504

504
Voltage and VAr Support in

System Operation
Working Group
C2.13
August 2012
VOLTAGE AND VAR SUPPORT
IN SYSTEM OPERATION
WG C2.13
Members
Thales M. PAPAZOGLOU, Convenor (GR)

D. BEKAERT (BE), R. BECKER (DE), S. GASPERIC (SI), Q. GUO (CN), S. HONGBIN (CN), K.
MADAJEWSKI (PL), R.MIHALIC (SI), R. PESTANA (PT), G. STRADA (HU)
Copyright © 2012
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responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-196-1
Voltage and VAr Support in System Operation WG C2.13
Voltage and VAr Support in

System Operation
WG C2.13
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3
CHAPTER 1 5
INTRODUCTION 5
List of Symbols 6
List of Acronyms and Terminology 6
CHAPTER 2 8
ON MAINTAINING A GOOD VOLTAGE PROFILE IN STEADY-STATE AND TRANSIENT SITUATIONS 8
2.1 How to maintain a good Voltage profile 8
2.1.1 What controllable/switchable reactive power sources are available 13
2.1.2 Control schemes 15
2.1.2.1 The hierarchical control scheme 15
2.1.3 Examples 17
2.1.3.1 The Slovenian Control Scheme 17
2.1.3.2 The Chinese hierarchical control scheme 17
2.1.4 TSO and DSO interaction 22
2.1.4.1 The MAVIR system U/Q control 24
2.1.4.2 The current Swissgrid practice 26
2.2 Impact of current and future trends 26
2.2.1 An introductory example: Current situation and perspectives in Slovenian Electric Power System 26
2.2.1.1 Problems in Slovenian Electric Power System 27
2.2.2 Wind power: the example of Germany 28
2.2.3 Higher and more volatile transits: the example of China 30
2.2.3.1 Impact on Steady Operation 30
2.2.3.2 Impact on Transient Stability 31
2.2.4 Underground cables 32
2.2.4.1 Current and future power cable technology 32
2.2.4.2 HV and EHV cable characteristics 32
2.2.4.3 Reactive power compensation 34
2.2.4.4 Voltage profile in steady state 34
2.2.4.5 Transient voltages and currents 34
2.2.4.6 Load sharing 34
2.2.4.7 DC HV cables 35
2.2.4.8 Summary 35
2.2.5 HVDC Links 35
2.2.6 FACTS 36
2.2.7 Incentives for producers and markets of reactive power: the example of Poland 36
CHAPTER 3 37
3.1 Voltage depressions 37
3.1.1 Protection against voltage depressions 39
3.1.2 Fast capacitor switching 39
3.1.3 Under-voltage load shedding 39
3.2 Instabilities 40
3.2.1 Introduction 40
3.3 Voltage collapse 40
3.3.1 Diagnosis 40
Page 1
3.3.2 Logical Operations to detect a voltage collapse 41

3.3.3 Measures against a voltage collapse 41
3.3.3.1 Clearing (of the applied provisions) and return into “normal state” 41
3.3.4 Voltage collapse study cases 41
3.3.4.1 The Greek case 41
3.3.4.2 The Polish case 42
CHAPTER 4 44
4.1 FACTS 44
4.1.1 Controllable Series Compensation (CSC) 44
4.1.2 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) 46
4.1.3 Static Series Synchronous Compensator (SSSC) 49
4.1.4 The Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) 52
4.1.5 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 53
4.1.6 Quadrature Boosting Transformer (QBT) 55
4.1.7 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 57
CONCLUSION 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES 62
Page 2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Although real power is the primary objective in an Electric Power System (EPS) operation, reactive power
management is crucial in securing a smooth and optimal EPS operation. Nowadays, EPS operate within a set of
constraints, imposed by environmental, economic, and societal considerations. These result in operating EPSs close to
their limits, while, at the same time, trying to minimize costs, and keeping power supply quality at acceptable levels.
Today’s picture is made complex by the market rules, the characteristics of the new types of generation, and
frequently by an increasing severity of weather events. For example, today added challenges to control centres are
posed by the distributed generation and renewables. Also, today the issue of the boundaries between Transmission
System Operators (TSO) and Distribution System Operators (DSO) is more critical than ever. The borders between
different TSOs require special attention. The energy efficiency is at present very important. At the same time, new
technologies have come to maturity in dealing with today’s challenges. HVDC, FACTS devices, smart grid
technologies, are a few examples of present-day available instruments.
Reactive Power Management (RPM) involves key elements, such as Reactive Power Compensation (RPC) equipment,
Optimal Power Flow (OPF) software functionalities, etc, as well as some established practices in power industry.
Reactive power compensation equipment frequently used, are: switched shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, synchronous
condensers, generators, tap-changing transformers, Static VAr Compensators (SVC). Also, grid-topology measures,
such as switching on/off of lines or transformers under no-load conditions, are used for reactive power support in
system operation. OPF software is used in many cases as a day-ahead (D-1) scheduler, but also its use in real-time is
already being implemented, as the case of Tertiary Voltage Regulation (TVR) in China where OPF is the kernel –
details are included further in this document.
Some practices followed in power industry in regard to reactive power management, are:
(a) minimization of the cost of equipment in terms of choosing their most effective positioning (during planning),
type and sizing, or in terms of minimizing their maintenance costs (during operation), and
(b) it is generally accepted as a reactive power dispatching strategy that which results from voltage stability
security-assessment analysis, and which balances reactive power locally on all voltage levels and control areas.
Coordinated Voltage control in transmission networks has in the past also been the subject of another CIGRE
Technical Brochure, TB 310 [1].
In this present Technical Brochure, in line with the current CIGRE Strategic Direction #2 Making the best use of the
existing system [2] and in accordance with the Terms of Reference (ToR) of the WG, we endeavour in and expand:
On maintaining a good voltage profile in steady-state and transient situations, and in particular on:
(a) How to maintain a good Voltage profile, what controllable/switchable reactive power sources are available,
the control schemes, the TSO and DSO interaction, and
(b) The impact of current and future trends in technologies as well as in system practice, including: reference to
European and Chinese Electric Power systems, the impact of decentralized and distributed generation, higher and
more volatile transits, high-voltage underground cables, HVDC, FACTS, and market incentives for reactive power
producers.
Page 3
On preventing and mitigating interruptions, and in particular on:

(a) Voltage depressions including protection measures, fast capacitor switching, under-voltage load shedding,
(b) Instabilities with reference to rotor angle instability, transient instability, small signal instability, frequency
instability, short-term as well as long-term Voltage instabilities, and
(c) Voltage collapse study cases.
In particular this Technical Brochure includes four chapters, the conclusions at the end, and the references.
After the introduction, the start is from the Overhead Transmission Line (OHL) which constitutes the most basic element
of an EPS. The relevant electrical characteristics of the OHLs are thoroughly studied. A known characteristic of the
OHL is the change of its character from capacitive when the OHL is lightly loaded, to inductive when the OHL is
heavily loaded. Next, the SVC as a controllable reactive power source is presented. Then, the Hierarchical Control
Schemes (HCS) including the Primary Voltage Regulation (PVR), the Secondary Voltage Regulation (SVR) including
national and regional approach, and the Tertiary Voltage Regulation (TVR) are studied in detail including, as
examples, the Slovenian Control Scheme, and the Chinese Control Scheme. Next, the important subject of TSO and
DSO interaction is examined with the practice in China fully explained. Then, the example of U/Q control in
Hungary is exposed. Also, reference to the current Swissgrid practice is included. In examining the impact of current
and future trends, the first example given is that of the Slovenian EPS with the current situation and the future
perspectives. Then, the example of the German EPS with the great amount of wind generation is illustrated. Next,
the higher and more volatile transits and their impact on steady operation as well as on transient stability in the
Chinese EPS is explained. The underground (and undersea) cables and their relevant characteristics are thoroughly
dealt with. Then, the two types of HVDC (LCC HVDC, VSC HVDC) are examined. Chapter 2 ends with a reference to
the market incentives for reactive power that exist in Poland.
Chapter 3 begins with the different types of voltage depressions. Then, the protection against voltage depressions is
examined. Next, instabilities are examined, including rotor angle instability, transient instability, small signal
instability, frequency instability, voltage instabilities including short-term voltage instability as well as long-term
voltage instability. The all-important case of Voltage collapse is illustrated with two examples from Greece, and
Poland.
Chapter 4 is a very thorough, rigorous and detailed presentation and analysis of the relevant characteristics of all
FACTS devices, other than SVC which is fully examined in the second chapter, including: the Controllable Series
Compensation (CSC), the Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), the Static Series Synchronous Compensator
(SSSC), the Phase Shifting Transformer (PST), the Phase Angle Regulator (PAR), the Quadrature Boosting Transformer
(QBT), and the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC).
An extensive bibliography is included at the end of this TB.
In concluding, Voltage and reactive power support is a vital issue in system operation. In a medium size island
(autonomous) system, generators, capacitors, and tap-changing transformers provide all necessary instruments
together with the experience of the system operator to deal with this everyday problem. However, things are much
more complicated in the case of a large interconnected system. This issue has been examined in the past and a
CIGRE TB [1] was published five years ago. But, the reality in electric power systems is developing in such a very
fast pace that, it was decided to examine anew this issue and report the latest developments. Thus this Technical
Brochure dwells within the context of the Technical Issue #8 New Tools for system Technical performance assessment,
because of new Customer, Generator and Network characteristics of the CIGRE Technical Committee’s Project “Network
of the Future” [3]. It takes into account the issues of Distributed Generator characteristics, the evolution of power
system control at continental, country, regional, and local level, as well as the increased level of automation in
control centres, and the available now technological means and ways, and reports best practices within Europe and
China. Very valuable information is provided for the interested professionals in electric power systems.
Page 4
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Although real power is the primary objective in an Electric Power System (EPS) operation, reactive power
management is crucial in securing a smooth and optimal EPS operation. Nowadays, EPSs operate within a set of
constraints, imposed by environmental, economic, and societal considerations. These result in operating EPSs close to
their limits, while, at the same time, trying to minimize costs, and keeping power supply quality at acceptable levels.
Reactive power management (RPM) involves key elements, such as reactive power compensation (RPC) equipment,
OPF software functionalities, etc, as well as some established practices in power industry. Reactive power
compensation equipment frequently used, are: switched shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, synchronous condensers,
generators, tap-changing transformers, static VAr compensators. Also, grid-topology measures, such as switching
on/off of lines or transformers under no-load conditions, are used for reactive power support in system operation.
OPF software are used in many cases as a day-ahead (D-1) scheduler, but also the use in real-time is already being
implemented (as the case of TVR in China where OPF is the kernel – details are included further in this document).
Some practices followed in power industry in regard to reactive power management, are:
(a) Minimization of the cost of equipment in terms of choosing their most effective positioning (during planning), or
in terms of minimizing their maintenance costs (during operation), and
(b) It is generally accepted as a reactive power dispatching strategy that which results from voltage stability
security-assessment analysis, and which balances reactive power locally on all voltage levels and control areas.
Coordinated Voltage control in transmission networks has been the subject of another CIGRE Technical Brochure 310
[1].
In this Technical Brochure we endeavour in and expand:
On maintaining a good voltage profile in steady-state and transient situations and in particular on:
(a) How to maintain a good Voltage profile, what controllable/switchable reactive power sources are available,
the control schemes, the TSO and DSO interaction,
(b) The impact of current and future trends in technologies as well as in best system practices, including: reference
to European and Chinese Electric Power systems, the impact of distributed generation, higher and more volatile
transits, underground and submarine cables, HVDC, FACTS, and market incentives for reactive power producers.
On preventing and mitigating interruptions, and in particular on:
(a) Voltage depressions including protection measures, fast capacitor switching, under-voltage load shedding
(UVLS),
(b) Instabilities with reference to rotor angle instability, transient instability, small signal instability, frequency
instability, short-term as well as long-term Voltage instabilities, and
(c) Voltage collapse study cases.
In particular this Technical Brochure includes four chapters, the conclusions at the end, and the references.
The next chapter will begin by dealing with how to maintain a good voltage profile in system operation.
The list of symbols, acronyms, and terminology used herein follows next.
Page 5
LIST OF SYMBOLS
B Susceptance [S]
δi Voltage angle [º]
I Current [A]
p.u. Per Unit
P Active Power [W]
Q Reactive Power [VAr]
R Resistance [Ω]
U Voltage [V]
X Reactance [Ω]
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND TERMINOLOGY

