle is not crushing down on the tap as it feeds. The feed
Figure M-49 Tapping on the CNC vertical spindle machining
center (Courtesy of Haas Automation, Inc.).
UNIT TWO CNC PROGRAMMING 675
rate for tapping with a floating tool holder is programmed
10 percent short of the tap lead by the formula
spindle rpm
Feed rate in ipm = * .9
threads per inch
The spindle speed will be controlled by several factors, includ-
ing the type of tap, the material being tapped, and the depth
of the tapped hole. Gun taps and spiral point types that lift
chips from the hole are recommended (Figure M-50). Some
types of CNC tapping may be able to usethread-forming taps
(Figure M-51). This type of tap has no flutes and produces no
chips.
A tapping sequence for a .375-16 UNC tap at 300 rpm
might look like this:
Nxx M03 S300
Nxx G84 Z−1.125 F18.75
The -Z depth is the distance from the end of the tap
at the .500-in. offset level to the point where the tap is to be
reversed near the bottom of the hole. It is important to drill
the tap drill hole to the correct depth and to program the
tap depth so that the tap will not bottom out and break. The
feed rate is calculated by the formula noted earlier. Tapping
rpm will be determined by the material being tapped, the
type of tap used, and the depth of the tapped hole.
Feed rate = 300 rpm>16 tpi = 18.75 ipm * .9 = 16.875 ipm
Recommended tapping speeds in surface feet per min-
ute are shown in Figure M-52. Surface feet per minute rates
from the figure have to be expressed in terms of tool rpm.
Figure M-50 Spiral pointed taps will push chips ahead of the
tap in through holes. For blind holes, the spiral fluted taps will lift
chips from the hole (Kennametal, Inc.).
Figure M-51 The thread-forming or fluteless tap produces no
chips, eliminating chip disposal problems. This type of tap is
suitable for tapping ductile materials (Kennametal, Inc.).