LANGUAGE REGISTERS AND VARIETIES
language of a biology research lab, of a news report, or of the
Register (Wikipedia)
In sociolinguistics, a register is a variety of language used
for a particular purpose or in a particular communicative
situation. For example, when speaking officially or in a public
setting, an English speaker may be more likely to follow
prescriptive norms for formal usage than in a casual setting, for
example, by pronouncing words ending in -ing with a velar nasal
instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g., "walking" rather than
"walkin'"), choosing words that are considered more "formal"
(such as father vs. dad or child vs. kid), and refraining from
using words considered nonstandard, such as ain't.
As with other types of language variation, there tends to
be a spectrum of registers rather than a discrete set of obviously
distinct varieties—numerous registers can be identified, with no
clear boundaries between them. Discourse categorization is a
complex problem, and even in the general definition of "register"
given above (language variation defined by use rather than
user), there are cases where other kinds of language variation,
such as regional or age dialect, overlap. Due to this complexity,
scholarly consensus has not been reached for the definitions of
terms such as "register", "field", or "tenor"; different scholars'
definitions of these terms are often in direct contradiction of
each other.
The term register was first used by the linguist T.B.W.
Reid in 1956 (Agha, 2008), and brought into general currency in
the 1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to distinguish
among variations in language according to the user (defined by
variables such as social background, geography, sex and age),
and variations according to use, "in the sense that each speaker
has a range of varieties and choices between them at different
times" (Halliday et al., 1964). The focus is on the way language
is used in particular situations, such as legalese or motherese,
the
bedroom.
Register in Language
Imagine that you're going to be introduced to a very
important person who you have never met. Maybe it is the
Queen of England. When you meet her, would you say: 'Hey,
dude! What's up?' Probably not. You would say something more
formal such as 'It is an honor to meet you, Your Highness.' On
the other hand, you wouldn't call your best friend 'His Royal
Highness.' Instead, you would be fine using the informal
address, 'dude.'
In every situation you encounter, you use speech
appropriate to the person to whom you are speaking and his or
her context. The language you use when talking to your friends
is not the same language you would use when meeting
someone as important as the Queen. This difference in
language formality is called register.
LANGUAGE REGISTERS/REGISTERS OF ENGLISH When it
comes to language variation, the terms genre, register and style
are often encountered. David Crystal (2008) defines register as
“a variety of language defined according to its use in social
situations” e.g. register of scientific, religious, formal English. He
added: “In Hallidayan linguistics, the term is seen as specifically
opposed to varieties of language and defined according to the
characteristics of the users (viz. their regional or class dialect),
and is given a subclassification into field, mode and manner of
discourse.
Crystal further discusses style and register:
Language being the product of interaction among the
 members of society, must ultimately be studied according to the
variations in style and register, which differentiate and formally
characterize distinct social situations. Style refers to the degree
of formality attached to a particular interpersonal social situation
which is reflected by differences in language – ex. the kind of
language used while talking to a friend will differ noticeably from
that used in addressing a superior, in otherwise the same
situation. Register refers to a kind of language whose forms are
of a definable social situation, regardless of the status of the
participants – thus one finds the register of the legal language,
liturgical and so on.
It is to be noted that genre and register overlap and are
sometimes used interchangeably. According to Lee (2001),
whereas genre is associated more with the organization of
culture, register is associated with the organization of situation.
To this end, register is understood as the context-specific variety
of language to which the field-mode-tenor framework is
important.
GENRE RECIPE:
• Field - maybe analyzed in terms of the social setting and
communicative purpose in which the text is produced. • Tenor
- the cultural values shared by both.
• Mode - could be explained in the light of the knowledge of
other texts required of the speakers/listeners and
writers/readers as regards the genre including the formal
text features.
Language register then refers to the formality of language
which one speaks. Different register that you are able to
determine the kind of lexicon or vocabulary to use as well as the
kind of structure to be used. Even in writing, you my use formal
or informal register. In some instances, even neutral language
registers are identified.
social context in which it is found. Within a language, there are
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 1
The formal register then is used then is used in formal
speaking and writing situations. In a state of the nation address
classified as formal communicative situation, the speech is
usually delivered using a highly-polished language, read from a
manuscript. This is certainly allowed since the President
occupying the highest position in the country could not afford to
make mistakes. On the contrary, a priest delivering his homily,
more often than not, speaks extemporaneously and uses
ordinary language. This is so since the audience is composed of
various audiences coming from different walks of life.
The priest should be able to convey his spiritual message
to the listeners without difficulty of comprehension on their part.
The priest should also be able to touch the very core of the
listeners’ hearts so that they live the preaching they hear.
