Kandahar University

Engineering Faculty
Energy Engineering Department

Chapter 9: Quality Issues of Wind Power

Lecturer : Candidate Teaching Assistant Eng. Ahmad Shah Irshad

1-Jun-22 1
Presented By : Irfan Ahmad Bakhtyal
 Outlines
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Wind power impact
9.3 Local impacts of wind power
9.4 System wide impacts of wind power
9.5 Wind power variability
9.6 Islanding
9.7 WPP electrical safety and grid
9.8 WPP inertia
9.9 Plant load factor (or capacity factor)
9.10 Capacity credit
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 9.1 Introduction
۞ Power quality relates to different characteristics of the electric power
system to which the wind power plants (WPPs) are connected.

I. The first question that arises is why wind power is different from the
conventional power.

۞ There are three main reasons—the very first reason is that wind
speed is often varying.

۞ The variations occur on all time scales (i.e., seconds, minutes, hours,
days, months, seasons and years) resulting in varying power supplied
to the grid, leading to operational problems.

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 9.1 Introduction Cont.
۞ Secondly, WPPs/wind farms are usually connected to distribution
networks or low and medium voltage networks such as 33 kV/66 kV
sub-transmission lines different from the conventional power stations.

۞ Thirdly, the electric generator technologies on which WPPs are based

are different from the conventional synchronous generators and WPPs
respond differently to different fault conditions.

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 9.1 Introduction Cont.
II. The second question that arises in one’s mind is what are the other
equipment that affect the grid power quality other than the WPPs and how
they are addressed.

۞ Proliferation of non-linear loads, power electronic devices, flicker,

voltage sags and harmonics affect the power quality.

۞ The wind power quality depends on the interaction between the WPP and
grid. In most of the WPPs, the output is the standard 690 V AC.

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 9.1 Introduction Cont.
۞ The WPPs have step-up transformers either in the nacelle or at the
tower bottom that are connected by a medium voltage (MV) electrical
network in the range 11 kV–33 kV.

۞ This network consists of underground cables and/or overhead lines in

some locations. Overhead lines, though cheaper, creates greater visual
influence and can also restrict the movement and use of cranes.

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 9.1 Introduction Cont.
۞ The point of common coupling (PCC) is the grid point at which the
WPP/wind farm is connected to the grid.

۞ At the point of interconnection (POI) or PCC, the voltage level is

further increased which is suitable for onward transmission.

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact
۞ The impact of wind power in the electric power system depends, to
a large extent, on the following:

a. Wind power penetration level

b. Grid size
c. Generation mix in the power system.

o Wind penetration of 5% is not an issue to the grid operators. Above 5%, the
effect of wind power is felt.

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact Cont.
۞ Wind capacity penetration looks at how the total installed wind power
capacity in a certain region is related to the peak load in this region over a
certain time period.

۞ Wind energy penetration looks at the percentage of demand covered

by wind energy in a certain region on an annual basis.

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact Cont.
۞ Maximum share of wind power looks at the power balance in a
certain region, taking into account the minimum demand, the maximum
wind power generated and the exchange with neighboring regions or
countries.

۞ This figure must remain below 100% to ensure the correct power
balance in the region. The nearer to 100%, the closer will be the
system to its limits (when wind power would need to be curtailed).

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact Cont.
۞ Normally, single WPPs have fast, autonomous self-protecting regulation
of their terminal voltages and they respond rapidly and correctly for grid
voltage events while the Wind Farm Management System (WFMS) and
wind power management software SCADA provide wind farm level
controls to meet the performance requirements (e.g. voltage regulation) at
the PCC by:

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact Cont.
۞ Generally, connecting loads to an electric grid reduces the voltage,
while connecting power producing units (like WPPs) increases the
voltage level. In both cases, there are two kinds of impacts on the
network:
1. Impact of WPPs on the grid
2. Impact of grid disturbances on the WPPs

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact Cont.
۞ There is the local impact and system wide impact due to the grid
connection of the WPPs/wind farms that affect the electrical power
quality within the ambit of the above two situations.

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact Cont.
(a) Local Impacts
۞ These are electrical impacts that can occur in the immediate vicinity
(i.e., localized) due to the connection of a large capacity WPP/wind
farm or due to the electric grid disturbance or both.

 These are largely

independent of the
overall wind power
penetration in the grid but
depend on the capacity of
the constant speed and
variable speed WPPs/wind
farms in the vicinity.