ARNE Secondary voltage control system in Poland
AVC Automatic Voltage Control
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
CSC Controllable Series Compensation
CSG China Southern Power Grid
CSVC Coordinated Secondary Voltage Control
DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator
DSO Distribution System Operator
EHV Extra-High Voltage
EPS Electric Power System
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System
FRT Fault-Ride-Through
GIL Gas Insulated Lines
HCS Hierarchical Control Schemes
HPFF High Pressure Fluid Filled
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
HV High Voltage
LCC Line Commutated Converter
LDC Line Drop Compensation
LMC Losses Minimization Control
LSC Line Side Converter
LTC Load Tap Changer
LV Low Voltage
LVRT Low Voltage Ride-Through
MAS Multi Agent System
MSCDN Mechanically Switched Capacitors with Damping Network
MV Medium Voltage
Page 6
NVR National Voltage Regulator

OHL Overhead Transmission Line
OLTC On-Load Tap Changer
OPF Optimal Power Flow
ORPF Optimal Reactive Power Flow
PAR Phase Angle Regulator
PC Parallel Compensation
PID Proportional Integral Derivative
PMU Phasor Measurement Unit
PST Phase Shifting Transformer
PVR Primary Voltage Regulation
QBT Quadrature Boosting Transformer
RCC Reactive Current Compensation
REPORT Voltage and Reactive Power Regulator
ROPF Reactive Optimal Power Flow
RPM Reactive Power Management
RPC Reactive Power Compensation
RVR Regional Voltage Regulator
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SGCC State Grid Corporation of China
SSSC Static Series Synchronous Compensator
STATCOM Static Synchronous Compensator
SC Series Compensation
SQP Sequential Quadratic Programming
SVC Static VAR compensator
SVR Secondary Voltage Regulation
TB Technical Brochure
TEPCO Tokyo Electric Power Co.
TSO Transmission System Operator
TVR Tertiary Voltage Regulation
UHV Ultra High Voltage
UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller
UVLS Under Voltage Load Shedding
VSC Voltage Source Converter
WG Working Group
WSCC Western System Coordinating Council
Page 7
Chapter 2
ON MAINTAINING A GOOD VOLTAGE PROFILE IN STEADY-STATE AND TRANSIENT

SITUATIONS
2.1 HOW TO MAINTAIN A GOOD VOLTAGE PROFILE

Maintaining the voltage profile of a transmission line in all operation states is an important issue of a long
transmission. Voltage has to remain within the range between 0.9 and 1.1 p.u. in all locations despite the Ferranti
effect and voltage drops due to power transfer. As already well known the appropriate means for voltage control
is Parallel Compensation (PC). The reactive power compensation depends on the power transfer. Therefore in
situations where power transfer varies considerably and frequently it is reasonable to apply the combination of
fixed parallel compensation and the controllable one (e.g. FACTS devices - SVC, STATCOM).
In the Table 1 an overview is given of operational voltage limits in some European countries on the transmission level.
TABLE 1: OPERATIONAL VOLTAGE LIMITS ON NORMAL SYSTEM SITUATION
400 kV 220 kV 150 kV*, or 110 kV**

Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper
Belgium 380 418 213 242 147* 165*
Greece 380 420 142,5* 162*
Germany 360 420 210 245 100** 123**
Poland 380 420 210 245 105** 121**
Slovenia 380 415 220 240 104,5** 121**
A long transmission line system has been modelled to present voltage and power loss variations when reactive
compensations and FACTS devices are incorporated. The model consists of the generation centre and the electric
power consumption centre, connected via transmission lines. It crosses two regional power systems in which generation
and consumption are balanced. The structure of the system, its model and basic data are presented in Fig. 2.1. The
transmission corridor consists of two parallel lines, as otherwise (only one line) it would not be possible to achieve
satisfactory transmission reliability. The variables in the model are transmission length, transmission voltage level,
series compensation degree, parallel compensation rating and transmitted power. In table 2 the line parameters
included in the calculation are given.
In the calculated scenario the transmitted power via the corridor has been varied from 0 to 3.000 MW. The
transmission length between the subsystems is identical in all three subsections and varied from 333 km to 1.000 km
in the extreme case. Correspondingly the total transmission length amounts from 1.000 km to 3.000 km. The line
sections are series and parallel compensated. The line sections between connection points of the series and parallel
compensation (shunt) are modelled as a series of π subsections (see scheme model in Fig. 2.1). The most common
voltage level of 400 kV has been taken into consideration.
For lines the "standard line configurations” have been considered (number of conductors in a bundle, their cross-
sections). In some cases the conductors have been allowed to be loaded up to their thermal rating in order to be
able to establish the other limits, too.
Page 8
TABLE 2: THE TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS FOR THE LOAD FLOW CALCULATION OF THE SHOWN EXAMPLE
Rated voltage 400 kV 800 kV 1.100 kV

SIL (MW) 690 2.000 4.800
Nominal current / phase (A) 1.000 1.800 2.500
No. of Conductor in bundle 4 (8) 4 (8) 6 (12)
R20 (Ohm/km) Rafael R75 0,0165 (0,00825) 0,013 (0,0065) 0,007 (0,0035)
XL (Ohm/km) 0,266 (0,133) 0,276 (0,138) 0,291 (0,1455)
C (nF/km) 14,4 (28,8) 13,13 (26,26) 12,68 (25,36)
Power transmission: 0 ... 3.000 MW

Voltage level: 400 kV, 800 kV, 1.150 kV
ELECTRIC ELECTRIC
POWER SYS. 1 POWER SYS. 2
GENERATION CONSUMPTION
CENTRE CENTRE
333 ... 1.000 km Line (series Series

of π sections) compensation
Parallel (shunt)
compensation
Figure 2.1. Model of the longitudinal test system consists of double circuit lines.
The series compensation has an impact on the voltage profile as it is seen in Fig. 2.2. It is interesting to note that the
transmitted power doesn’t have a strong impact on voltage profile (compare diagrams in Fig. 2.3 "SC 80%, no PC,
P=0" and "SC 80%, no PC, P=1000 MW"). As the series compensation essentially reduces voltage profile, one
could conclude that only a small portion of the parallel compensation is needed to "fit" voltage into the desired
range of values. Such a conclusion is, however, wrong. The parallel compensation needed (at no load: P=0) is nearly
as much as if there would be no series compensation. This statement can be theoretically proved. The reason is that
parallel compensation and series compensation act in opposite direction regarding reactive power generation.
Page 9
Voltage / p.u. Voltage Profile of Series and Parallel Compensated 2x400 kV Line
1,2
PC=105 %, SC= 0 %, P=0 MW
PC=105 %, SC=50 %, P=0 MW
PC=105 %, SC=80 %, P=0 MW
PC=105 %, SC=80 %, P=1000 MW
PC=105 %, SC= 0 %, P=2000 MW

1,1
1,0
Transmission length / km
0,9
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000

Figure 2.2. Voltage profile of series (SC) and parallel (PC) compensated double circuit line sections.
In Fig. 2.3 is necessary to explain the red curve (no PC, SC=0%, P=1000 MW) which shows voltage dependency of
transmission line length during transmission of 1000 MW active power: Figure 2.1 shows the direction of load flow
from generation to consumption centre. In the first section is load flow the highest and causes more losses than in the
second and third section. In the first section transmitted power is higher than SIL – voltage in the middle of the section
is below 1p.u. and in the third section transmitted power is lower than SIL - voltage is above 1p.u.
Voltage / p.u. Voltage Profile of Series Compensated 2x400 kV Line
1,2
1,1
1,0
no PC, SC= 0 %, P=0 MW
no PC, SC=50 %, P=0 MW
no PC, SC=80 %, P=0 MW
no PC, SC= 0 %, P=1000 MW
Transmission length / km no PC, SC=80 %, P=1000 MW

0,9
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000

Figure 2.3. Voltage profile of series (SC) compensated double circuit line sections.
The parallel compensation rating in the example of 2x1.150 kV is in the range of 50 GVAr (Fig. 2.4), for the whole
system and for the example of 2x400 kV is in the range of 5 GVAr. Figure 2.4 shows how many MVAr of reactive
power for parallel compensation is needed for transmitted power of 0 MW, 2.000 MW, 4.000 MW and 6.000
MW.
Page 10
Parallel compensation 2x1150 kV line

[MVAr]
60.000
50.000
40.000
30.000
20.000
10.000
6000 MW 4000 MW 2000 MW 0 MW
0
1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 5.500 6.000
Transmission length [km]

Figure 2.4. Reactive power compensation as a Function of the Transmitted Power for the 2x1150 kV line.
Transmission losses are an important factor defining economic benefits of interconnections. The losses are calculated
for power transmission between generation and consumption centre shown in Fig. 2.1. Power of the subsystems
electric power system 1 and electric power system 2 is balanced. Lines are 80% series compensated, the parallel
compensation keeps voltage within limits. Losses as a function of transmitted power, transmission distance and
voltage level are presented in Fig. 2.5÷2.7.
Losses [MW] 2x400 kV line
3.500
3.000
2.500
1000 km
2.000
2000 km
3000 km
1.500
4000 km
1.000 5000 km
6000 km
500 30 Deg
S 6000
0
0 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000
Transmitted power [MW]