The formal register is likewise appropriate for use in
professional writing like project proposals, position papers, and
business letters as in the case of writing to a superior to a head
of certain organization. It is more personal, objective, and
factual. Informal register, which is more casual in tone, is
appropriate for people with whom you have established a more
personal relationship as in the case friends and relatives. This
type of writing may sometimes be emotional as an intimate
relationship exists between the speaker and listener or writer
and reader.
Register refers to the kind of language whereby the forms
used define the social situation, notwithstanding the status of the
interlocutors. Thus, legalese or legal language is highly
characterized by archaic expressions, technical jargon intrinsic
only to the community of legal professionals, embedded
structures, nominalizations, passive voice, as well as long,
 kilometric sentences which are not the features of textese or
language of texts.
Conversely, the features of SMS language or textese
However, misinterpretation and/or miscommunication in
text messaging may arise if vocabulary and knowledge of
context are limited. Hence, extra care should be practiced when
comprehending text messages.
FIVE BASIC LANGUAGE REGISTERS
Language is the means by which the information is
expressed verbally and/or nonverbally. Depending on the text
type required, you may communicate your ideas in any of the
five language registers: very formal, formal, neutral, informal,
very informal. The formality of vocabulary, grammar and
mechanics needed are dictated by the register you are to use.
Presentation covers the layout, format, length, oral
delivery (voice, body language, timing) and any other
conventions, such as spelling and referencing.
The usual written text types that may be assigned to you
are essays, reports, researches, reviews or reactions, journals,
business letters, translations and blogs. In speaking, you may be
required to do oral reports, speeches, or interviews. If you are
tasked to write about just one topic for two varied text types, an
academic essay and a business report, you have to structure
and present them in different ways. Since their purposes differ,
for structure, you may just dwell on the topic in the essay but in
the report, you are expected to provide findings, conclusions,
and/or recommendations. For presentation of information,
essays do not usually have sections but flow as a continuous
piece of writing; reports are divided into separate sections and
subscriptions. For the language of both texts, you need to use
language, are exactly the opposite – use of abbreviations,
acronyms, slang words, and expressions. This is so since
messages used to be limited to a certain number of
characters/spaces which made texting much easier and quicker.
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 2
formal register but with varied types of vocabulary because of
the different audiences.
SEMIOTICS AND TEXT ANALYSIS
Semiotics is concerned with “everything that can be taken
as a sign”. Semiotics involves “the study not only of what we
refer
to as signs in everyday speech, but of anything ‘which stands for’
something else; in a semiotic sense, signs take the form of
words, images, sounds, gestures and objects.”
Signs consist of signifiers (sounds and images) and
signifieds (concepts); “the sign is the whole that results from the
association of the signifier with the signified.” The relationship
between the signifier and the signified is referred to as the
signification.
If you hear the sounds represented by “b-o-y” or a picture
of a boy (signifier), you think of the concept “male child” (the
signified). Together, the sounds of the word (or the picture of the
boy) and the concept created by the sounds (or the picture) form
a sign.
In the past, sign systems (language, literature, cinema,
architecture, music, etc.) were studied as mechanisms that
generate messages, but now the work that is produced through
them and the individual who produced the work are the ones
examined. In other words, the emphases are not only on the
work or activity that constitutes and/or transforms the codes, but
also on the individual who constitutes/transforms the codes
while performing the work.

The work and the individual are, therefore, the subject of
semiosis.
Semiosis, a term borrowed from Charles Sanders Pierce, is the
process by which culture produces signs and/or assigns
meaning to signs, but since meaning production or semiosis is a
b) Semiotics focused on the social aspect of signification, its
practical, aesthetic or ideological use in interpersonal
communication, where meaning is construed as produced
through culturally shared codes.
In other words, the signified can be understood as “the
mental concept it represents, which is common to all members of
the same culture, who share the same language”. This means
that there are three main areas of interest: “the sign itself, the
codes or systems in which the signs are organized, and the
culture within which these codes and signs operate.
Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist, explains that
every “sign” (symbol) has two main concepts: the SIGNIFIER
and the SIGNIFIED. The signifier may be an object, a word or
an image that represents a concept.
Signifier may be an object, a word or an image that
represents a concept. Signified refers to the concept which the
signifier refers to this would be the meaning that is drawn by the
receiver of the sign. The image or the word apple, for example,
is the signifier but it could signify several concepts like Steve
Job’s Apple or Adam and Eve’s apple and the perceived
meaning would be dictated by the context in which the signifier
is found.