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 9.2 Wind Power Impact Cont.
(b) System wide Impacts
۞ This global effect may lead to loss of synchronism of synchronous
generators attributed to individual WPPs or wind farms anywhere on
the grid network, not necessarily in the immediate vicinity.

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 9.3 Local Impacts Of Wind Power
۞ Since the WPPs are generally located in rural areas in the electric
distribution networks of the grid, power fed by them into the network
could lead to some local impacts which are:

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 9.3.1 Node Voltages and Branch Flows
۞ A node is defined as a point where:

1. Electric power is taken from the grid

2. Electric power generation is injected into the grid or
3. Two or more lines connect to each other.

 Node voltage is a local quantity as opposed to system frequency which is

a global quantity. node voltage should not be allowed to deviate from
the nominal value of the voltage in excess of a certain value (normally
5% to 10%).

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 9.3.1 Node Voltages and Branch Flows Cont.
۞ Distribution networks consisting resistance therefore, these remote node
voltages in distribution grids are controlled mainly by changing the
turns ratio of the transformer that connect the distribution grid to higher
voltage level and also by devices that generate or consume reactive
power such as shunt reactors and capacitors.

۞ Transmission networks have lower resistance and the node voltages are
controlled by changing the reactive power generation and consumption
of large scale centralized generators connected to the transmission
lines.

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 9.3.2 Fault Currents and Grid Connected WPP
۞ The voltage at the WPP generator is given by:

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 9.3.2 Fault Currents and Grid Connected WPP Cont.
۞ Whenever there is a short circuit (fault), the power system is
disturbed.

۞ The ability of the grid to absorb disturbances is directly related to the

short circuit power level at the point under consideration. In this case, it is
the PCC of the WPP/wind farm.

 The minimum acceptable network

strength is the minimum short
circuit level at the PCC of a
single WPP/wind farm.

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 9.3.2 Fault Currents and Grid Connected WPP Cont.
۞ The fault level M is an indication of the strength of the network. The
higher the fault level, the stronger will be the grid:

۞ If there is a short circuit in the WPP generator, the fault current IF is

given by:

 The short circuit apparent power Ssc is defined by the product of the
rated voltage and the short circuit current for a short circuit at the PCC
of the WPP/wind farm.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality
۞ Voltage quality due to a WPP/wind farm could be defined as the change in
the RMS value of the voltage in a time span of minute or more,
ranging from slow voltage variations to transients..

۞ A mismatch between the supply and demand of reactive power results in a

change in the system voltage, i.e., if the supply of lagging reactive
power is less than the demand, a decrease in the system voltage
results.

۞ Conversely, if the supply of lagging reactive power exceeds the demand,

it results in an increase in the system voltage.

۞ Transformers equipped with automatic voltage regulators(AVR) are used to

provide reasonably steady state voltages to the end users.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
۞ To analyze the voltage variation caused by a WPP connected to the
grid of impedance Zs, an impedance model can be used where the
active power is P and reactive power is Q.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
۞ IEC 38 recommends 230 V/400 V as the standard voltage for 50 Hz
systems. consumer’s terminal should not differ more than ±10% of
the rated voltage.

۞ Voltage variations are mainly caused by variations in power

production by the WPP/wind farm as well as by the increase/decrease
in the connected loads.

۞ High consumption and low power production results in low voltages.

High production and low consumption leads to the high voltages.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(a) Slow Voltage Variations
۞ Slow voltage variations (almost considered as steady state voltage) can
be defined as the changes in the RMS value of the voltage occurring
in a time span of many minutes or more caused by variations in load
and power production units.

۞ The steady state voltage variations, generally, should not exceed 2.5%
for a distribution feeder.
۞ If WPPs are connected to it, then the variations should not exceed
5%.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(b) Rapid Voltage Variations (Flicker)
۞ Voltage flicker is a momentary sag in line voltage, either periodic or
aperiodic, that results in perceptible fluctuations in the intensity of
light from lamps.

۞ In variable speed WPPs, the starting and stopping is smoother, hence the
flicker problem is almost absent.

۞ Flicker coefficient is defined as the fluctuations of the voltage in a

frequency range of 0.5 Hz to 35 Hz.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(c) Voltage Transients
۞ Voltage and current transients (usually of very short durations of μs
or ms) are undesirable, momentary, but significant deviations from the
normal levels.