Figure2.5. Transmission Losses as a Function of the Transmitted Power for the 2x400 kV line.
The curve "30 deg" limits the transmission angle between subsystems to 30 degrees. The transmission angle 30
degrees is set due to operational reasons of the electric power system, the power transmission with angles more than
30 degrees, according to expert point of view, reference [4], can cause stability problems. Also from this point of
Page 11
view it is obvious that lower voltage levels are not appropriate for power transfer over long distances. Conditions in
which losses exceed 15% of transmitted power or more are not economically reasonable.
3.000
1000 km
2000 km
2.500
3000 km
4000 km
2.000
5000 km
6000 km
1.500
30 Deg
S 6000
1.000
500
0
0 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000

Figure 2.6. Transmission Losses as a Function of the Transmitted Power for the 2x800 kV line.

3.000
1000 km
2.500 2000 km
3000 km
2.000
4000 km
5000 km
1.500
6000 km
SC 6000
1.000
500
0
0 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000

Figure 2.7. Transmission Losses as a Function of the Transmitted Power for the 2x1.150 kV line.
In the diagrams in Fig. 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7 the dotted curves "SC 6000" are presented. They represent losses at 6.000
km power transmission, but only with the series compensation and without any parallel compensation. Due to large
capacitive currents losses, especially at low transfer powers, the total losses are dramatically high. It means that
parallel compensation is necessary not only for voltage profile maintenance, but also for an economic transmission
when using series compensated lines.
Page 12
2.1.1 WHAT CONTROLLABLE/SWITCHABLE REACTIVE POWER SOURCES ARE AVAILABLE

Reactive sources frequently used, are: switched shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, synchronous condensers, generators,
tap-changing transformers, static VAr compensators. In this section we will discuss the Static VAr Compensator (SVC),
and in the Chapter 4, under the heading FACTS, we will present the Controllable Series Compensation (CSC), the
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), and the Static Series Synchronous Compensator (SSSC).
The Static VAr Compensator (SVC)

The SVC is represented by a parallel connected controllable susceptance BSVC. The model of the network with SVC
included is presented in Fig. 2.8 and the impedance scheme of such a system is shown in Fig. 2.8.
U1 USVC U2
X1 X2
P1 BSVC P2
Q1 Q2
Pload
Qload

Figure 2.8. Model of the transmission system with SVC: network scheme.

Figure 2.9. Model of the transmission system with SVC: network impedance scheme.
With the losses in SVC being neglected, SVC may be represented as a parallel susceptance BSVC corresponding to
SVC operating point. The impedance scheme can be transformed by "Y – D" transformation (dotted-line elements in
Fig 2.9). The parallel reactance XA and XB in the presented case do not play any role thus U1 and U2 are assumed
constant. The effect on the transmission line is in this case the same as though the series compensation with the
impedance
XCSC = –X1·X2·BSVC is used. From this equation it is evident that BSVC is in direct proportion to reduction of the series
system reactance XR = X1·X2·BSVC. Therefore, the transmission characteristic is described by the following equation:
U1 ⋅U 2 U1 ⋅U 2
P1 = sin (δ1 − δ 2 ) P2 = sin (δ 2 − δ1 )
X1 + X 2 − X1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ BSVC X1 + X 2 − X1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ BSVC
and the reactive powers correspond to the expressions:
Page 13
U12 ⋅ (1 − BSVC ⋅ X 2 ) − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) U 22 ⋅ (1 − BSVC ⋅ X1 ) − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ 2 − δ1 )

Q1 = Q2 =
From economic reasons in practice SVC’s are not rated as high as to be able to keep voltage at the desired level
over the whole range of transmission angles. At certain angle δ C a SVC reaches its limit and the constant voltage
principle cannot be satisfied. From this angle on, a SVC behaves as a parallel connected capacitor.
Voltages U1 and U2 can be defined in the same manner as in the case of a CSC:
U 1 = U1 ,
U 2 = U 2 ⋅ ( cos δ 2 + jsin δ 2 ) ,
δ = δ1 − δ 2 .
*
S1
Again, following the expression I 1 = * , the current I1 can be written as:
U1
I 1 = Re { I 1} + jIm { I 1}
where is
P1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) + Q1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) P1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) − Q1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )

Re { I 1} = and Im{ I 1} = .
U1 U1
Using the expressions for active and reactive powers (P1, Q1), real and imaginary part of current I1 is written as:
1 − BSVC ⋅ X 2 U 2 − U1 ⋅ (1 − BSVC ⋅ X 2 ) ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )

Re { I 1} = U1 ⋅ ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) Im{ I 1} =
Voltage USVC is therefore written as:
U SVC = U 1 − jI 1 ⋅ X 1 = Re {U SVC } + jIm {U SVC }
where
U 2 ⋅ X1 + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 )
Re {U SVC } = and Im{U SVC } = .
X1 + X 2 − X 2 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ BSVC X1 + X 2 − X1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ BSVC
So, the magnitude Usvc is: USVC = Re {U SVC } + Im {U SVC } .

2 2
The magnitudes of load voltage U2, dependent on active load power Pload, for various values of BSVC are presented
in Fig. 2.10.
Page 14
1,1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
U 2 [p.u.]
R = 0 p.u.; X = 0,3 p.u.