When the signifier in an advertisement is culturally
offensive, it fails to achieve its goal. A case in point is a
social activity, subjective factors are involved in each individual
act of semiosis. The notion then might be relevant to the two
main emphases of current semiotic theory:
a) Semiotics focused on the subjective parts aspects of
signification, where meaning is interpreted as a subject
effect (the subject being an effect of the signifier)
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 3
McDonald’s commercial for the Chinese market showing a
Chinese man begging that his expired discount coupon be
accepted. This ad was pulled put because it was offensive to the
Chinese who considered begging a shameful act.
In India, a company that wanted to launch a new facial
cream had to change its initial product named “Joni” because in
the Hindi language, this meant female genitals.
Colors and shapes do not have universal interpretation as
well. For instance, while Westerners associate the color black
with power, sophistication and mystery, Easterners associate it
with death, mortality and stability. Similarly, while Westerners
associate triangles with intellect, masculine action and
aggression. Easterners associate this symbol with bad luck,
difficulty and tragedy. It is not surprising that the following
packaging label was not well-received in the Eastern market
since the triangle and the number 4 are associated with bad luck.
Errors of this kind in advertising could have been avoided
if only the advertisers had exercised cultural sensitivity, an
awareness and acknowledgement of differences in cultures. In
the world of business, failure to meet the expectations and needs
of the intended audience from another culture often translates to
financial loss and sometimes even strained diplomatic relations.
Thus, for workplace in a multi-cultural setting to be effective,
cultural sensitivity must be the norm.

occupations and so on – but we probably understand most of the
messages that are found in commercials and advertisements.”
Semiotics, therefore, refers to a kind of social interaction
among individuals who try to make sense out of the different
interpretation possibilities of the sign. Words in language are
signs. Since signs are organized in codes familiar to all members
of the same culture, a look at the structural forms in which signs
are organized into codes is necessary.
Knowing that “language, more than anything else, is the
heart of culture”, expect that a cultural group’s use of a second
or foreign language will be greatly affected by the group’s
culture (and its own native or first language). Consequently, it is
not surprising that the use of a second language, like English,
by different cultural groups has resulted in funny mistranslations,
especially when the translation is carried out by free or
automated translation apps that are available today.
In this context, “We’re all different. We have different
backgrounds, levels of education, interests, incomes,
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 4
IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE REGISTERS
IN EDUCATION
Language register: What is it and why does it
matter in education?
By: Erick Herrmann
Many teacher and parents today lament a lack of formality
in student language, especially writing. Ask any educator about
the use of so-called "texting language" in student writing, and
you will likely see eye rolls, a pained look on their face, hear a
sigh or complaint about the decline in language.
What students may not understand, however, is language
register — different language and levels of formality are used in
different situations and scenarios. While most people have a
 working understanding of the concept, students may need to be
taught or reminded that different scenarios call for different
language.
Perhaps the first considerations for students, when
speaking or writing, are audience, topic, purpose and location.
Many students need to be explicitly taught about these ideas and
how to adjust their language use based on these considerations.
When working with English learners, explicit instruction in
vocabulary and syntax is important.
Audience
Students need to understand that different audiences
require differing types of language. For example, the way they
speak to their parents may differ from how they speak to their
siblings when they are alone. The language they use will likely
change when speaking with friends and should change again
when speaking in school.
Similarly, when writing, students should adjust the
Purpose
Students should clearly understand the purpose of their
writing or speech. Is it to inform, argue, persuade, describe,
narrate, share cause and effect, or some other purpose? When
students are clear on the purpose of the writing or speech, they
can more accurately choose the language register to use.
Additionally, teachers will need to explicitly teach students
the appropriate general academic vocabulary that pertains to the
specific language function. Teachers can include instruction on
specific sentence frames, starters and signal words to help
students choose the most appropriate language for the purpose
of their writing or speech.
formality, tone, and vocabulary used based on who the writing is
intended for.
Topic
Different subject areas in school and differing topics
require differing styles of speech and writing. Mathematicians,
scientists, historians, artists, musicians and others use differing
styles when speaking about or writing about the subject and
topic at hand.
For example, when writing in science, students should
avoid the use of metaphors or unnecessary language, being as
concise as possible while getting the appropriate principle,
finding, description, etc., across to the reader. It is critical that
we, as educators, share with students the differing language
styles used in the subject areas we are discussing and learning
about.
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 5
Location
Location can, and often does, dictate the appropriate
register to use. In a school setting, the language and formality
used in the classroom should differ from the language used in
the hallways or on the playground. Similarly, the vocabulary and
syntax used to answer a simple question versus giving a formal
speech in the classroom differs.
Students should know that the way they speak and the
words they use in a library versus a restaurant versus a
shopping center differ, and they should adjust their language
register accordingly.

The considerations listed above will help students begin to
understand how language should be used in differing contexts.