۞ These are usually caused by system faults due to the starting and
stopping large constant speed WPPs or lightning discharges.

۞ The frequency of occurrences of the transient is determined by:

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(d) Voltage Dip (or Sag)
۞ A voltage dip (or sag or collapse) is a sudden reduction in voltage in the
electric grid followed by a rapid return to its normal value.

۞ Dips between 10% and 15% of the terminal voltage are commonly
due to switching of loads. Whereas, larger dips may be caused by
lightning, trees falling on overhead line or other faults.

۞ Human beings become aware of it, because the lights begin to go

off and on momentarily and this may damage consumers’ equipment
permanently.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(e) Voltage Swell (Overvoltage)
۞ Voltage swells are those that increase rapidly over the nominal voltage
for a short duration for more than half a cycle or less than one
minute.

۞ Voltage swells lasting longer than certain time duration (say 2

minutes) are categorized as overvoltage's.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(f) Voltage Imbalance (Unbalance)
۞ Voltage unbalance is usually caused by the reactive power consumption
during the magnetization of the constant speed WPP’s induction
generators at start-ups.

۞ Voltage unbalance is defined as:

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(f) Voltage Imbalance (Unbalance) Cont.s
۞ Network voltage unbalance is the difference in phase to neutral or
phase-to-phase voltage magnitudes or phase angles of the three-phase
electrical system.

۞ Typically, a 2% voltage unbalance may cause a 4%–6% decrease in

the current in one phase and an increase in the phase current in the other
two phases of about 8%–18%.

 Voltage unbalance generally

occurs on weak networks in
rural areas, as the majority of
customer loads are single
phase.

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 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(g) Voltage Step Changes
۞ A step change in voltage may result in a step change in the torque of
the gearbox of the WPP.

۞ Constant speed Type-A WPPs can cause voltage step changes when
starting or when changing between generators (in case of two
generators or dual- speed windings).

۞ The other three types of generators, i.e., Type-B, Type-C and Type-D
can control their step voltage changes to some extent by varying degrees.

1-Jun-22 32
 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(h) Harmonics
۞ Harmonics are periodic sinusoidal distortions of the supply voltage or load
current.

۞ It is a phenomenon associated with the distortion of the fundamental

sinusoidal sine wave of the voltage (or current).

۞ Harmonics are always present in the grid due to non-linear loads,

power electronics, rectifiers, inverters and other PECs.

1-Jun-22 33
 9.3.3 Voltage Quality Cont.
(h) Harmonics Cont.
۞ The effects of harmonics are overheating and equipment failure.
۞ Interharmonics are those components which have frequencies in
between the harmonics of the supply frequency. In other words, they
are distortions of the sinusoidal wave at frequencies which are not
integral multiples of the fundamental.

By use pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques or modern insulated gate

bipolar transistors (IGBT) and integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCT).
by which low and high order harmonics are eliminated.

1-Jun-22 34
 9.4 System wide Impacts Of Wind Power
۞ System wide impacts are those, the cause of which cannot be
localized but are a consequence of wind power that cannot be directly
related to individual WPP/wind farm.

۞ Nevertheless, they are strongly related to the WPP penetration level

in the grid as a whole.

۞ The system wide impact affects the:

1. Reactive power
2. Stability
3. System balancing and frequency

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 9.4.1 Reactive Power and WPPs
۞ WPPs are mainly connected on distribution networks where the
resistance of the lines are high, as well as the R/X ratio is high
unlike transmission networks.

۞ The active power injection induces a significant voltage rise effect

especially on weak grids, as it is distributed generation (DG).These are
weak points in the grid network and hence, reactive power losses are
considerable which limit substantial contribution of the WPPs to the
reactive power balance at the transmission level.

۞ Therefore, reactive power and voltage control are the key issues for
integrating wind power into low voltage (LV) and medium voltage
(MV) networks.

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 9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs
۞ Stability of a power system is defined as the ability of a system to
return to a steady state after a disturbance. Power system stability
can be at the local level or at the global level.

۞ At local level, stability problems can lead to:

۞ At global level, stability problems can lead to:

1-Jun-22 37
 9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs Cont.
(a) Voltage Stability
۞ Voltage stability is the ability of the network to maintain steady voltage at
all buses within the operational ranges under normal conditions and after
being subjected to disturbances.