0,5
Srated = Bsvc = 0,0 p.u.
0,4
Srated = Bsvc=0,2 p.u.

0,3
0,2 Srated = Bsvc=0,4 p.u.
0,1
Srated = Bsvc=0,6 p.u.
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2
P load [p.u.]

Figure 2.10. Voltage magnitude at load bus (U2) for various values of BSVC.
The rated power, which is explained in the section Generic model, of the SVC is determined:
SSVC rated = U rated

2
⋅ BSVC = BSVC .
2.1.2 CONTROL SCHEMES
2.1.2.1 The hierarchical control scheme

The system-wide Automatic Voltage Control (AVC) system was implemented firstly in Europe. Since 1970s~1980s, a
three-level hierarchical voltage control architecture, which is based on the concepts of zone division and pilot bus,
was implemented in France [5, 6 ,7]. Such a hierarchical control scheme was generally accepted and widely applied
since born, which consisted of Primary Voltage Regulation (PVR), Secondary Voltage Regulation (SVR) and Tertiary
Voltage Regulation (TVR), shown in Fig. 2.11.
The PVR is a kind of local control using local information only, involving Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) to
keeping generator terminal voltages at set-point values, On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC) and switchable capacitors.
PVR performs against rapid voltage variation in a few seconds.
SVR works with a time constant of a few minutes to control the voltages of pilot buses, which are selected and
considered as respective of the voltages at all the points in a control zone, according to their set-points. If any
difference found between the voltage and the set-point value of a pilot bus, the PVR set-point values will be reset
by SVR. SVR is a kind of regional control with information only in its own control zone.
TVR, the highest level in the hierarchical control architecture, is designed to minimize the power transfer loss
considering security constraints, which output are the set-points for all the pilot buses voltage in each secondary
control zone. TVR is a kind of system-wide optimization control with a time constant from 15 minutes to several hours.
Page 15
TVR
V P1SET V P2SET V P3SET
SVR 1 SVR 2 SVR 3
V g1SET V g2SET
PVR 1 PVR 2

Figure 2.11. Hierarchical voltage control architecture.
The secondary voltage control has been implemented and put into practice in EDF [1]. Up to 1985, almost the whole
French power system has been equipped with secondary voltage controller, including 27 control zones and 250
power plants, with reactive power regulation capacity of 30.000 MVAr. A similar hierarchical control architecture
was put into practice later in Italy [8, 9, 10], which consists of one NVR (National Voltage Regulator), three RVRs
(Regional Voltage Regulators) and 35 REPORTs (Voltage and Reactive Power Regulators) implemented on power
plants, with an overall capability of about 20.000 MVAr [10]. Figure 2.12 shows the schematic diagram of the
Italian hierarchical voltage control system. The most difference from EDF is the implementation of NVR, which an
Optimal Reactive Power Flow (ORPF) for Losses Minimization Control (LMC) computes, in short (the day ahead) or
very short (minutes ahead) terms, the forecasted optimal voltages and reactive levels, starting from the
foreseen/current state estimation. Therefore Tertiary Voltage Regulator (TVR) minimizes the differences between the
actual field measurements and the optimal forecasted references then reset the RVR set-point values [9].

Figure 2.12. Schematic diagram of the Italian hierarchical voltage control system [9].
Page 16
2.1.3 EXAMPLES
Now some implemented examples of control schemes will be described.
2.1.3.1 The Slovenian Control Scheme

The size and composition of the Slovenian transmission system is described by the following figures:
The total length of transmission lines is: (a) 1.736 km at 110 kV, (b) 328 km at 220 kV, and (c) 508 km at 400 kV.
The peak load is 2 GW. The installed generation mix is: 29% hydropower, 33% coal and 38% nuclear.
The primary voltage support is achieved by the automatic action taken by the voltage regulators in the synchronous
generators connected to power plants. Orders to adjust the voltage set point at appropriate generators are used to
keep voltages within maximum and minimum limits.
In the Slovenian 110 kV network is in operation one synchronous condenser (rated reactive power -19 to 50 MVAr)
and one SVC (rated reactive power -90 to 30 MVAr) in the steel plant to achieve flicker mitigation.
Almost all transformers (400/110 kV, 220/110 kV) in the transmission grid are equipped with automatic on-load
tap changers (OLTC) operating in automatic mode. The reference voltage values of the transformers voltage
regulators are set by operators in the substations or in some cases remote from main control centre.
The secondary voltage (reactive power) support regarding the main grid is managed by the main dispatcher from
the unique republic control centre in Ljubljana. At the uncommon events the main dispatcher establishes contacts with:
The local control centres (to change voltage reference of OLTC of transformer, to reconnect transmission lines),
The control centres of Slovenian power plants (to adjust reactive power, in some cases to change voltage reference
of OLTC of transformer) and
A as circumstances require with a neighbouring TSO’s to assure sufficient reactive power respectively actual power
flows to enable maintaining voltage within the permissible limits.
According to the grid code the TSO each day plans a reactive power production regarding load profile for the next
day and determines reactive power reserve and its placement in the network.
The TSO each year buy at an auction a reserve of the active and reactive power for the next year.
In distribution (MV) network the voltage is maintained within the limits with automatic OLTCs. In some substations 110
kV/MV, due to the low power factor, the capacitors banks are installed.
2.1.3.2 The Chinese hierarchical control scheme