Once they understand these, or while learning about the
considerations, students can learn about and be given examples
of the five language registers.
It is helpful for students to learn about register, especially
if students are from culturally and linguistically diverse homes.
As people are interacting with others, it is acceptable to move
from one register into an adjacent register without any problems
or
awkward moments. However, skipping a level or even more than
one level may be considered inappropriate or offensive.
Formality Scale (Martin Joos)
1. Frozen/Static Register: This register rarely or never
changes. Examples of frozen register include the Pledge
of Allegiance or the Preamble to the Constitution.
2. Formal/Academic Register: This register includes
academic language from speeches, proclamations and
formal announcements.
3. Consultative Register: This register is formal and
acceptable speech often used in professional settings.
Some examples of this register include discourse between
students learn to interact with teachers, administrators, guest
speakers and each other. Utilizing and practicing this register
allows students to incorporate skills such as interviewing a
professional or practicing being interviewed for a job, or speaking
formally to another.
While teaching students about the five registers may not be
high on the teaching priority list, being aware of register is helpful
as teachers prepare students for a variety of contexts and task.
The language involved in each of these registers provides rich
teachers and students, judges and lawyers, doctors and
patients, and between a superior and a subordinate.
4. Casual Register: This register is used among friends and
peers, and includes informal language including slang and
colloquialisms. Casual register is often used among
friends, teammates, etc.
5. Intimate Register: This register is reserved for close
family members such as parents and children and
siblings, or intimate people such as spouses.
In the context of schools and instruction, it is important to
note that students can be taught about the five registers and
when they are used, but perhaps more importantly should be
taught the language that is used in the first three registers listed.
Students will encounter the language in the Frozen/Static
Register as they study social studies primarily. The Preamble,
Pledge of Allegiance and other examples are exemplary
resources to teach history along with language and word choice.
Speeches, lab reports and other examples of the
Formal/Academic Register are also prime candidates for close
reading and analysis of text and language. Lastly, the
Consultative Register should be focused on in schools as
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 6
opportunities for language and content instruction, especially for
English learners.
Teaching the audience, topic, purpose and location in regard
to language, including speech and writing, will benefit students
as we help them to achieve academically.
NB: Rule of Language Use
One can usually transition from one language register to
an adjacent one without encountering repercussions. However,
skipping one or more levels is usually considered inappropriate
and even offensive.
MISTRANSLATIONS Around the World:
▪ Airline ticket office, Copenhagen: “We take your bags and
send them in all directions.”
▪ A sign on a car in Manila, Philippines: “Car and owner for
sale.”
▪ A sign posted in Germany’s Black Forest: “It is strictly
forbidden on our black forest camping site that people of
different sex, for instance, men and women, live together
in one tent unless they are married with each other for
that purpose.”
▪ At a Budapest zoo: “Please do not feed the animals. If you
have any suitable food, give it to the guard on duty.” ▪ Athens
hotel: “Visitors are expected to complain at the office
between the hours of 9 and 11 a.m. daily.”
▪ Cocktail Lounge, Norway: “Ladies are requested not to
have children in the bar.”
▪ Hotel elevator, Paris: “Please leave your values at the front
desk.”
▪ Hotel in Japan: “You are invited to take advantage of the
chambermaid.”
▪ Hotel in Zurich: “Because of the impropriety of entertaining
guests of the opposite sex in the bedroom, it is suggested
that the lobby be used for this purpose.”
▪ In a Bangkok dry cleaner’s: “Drop your trousers here for
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 7
To ensure the correct translation of a text from one language
to another, employ the services of a qualified translator (one who
is not only a native speaker of the language to be translated but
also a proficient speaker of the target language), and translate
the whole message and its meaning; do not translate literally or
word-for-word.
What is the role of semiotics in the world of messages and
best results.”
▪ Instructions for a soap bubble gun: “While solution is not
toxic it will not make child edible.”
▪ Instructions on a Korean flight: “Upon arrival at Kimho and
Kimhae Airport, please wear your clothes.”
▪ On a South African building: “Mental health prevention
centre.”
▪ On the menu of a Swiss restaurant: “Our wines leave you
nothing to hope for.”
▪ Outside of Hong Kong: “Ladies may have a fit upstairs.” ▪
Restaurant window: “Don’t stand there and be hungry. Come
on in and get fed up.”
▪ Tokyo hotel’s rules and regulations: “Guests are requested
NOT to smoke or do other disgusting behaviors in bed.” ▪ At a
Korean restaurant in Auckland, New Zealand: “We do not
re-use the food.”
▪ Doctor’s Office in Rome: “Specialist in women and other
diseases.”