۞ A voltage stability problem occurs if the reactive power supply in the

sensitive regions is not sufficient anymore, i.e., nearby reactive power
sources like (Static Voltage ampere reactive Compesentator) SVCs or
generators are not providing sufficiently.

۞ Sufficient reactive power support is essential for the voltage stability and
voltage control in a grid network.

1-Jun-22 38
 9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs Cont.
(a) Voltage Stability Cont.
۞ Voltage stability margin is normally presented in the form of P–V
curves which plot the load bus voltage as a function of power that may be
sent over a transmission line at a given load power factor.

o In this example, P–V curves

have been plotted for three
different load power factors
for a particular transmission
line reactance. For each
condition, the nose of the
P–V curve represents the limit
between stable and unstable
operation.

1-Jun-22 39
 9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs Cont.
(b) Thermal Stability
۞ Thermal stability helps in verifying that the transmission lines,
transformers and other equipment are not overloaded due to the
WPP/wind farm power infeed.

۞ Overhead transmission lines reach their thermal stability limit if the

electric current heats the conductor material to a certain temperature
(between 50°C and 100°C) above which the conductor material starts to
soften.

1-Jun-22 40
 9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs Cont.
(c) Steady State Stability
۞ Steady state stability of power system refers to the ability of a system
to return to the steady state after a disturbance of small and gradual
changes in the load with conventional excitation and governor
controls.

۞ Using computer-based software, steady state analysis is undertaken

through power flow simulations, usually with the WPP dispatched at
a power level which is expected to have the maximum system
impact.

1-Jun-22 41
 9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs Cont.
(d) Transient Stability
۞ Transient stability of a power system refers to the ability of a power system
to return to a stable operating condition following a major disturbance such
as a transmission line short circuit or tripping of a large generating
power plant.

۞ Transient stability depends on both the initial operating state and the
severity of the disturbance which is usually cleared by opening up the
circuit breakers to isolate the fault.

1-Jun-22 42
 9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs Cont.
(e) Dynamic Stability
۞ Dynamic stability refers to the stability of a power system subjected to
a relatively small and sudden power system disturbance that can be
described by linear differential equations and can be stabilized by a linear
and continuous supplementary stability control.

۞ The system wide impact on the dynamic stability of a power system is

mainly due to the fact that the power produced by WPPs is not based
on the conventional WRSGs but on the different types of electrical
generators (i.e., SCIGs, WRIGs, DFIGs and PMSGs) used in WPPs

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 9.4.3 Frequency and WPPs
۞ Frequency is the number of changes or cycles per second of the voltage
and current in an AC system and is measured in hertz (Hz).
۞ In Afghanistan ,India and Europe, the nominal value of frequency is 50
Hz and when this is maintained at 50±0.1 Hz, the power system is
said to be stable.

۞ Frequency deviations can cause malfunctioning of some equipment

and frequency steered power electronic devices.

1-Jun-22 44
 9.4.3 Frequency and WPPs Cont.
WPPs and Frequency Variations
۞ Electrical grids operating with WPPs connected to weak, isolated
grids can have difficulty in maintaining the normal system frequency.

۞ The system frequency varies when gusty winds cause the power output
of WPPs to change rapidly.

۞ But modern variable speed WPPs using PECs, interface with the grid and
limit the output during gusty (or strong wind periods) winds.

1-Jun-22 45
 9.5 Wind Power Variability
۞ The wind power variability is a major problem for the integration of
wind power into the grid network.

۞ The variations in net wind power output that can be expected for a
given time period are within the minute, hour, hour-to-hour, monthly to
seasonal, annual and interannual variable.

a) Variations within a Minute: Due to the aggregation of WPPs and

wind farms, these fast variations (seconds to minute) of aggregated
wind power output (as a consequence of turbulence or transient
events) do not drastically affect the power system.

1-Jun-22 46
 9.5 Wind Power Variability Cont.
b) Variations within an Hour: The intra-hour variations are important
especially when the WPPs reach their cut-out wind speeds and shut
down rapidly from supplying full power to zero power during storms.

c) Hour-to-Hour Variations: A single large WPP or a wind farm can

exhibit hour-to-hour power swings of up to 60% of the capacity. But
aggregating the various large WPPs and wind farm outputs installed at
a variety of geographical locations can tide over this variability.