▪ Hotel Lobby, Bucharest: “The lift is being fixed for the next
day. During that time, we regret that you will be
unbearable.”
▪ In East African newspaper: “A new swimming pool is
rapidly taking shape sine the contractors have thrown in
the bulk of their workers.”
▪ In an Italian cemetery: “Persons are prohibited from picking
flowers from any but their own graves.”
meanings? Or in the analysis of texts? Semiotics makes us realize and
understand that information or meaning is not ‘contained’ in the world or
in books, computers or audio-visual media. Meaning is not ‘transmitted’
to us – we actively create it according to a complex interplay of codes or
conventions of which we are normally unaware. Becoming aware of such
codes is both inherently fascinating and intellectually empowering. We
learn from semiotics that we live in a world of signs and we have no way
of understanding anything except through signs and the codes into which
 they are organized.
Semiotics can help us not take “reality” for granted
because reality does not have an objective existence; it is
something that is subject to human interpretation.
Semiotics teaches us that reality is a system of signs and
since we live in a world of increasingly visual signs, we need to
learn that even the most “realistic” signs are not what they
appear to be. We need to “read” and analyze them.
Analyzing and questioning the realities of signs can
“reveal” whose realities are privileged and whose are
suppressed. The study of signs is the study of the construction
and maintenance of reality. To decline such a study is to leave to
others the control of the world of meanings that we inhabit.
In the analysis of a text, analyze the date by spending
some time looking at and thinking about the material. This is
easier if you have a specific feature in mind that you want to
examine, for example the code or language. Most of the time,
however, you are not sure what to find, so begin by looking for a
characteristic that is surprising:
a) Why did you notice it?
b) What is so unusual about it?
c) Is the characteristic very unusual for the speaker or the situation?
d) Is it something you do not understand?
e) Or is it something that appears in more than one place in the text
or conversation?
If you are patient enough, and you have attended to the
characteristic or detail, you can discover and describe the data.
variants than older speakers, it may indicate the presence of
natural changes in the use of language. Speakers may have
different language behavior depending on social situations
associated with age.
More often, than not, however, you will find it impossible to say
everything about in your description. But you have spent enough
time with the data, your analysis will allow you to say something
meaningful that you can write up in a paper of suitable length.
Bear in mind, though, that different types of texts will require
looking for different features (structure, language, and/or
presentation), but using the technique that has just been
described on how to approach the analysis is always helpful.
Considerations for Language Varieties
Social Class
Patterning variants according to socioeconomic class can
give valuable clues to how language behavior reflects social
mobility. This theory rests on two basic findings:
1. The upper classes tend to use linguistic variants with
higher prestige.
2. Speakers from the status group just below the highest
class show the most linguistic insecurity.
Social Network
Individual social relationships can be examined as an
explanation for patterns of variation by counting the ties between
speakers according to relevant social network clusters such as
family, neighborhood, employment, religion and friendships.
Age
Differences across age groups are also important factor
for language variety. When younger speakers use more new
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 8
Sex
Speech of men and women tends to differ. Linguistic
differences related to gender may also be the result of power
differentials in society associated with gender roles.
In language variation changes, women use more of the
incoming forms than men. When variation is stable, men use for
non-standard forms.
Women tend to lead in situations where change is in
progress. This is attributed to their role as child caregivers. Small
children in the early stages of acquisition would be more likely to
hear innovative forms produced by women than by men and thus
the change is advanced because it is transmitted to the younger
generation. Where men are in the lead, their limited contact with
the next generation in their formative years limits the probability
that their speech patterns will be passed on.
Ethnicity
Ethnicity can be expressed linguistically either by the use
of different languages or by means of phonological or
grammatical distinctions among varieties in the same language.
Ethnolinguistic vitality – the degree of the persistence
and retention of ethnic languages and dialects.
VARIABLES FOR LANGUAGE VARIETIES
LINGUA FRANCA - the designated semi-official language for
the purpose of communicating within the group where there is
social and commercial interaction between groups of people
who speak different languages.
PIDGIN – a rudimentary language with minimal grammatical
rules and small lexicon; usually created in contact situations
where speakers have restricted access to each other’s
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 9
language. This tend to be very short-lived as they are generally
held in great disdain by the native speakers of the lexifier
language (language from which the pidgin takes most of its
words).
CREOLE – the instance when a pidgin has become a speaker’s
first language; it is formed from two or more languages which
has developed into pidgin but is adopted as the native language
of the new community.
Language Mixture
In bilingual speech communities, speakers will often adopt
a speech variety which involves alternation between languages
in the same discourse.
Code-switching – this is the evidence that the
grammatical systems of languages in a language mixture are in
operation during this alternation.
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
World Englishes (WE) actually stands for localized
varieties of English as they are used or spoken in certain areas.
In the Asian context, the concept was introduced by Braj Kachru.
The famous “Three Concentric Circles of Asian Englishes”
attributed to Kachru presents the three circles: Inner Circle with
ENL (English as a Native Language) member countries are USA,
UK, Australia, Canada, New Zealand; Outer Circle with ESL
(English as Second Language) member countries Singapore,
Malaysia, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka; and the
Expanding Circle with EFL (English as a Foreign Language)
member countries Korea, Chiana, Japan, Thailand.

Aside from th fact that the Outer and Expanding Circles
are ESL- and EFL-speaking, respectively, they have been
colonized by some member countries in the Inner Circle making
the varieties they speak as post-colonial. It is then to be
understood that people have different linguistic and cultural
backgrounds making them intercultural communication a
significant variable in communication.
According to Bautista and Gonzalez (2006), the structural
characteristics of these new varieties differ. This brought about
by the mother tongue or home languages of those who learn or
acquire English. And even in terms of social features, differences
can also be highlighted in that there is a continuum of basilectal,
mesolectal and acrolectal varieties within the same speech
community.
Acrolect is variety of English that is considered most
suitable for formal occasion. The acrolect then comes closest to
the standard. The basilect is a variety of language that has
greatly diverged from the standard form, is only considered
suitable for very informal contexts by speakers, it digresses
thoroughly from it and comes closest to the pidgin. The
mesolect, a variety of speech that is midway between the
acrolect and the basilect.
Bautista and Gonzalez use the term edulects for these
varieties resulting from certain types of education ascertained by
social class but are conveyed and transferred by the kind of
instruction of the school system especially for those coming from
higher-income families and/or better educated classes.
As regards structural variation, Kachru and Nelson (2006)
claim that these varieties of English are influenced by the local
language(s) in various areas of their grammars and exhibit
specific phonological, lexical, syntactical, and sicoursal
characteristics. For instance, in terms of stress and rhythm,
Outer and Expanding Circle varieties observed syllable-timed
rhythm rather than stress-timed rhythm.
Nigerians say ‘success for suc’cess and Indians and
Nigerians say recog’nize for ‘recognize.
Moreover, speakers from the Outer and Expanding
Circles do not make any changes in their pronunciation to make
a distinction between nouns and verbs in pairs which Inner
Circle countries observe as in the case of ‘import and im’port
and do not utilize contrastive stress for focusing. As regards
sounds, Outer and Expanding Circles do not observe initial
aspiration of voiceless plosives like p, t, k and these are often
observe by Inner Circle countries as b,d, g.
 Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 10
Some speakers of Expanding Circle varieties, as in the
case of Japanese speakers, do not properly distinguish between
r and i.
According to Pope (1976) in the case of syntactic
features, question-answering systems differ between Inner and
Outer Expanding Circle. While the former observes the positive
negative system where the answers follows the polarity of the
question (if the question is in the positive, the answer confirming
the assumption of the questioner is in the positive, and the
answer disconfirming the assumption is in the negative as well,
while the answer disconfirming the assumption of the questioner
is in the positive), the latter observes the agreement
disagreement system which poses difficulty to speakers who
follow the positive-negative system particularly in interpreting the
yes or no of the responses unless it is followed by a clarification
(Yes, I think you’re right; No, that’s not so)
With respect to lexicon, vocabulary words peculiar only to
some English varieties in Southeast Asia can be noted as seen
in the following examples:
• Singapore English:
- actsy “show off”
- missy “nurse”
- chop “rubber stamp”
- graduate mothers “graduate (well-educated)
married women, encouraged to have more children and
accorded certain privileges in Singapore” as compared to non
graduate mothers
- Marina kids “youngsters who spend their leisure
time at or around Marina Square”, a shopping center.