1-Jun-22 47
 9.5 Wind Power Variability Cont.
d) Monthly and Seasonal Variations: Although these monthly and
seasonal variations are not very important for day-to-day operation and
management of the grid, yet they are important for power system
planning and electricity trading due to forward contracts where the
wind power volume has an influence on price.

e) Interannual Variations: The interannual variability of the wind

energy is also not very important for daily operation and management.
However, it is seen that this variability is much less than the
variability of hydro inflow.

1-Jun-22 48
 9.6 Islanding
۞ If a section of a grid is isolated (islanded) from the rest of it and if
the WPP/wind farm continues to function as a power source on that
section of the grid, then this phenomenon is called islanding.

۞ In such a condition, the system voltage rises, creating an unbalance

between the reactive power production in the grid and the consumption of
reactive power of the WPP(s).

۞ To prevent such abnormal over voltages during islanding, it is essential

that any production of reactive power in the network is very quickly
absorbed or interrupted. This can only be achieved by means of
dynamic compensation devices, i.e., static VAr compensators (SVCs),
STATCOMs or DVRs.

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 9.6 Islanding Cont.
۞ With regard to system wide impacts, the WPP responses to electric grid
disturbances are summarized in this Table.

1-Jun-22 50
 9.6 Islanding Cont.
۞ With regard to system wide impacts, the WPP responses to electric grid
disturbances are summarized in this Table.

1-Jun-22 51
 9.7 WPP Electrical Safety And Grid
۞ From safety point of view, every WPP is mandatorily equipped with
some basic essential electrical protective provisions and some critical
features are duplicated to address the system wide impact. Some of
them are highlighted below:

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 9.7.1 Active Power Control of WPP
۞ Any form of active power control of a WPP requires a reduction in the
output power.

۞ Active power control is possible, as the output from the pitch

regulated WPPs is possible to be increased or decreased at any
moment by pitching the blades.

۞ If the wind forecast is quite good, it is possible to predict a

reduction in the wind speed in advance and the WPP output can then
be gradually reduced in advance to maintain the negative ramp rate
at an acceptable level.

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 9.8 WPP Inertia
۞ All rotating generating systems have inertia. Each element of a
rotating body contributes to the stored energy in the system. This
energy is released as the body reduces speed.

۞ For a WPP, the sum of the energy in all such elements like blades,
hub, shaft, gearbox and generator rotor is the stored energy.

۞ In constant speed WPPs, the rotor is flux-locked to the stator. The

retarding electrical system brakes the generator rotor, thus extracting
the stored energy.

1-Jun-22 54
 9.9 Plant Load Factor (Or Capacity Factor)
۞ A power plant with 100% load factor is one which runs every day
at full 100% rated power throughout the year (8760 hours). There is no
downtime for repairs or refueling which is an impossible goal for any
power plant.

۞ Typically, coal plants have 75% capacity rating, since they can run
day and night during any season of the year, if coal is available in
stock.

۞ Fossil fuel plants generally have a capacity factor of 75% (in 8760
hours) typically.

1-Jun-22 55
 9.9 Plant Load Factor (Or Capacity Factor) Cont.
۞ WPPs are different from the conventional power plants. The wind is
not available 100% of the time. WPPs depend on the speed of the
wind.

۞ A WPP, in a typical wind farm, operates from 65% to 80% of the

time, but usually at less than full rated capacity because the wind
speed is not always at optimum designed WPP rating levels.

۞ Generally, over the course of a year, a typical WPP generates around

30% of the theoretical rated output. This is known as its plant load
factor (PLF) or capacity factor.

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9.9 Plant Load Factor (Or Capacity Factor) Cont.

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 Example

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 9.10 Capacity Credit
۞ Due to variability, wind power raises the issue of the displacement of
conventional generating units (e.g. thermal units). WPPs connected to the
utility grid function as fuel savers.

۞ The capacity credit of wind power is a quantification of the effective

contribution of wind generation to the power system, e.g. the amount
of thermal units that can be replaced, thereby assessing the value of
wind power (or any renewable energy source).

۞ The capacity credit is strongly dependent on the climatic and geographic

conditions applicable for the considered region or country.

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 9.10 Capacity Credit
۞ Capacity credit of wind power may be defined as the power of
conventional generating power plants (e.g. thermal units) that can be
substituted by a variable generation (e.g. wind power or photovoltaic)
without decreasing the power system’s reliability.

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 Example

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