• Philippine English:
- deep “puristic or hard to understand” as an attribute to
language
- stick “cigarette”
- high blood “tense or upset”
- blow out “treating someone with a snack or meal”
- motel “a hotel used for pre-marital or extra-marital
affairs” - manualize “to prepare manuals”
- go ahead “leave before others with the host’s
permission” - studentry “student body”
- Amboy “a Filipino perceived to be pro-American”
- promdi “from the province”
- behest loan “unguaranteed bank loan given to
presidential cronies
- pulot boy “boy who picks up tennis balls in a game” -
balikbayan box “box for Filipinos returning from abroad to put all
their shopping among others”
• Malaysian English:
- antilog “a male hated by a girl”
- popcorn “a loquacious person”
- kachang “peanuts, easy”
- slambar “relax”
- red spot, “girls who are popular”
- open shelf “girls who are not popular”
- day bugs “those who attend school but do not live in
residence hall”
The syntactic features identified include the following: 1)
Word-order features; consisting of the placement of the time
adverb before the place adverb, placement of the adverb
between verb and object, placement of the adverb between
noun and prepositional phrase, placement of the indirect
 object introduced by to between verb and direct object, other
unusual adverb placements;
2) Use of articles, including absence of the definite article,
unusual use of the definite articles, absence of the
indefinite article;
4) Pronoun-antecedent incongruence;
5) Subject-predicate incongruence;
6) Reclassification of GAE transitive verbs as intransitive
verbs and; and,
7) Tense-aspect usage consisting of unusual use of verb
forms and tenses, use of the perfect tense where the
simple past tense or even present perfect tense is called
for in GAE, lack of tense sequence.
Philippine English, as well, has its unique and
idiosyncratic usages.
For example:
comfort room – washroom, lavatory, toilet
salvage – to save or to brutally murder (for
political reasons)
for awhile – correct term “just a second”, “just a
moment”; “hang on” or “hold on”
Matthew Sutherland (writer, Philippine English from an
Englishman’s perspective) mentions that these British idiomatic
equivalents would just be as baffling to those unfamiliar with
these usages. Filipinos might, in response to being told to “hang
on”, may very well ask, “hang on to what”.
Sutherland also notes that “every English-speaking nation
has its own set of English phrases and idioms; English is equally
idiosyncratic in say, India, Jamaica, Zimbabwe or Singapore”. In
other words, there is no wrong way of speaking English as long
as those who speak it understand each other.
3) Noun sub-categorization, consisting of the non
pluralization of count nouns, the reclassification of
General American English (GAE), mass nouns as count
nouns, mass noun pluralization, pluralization of adjectival
nouns in compounds;
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 11
In fact, Sutherland says, “The many versions of English
spoken around the globe merely serve to make English an even
richer tongue.” However, the fact that all varieties of English
have individual or peculiar usages is why it is important – in the
context of academic and professional writing – to follow a
standard. This standard advocates the use of a consistent
spelling and
punctuation system. It also avoids colloquial and informal
usages, eschewing these in favor of more widely understood
uses or explaining such usages for the reader if it becomes
necessary to use them in writing.
The label for this variety is Standard English or depending
on the region – Standard American English, Standard British
English or Standard Philippine English. To use this kind of
English means to follow a spelling or punctuation system that is
consistent with the prescribed standard.
FILIPINISMS and SLANG
Use Filipinism only when your target readers are familiar
with them – fellow Filipinos, or other nationals who have become
familiar with Filipino English. Be particularly mindful of Filipinisms
which are neosemanticisms (new additional meanings to
common words).
Ex.
• Accident-prone (high-risk area). This phrase can be
found, such as tight intersections or blind corners,
where many accidents have occurred. Idiomatically,
 however, it is a person who is prone to accidents or
accident-prone, not an area. In other countries, the
signage is HIGH-RISK AREA.
• Ballpen (ballpoint pen). The form listed in international
dictionaries is ballpoint. In many countries, the
trademark Biro (after its inventor) is often used to
mean “ballpoint”. In the Philippines, the trademark
Bic is the one commonly generalized.
Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 12
are painted the color that designates their respective
areas.
• comics (n. comic book, no singular). The noun comic
refers to a comedian, with the plural comics, as in
American Muslim comics come of age. The Filipino
usage comes from the Tagalog komiks, referring to a
comic book.
• commute (travel from residence to workplace via
public transportation). The dictionary meaning is
simply to travel regularly from one point to another,
by any means.
• do (make love). Usually used in a Filipino sentence,
conjugated with a prefix “mag-”
• double dead (cows or pigs that died of some disease
but whose meat is sold for human consumption, beef
or pork from such cows or pigs.
• give/gives (installment). A bank’s billboard states:
You can pay in for gives.
• memo (send a memo of reprimand), also used in a
Filipino sentence. Technically, a memo is simply a
short form of internal communication in an
institution.
• plastic (hypocritical). This Philippine usage would
confuse the reader who encounters such as a
sentence as Actors must have plastic personalities,
meaning “malleable” or “adaptable”.
• tasty (adj of taste). Bread loaf, as in The government
• color-coding [color-coded] (restriction; restricted). In
Metro Manila, this refers to a vehicle’s being
restricted from traveling on certain main roads or
certain days and hours. The restriction is based on
the final digit of the vehicle’s license plate; it has
nothing to do with color. Real color-coding exists in
cities like Taguig and Olongapo, where the bodies of
the public jeeps
will also distribute cheaper pan de sal and tasty in
depressed areas.
• toxic (chemical that is harmful). Troubled,
problematic, as in Teaching is quite toxic but
fulfilling.
• salvage (summary execution). This usage is
particularly misleading since salvage means save or
rescue something from complete loss or destruction.
• pumping (thrusting, as in the sexual act). This has
been popularized by the Movie and Television Review
and Classification Board (MTRCB) referring to
objectionable sex scenes.
Some Filipinisms are neoterisms (new forms for meanings
already indicated by other words or phrases.) Though this
type of Filipinism is not in international dictionaries of English,
it does not clash with similar or related English words, and
does not confuse readers as much as neosemanticisms.
Ex.
• backgrounder (background to a plan or a proposal), as
in The following paragraphs constitute the
backgrounder to the proposed Philippine position in
the negotiations. Actually the term background is
accurate and sufficient for the same meaning.
• masteral (pertaining to a Master’s degree), the listed
word is master’s
• passporting (pertaining to the processing of
 passports), this term is used at the Department of Punctuation She said, “I’ll She said, “I’ll
Foreign Affairs)
be at work by be at work by
• presidentiable (candidate for president), of presidential 8 8 a.m.”
caliber, with good chances of getting elected a.m.”
president; this derivation has also spawned
senatoriable Date March 2, 2017 2 March 2017
• routinary, correct term is just routine
• rallyist (participant in a public rally or demonstration), Spelling center, color, centre, colour,
the term listed in the dictionary is rallier organize, organise,
program programme
ASPECT American British
English (US) English (UK)

Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 13

Lexical Variety elevator, lift, trousers,

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION Required Readings and Other
pants, diaper nappy
Materials
Expression/Loc ruffled knickers in a • Adler, R, Elmhorst, J.M., & Lucas. Communicating at Work: Strategies for
al Idiom feathers twist (agitated) Success in Business and the Professions. NY: McGraw Hill, 2012. •
(agitated) Alejandro, Aurecel, et. al. Purposive Communication. Mutya Publishing
House, Inc. Philippines: Malabon City. 2018
Grammar Do you have Have you got • Barrot, Jessie S. and Sipacio, Philippe John F. Purposive Communication
that book? that book? in the 21st Century. C&E Publishing House, Philippines: Quezon City,
2018
Pronunciation vase /vãs/ vase /va:z/ - • Bullock, R. and Goggin, M. The Norton Field Guide to Writing. 3 rd ed.
sounds like sounds like VAHZ W.W. Norton and Company, 2013
VEYZ • Chase, R. and Shamo, S. Elements of Effective Communication. 4th ed.
Washington, Utah: Plain and Precious Publishing, 2013.
• Dainton, M. and Zelley E. Applying Communication Theory for
Professional Life. A Practical Introduction. 3 rd ed., Sage Publications,
In summary, in everyday speech and informal contexts, 2015.
one is free to use his/her own variety of English. However, in • Lucas, S. The Art of Public Speaking. NY: McGraw Hill, 201 1. •
more formal writing contexts, one should be able to identify Madrunio Marilou R and Marti Isabel P. Purposive Communication:
which features of this variety may not be understood by other Using English in Multilingual Contexts. C&E Publishing House,
speakers of English and to use alternatives that will be Philippines: Quezon City, 2018
understood by a wider audience. • Mercado, Maria Cristina P. et. al. Purposive Communication:
Connecting the World. Mutya Publishing House, Inc. Philippines:
 Malabon City. 2018
• Mooney, A, Peccei, J.S., La Belle, S, et.al. Language, Society and
Power: An Introduction. 3 rd ed. London: Routledge, 2010.
• Padilla, Mely M. et. al. Communicate and Connect! Purposive
Communication. Mutya Publishing House, Inc. Philippines: Malabon
City. 2018
• Searles, G. Workplace Communication: The Basics. 6th ed. Boston: Allyn
& Bacon, 2014
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION Suggested Readings and References
• Abrams, R. Successful Business Plan: Secrets and Strategies.
Redwood, CA: Planning Shop, 2010.
• Anderson, K. & Tompkins, P. Practicing Communication Ethics:
Development, Discernment and Decision-making. Routledge, 2015. •
Axelrod, R. & Cooper, C. The St. Martin's Guide to Writing. 10th ed.
Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013.
• Biber, D. & Conrad S. Register, Genre, and Style. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2009.
• Lehman, C. & DuFrene, D. Business Communication. Mason, OH:
South-Western Cengage Learning, 2011

Compiled by: RMEBTORRES for CLASSROOM PURPOSES ONLY, NO REPRINTING WITHOUT PERMISSION 14