The typical European hierarchical voltage control system consists of some geographically distributed secondary
voltage controllers (within SVR). The theoretical foundation of the SVR is that voltage control is prevalently a local
problem. Once network zone division is determined based on offline study [7], SVRs are developed and then fixed
to this division. However, original weak-coupled control zones may change with variation of power system. As a
result, the control performance of SVRs will be degraded significantly after great changes in power network
configuration.
In China, such a problem will be more and more significant because the power electrical industry is now developing
very fast. Such an architecture based on fixed zone division is not suitable for Chinese power grids. So, a novel
hierarchical AVC system based on online adaptive network zone division is proposed in China [11, 12], as shown in
Fig. 2.13. Logically such a system is in a three level hierarchical structure, however, both secondary voltage control
and tertiary voltage control here are implemented with software in a control centre, and the control zones are no
Page 17
longer fixed according to variation in power systems, which is more suitable for the fast developing Chinese power
grids.
The AVC system based on adaptive zone division has been implemented in Jiangsu provincial power system since
November 2002. And later on, this system has been extended its applications to more than a dozen control centres
in China, such as the North China Power Grid with generating capacity of 119 GW. Now it has been implemented
and online test at PJM control centre, USA, with generating capacity of 164 GW, since February 2010 [13].
Some key technologies implemented in the proposed AVC systems are introduced briefly as follows.
i‐th
SVR
TVR PVR
i‐th
SVR

Figure 2.13. Architecture of the hierarchical AVC system in China.
2.1.3.2.1 Zone division
All the three-level hierarchical voltage control architectures are based on dividing power grid into weak-coupled
control zones, regardless if such a division is done online or offline. Basically, the validity of dividing the system into
voltage control zones is based on the criteria presented below [7]:
The voltage value at the pilot node indeed reflects the change in all the voltage values of the zone.
There is sufficient volume of controllable reactive power in the zone to be able to master the changes in voltage.
Each secondary control zone is sufficient uncoupled from its neighbours for the controls with a zone to be slightly
influenced by the actions carried out in other zones.
Dividing a power grid into some most decoupled zones majorly involves the following two sub-problems: firstly, how
to define the “electrical distance” between each two nodes; secondly, how to merge the nodes into several clusters
according to the distance definition.
Page 18
The well-known idea of electrical distance, based on sensitivity calculation, was carried out by EDF [7] and widely
accepted by the following researchers. Another electrical distance definition is based on a concept of reactive
control space driven by generator MVAr output [14]. Each load node can be described with a coordination vector in
the reactive control space. Then a novel electrical distance in the reactive control space is defined in a Euclid-space
with high-dimension.
Once the electrical distance is defined, the problem of power network zone division can be transformed into a
clustering analysis problem, which is usually solved by a hierarchical clustering algorithm. It is interesting to note that
reasonable number of control zones can be determined automatically according to characteristics of variation of the
merging distance in the clustering process [7, 14]. Figure 2.14 shows the process of bus merging [12].
The vertical arrow shown in Fig. 2.14 indicates the direction of merging of buses, i.e. from top to down. Firstly each
bus is a zone, so there are lots of zones. With the merging distance becomes larger and larger, zone numbers
become less and less, finally all buses merged into one zone. In the merging process, we can find a flat segment, as
shown in Fig. 2.14, if we want to merge buses from five to four zones, a much larger merging distance is needed. It
means that there are five weak-coupled zones in the systems. So five is an appropriate number of control zones.
Then we can get the zone boundary. The SVRs can be re-configured after a new zone division is gotten, which
supports the online adaptive zone division.
No of
zones
Flat Segment
Figure 2.14. Hierarchical clustering based zone division.
2.1.3.2.2 Reactive Optimal Power Flow
Both for TVR online and as a planning tool offline, ROPF (Reactive Optimal Power Flow) are important modules with
the goal of transmission losses minimization and security constraints in high dimensions as well. Typically, the objective
function of a ROPF model is as
min f = PLoss = ∑
(i,j) ∈ NL
( Pij + Pji )
with the following constraints:

⎧ PGi − PDi = U i ⋅ ∑ U j ⋅ (Gij ⋅ cos δ ij + Bij ⋅ sin δ ij )
⎪ j∈ I
⎪
h( x) = ⎨QGi − QDi = U i ⋅ ∑ U j ⋅ (Gij ⋅ sin δ ij − Bij ⋅ cos δ ij )
⎪ j∈ I
⎪i = 1, ,NB δs = 0
⎩
QGimin ≤ QGi ≤ QGimax i = 1, , NQG
t min
k ≤ tk ≤ t max
k k=1,… ,NT
U i
min
≤ Ui ≤ U i
max
i = 1, , NB
Page 19
Where
NL Set of branches
NB Number of buses
NQG Number of control generators
NT Number of transformer tap changers
PGi, QGi Active and reactive power of generator on bus i
PDi, QDi Active and reactive power of load on bus i
Ui , δ i Voltage magnitude and phase angle of bus i
δs Phase angle of slack bus
QGimin , QGimax Reactive power limits for generator on bus i
tkmin , tkmax Tap ratio limits for transformer k
U imin , U imax Voltage magnitude limits for bus i
The constraints shown above are the fundamental ones, which are flexible and extendable to satisfy different
application demands. There is a more than thirty-year research history for such an optimal programming problem
since it was presented [15]. Lots of methods, such as Newton method, SQP (Sequential Quadratic Programming)
Method and Interior Point method, were carried out and proved to be of good performance. When used as tool to
calculate real-time control strategy of TVR in China, an efficient hybrid decoupled optimal power flow approach is
adopted to take advantage of the inherent weak coupling characteristics between real and reactive power flows
[16]. The solution to the original optimization problem can be approximated iteratively by solving real and reactive
sub-problems alternately. The reactive sub-problem, based on sparse quadratic programming, is solved iteratively
while the active sub-problem is kept unchanged. The outputs of the TVR are the optimal set-points of the voltages at
the pilot buses. The cycle of execution of ROPF varies from 15 minutes to 1 hour, and is adaptive to the forecasted
daily load demand curve. The result of ROPF can be given out in the CPU time about 3-5 times than that of fast
decoupled load flow.
2.1.3.2.3 Control strategies of SVR
The SVR, which implemented for one control zone, measures the most important voltages and reactive powers in the
zone and calculates the control strategy by a Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller or simple optimal
programming model. Therefore, SVC was proved to be a robust performance on control reliability.
The PID based SVR was carried out by EDF [5], consisting of a voltage control loop and a reactive power control
loop, as shown in Fig. 2.15. The SVR system measures the instantaneous voltage at the zone pilot bus, compares it
with the voltage set-point, and applies a proportional-integral law to determine a signal representing the reactive
power level required for this zone. This signal is then used to calculate a set-point for the reactive-power control
loop of each generating unit. Steady-state reactive power generation is therefore aligned, with each generating
unit contributing to the total reactive power requirement proportionally to its capabilities [17].
Some limitations were found during the operation of SVR [17]. Firstly, coupling between theoretically independent
zone had increased as a result of grid development; Secondly, SVR required reactive-power alignment of
generating units involved only according to their capability, without considering the different control sensitivity of
these units; Thirdly, the internal reactive power control loop at generating units level is a destabilizing factor that
can actually amplify the initial disturbance in the first few instants following certain incidents; Fourthly, SVR was not
Page 20
able to considering and monitoring all the important operation constraints; Fifthly, control loop parameters were
fixed.

Figure 2.15. Secondary voltage control structure in EDF [4].
To improve the control performance, a CSVC (Coordinated Secondary Voltage Control) model was presented in
Europe [18] and subsequently widely applied in other countries [8, 12, 13, 19, 20]. Most of these CSVC are based
on quadratic programming model considering voltage and reactive power constraints in the zone. Generally, there
are more than one goal in the objective function, for instance, in China [12, 21], the first goal of this model is to
control the voltages at the pilot nodes to follow the optimal set-points, which are updated by the TVC module, and
the second goal with lower priority is to equilibrate MVAr reserve distribution among the generators in each control
zone so as to enhance security of power system. The Voltage/VAr constraints in the corresponding control zone will
be considered in each SVR module as well.
For each zone, a CSVC module is just an optimal problem in small-scale, not based on state estimation but based on
measurement and sensitivity. So it can be solved easily and efficiently. For each zone, just a few necessary
measurements inside its zone are needed, such as voltages on pilot buses, high voltages of plants, reactive outputs of
controlled generators and reactive power flow through tie lines.
2.1.3.2.4 Substation Voltage Control with Discrete Devices
As important as generators in power plants, the regulation of reactive power compensators and LTC transformers at
substations is also essential to maintain system voltage profile. These discrete control devices, such as capacitors,
reactors and LTCs, are supposed to provide base reactive power and maximize the spinning reactive power reserve
in case of emergencies. As well as power plants, automatic voltage control for substations has been carried out in
many countries, which are basically classified into two different ways, one is local control scheme implemented at
substation and the other is system-wide control schema implemented at control centre.
The local control scheme is based on local measurements of the substation, including the voltage of all the voltage
levels, the reactive power on different sides of the transformers, the on/off status of the breakers, and so on. In
some cases, some remote signals, such as the generator reactive power if necessary, are also collected in addition
[1]. Typically, some expert rules are embedded into the microprocessor, in which a nine-zone diagram control
scheme is applied most widely [1].
For a system-wide control scheme, the discrete devices are taken into account together with the continuous ones in an
optimization model to seek the global optimal solution. In Belgium [22], a three-step process is used to recommend
Page 21
capacitor bank switching, tap changing and reactive power production based on OPF. However, the OPF problem is
actually a mix-integer programming model which is a great challenge to solve, because there are more complex
constraints for the discrete devices, such as the maximum action times per day and the minimum time interval
between two actions. So there are many practical methods as well. In Italy [23], the SVR reactive power level qi(t) is
adopted as an indicator to describe the voltage regulation ability. If all the generator units are fixed by their over-
excitation limits, qi(t) will reach +1. To avoid operation at saturated status, all possible reactive power resources
(capacitors, reactors, synchronous or static compensators, etc) installed in the control area are automatically
controlled if qi(t) is near +1. In China, a practical guideline adopted for coordinated control is to adjust discrete
variables firstly to meet the basic reactive power demand and save continuous devices as dynamic reserve [24].
Fourteen 500 kV substations (163 capacitors and 88 reactors) with capacity 13 GVAr are close-looped controlled in
North China Power Gird based on the guideline. Also in the similar way, Tokyo Electric Power Co. (TEPCO) applies
shunt compensation to ensure reactive power reserves at power plants for severe contingencies during peak load
periods as well as to correct load power factor [22].
2.1.4 TSO AND DSO INTERACTION

The control centres in China are organized in a 5-level hierarchical structure, which includes state level, regional
level, provincial level, municipal level and county level (Fig. 2.16). Except the state grid control centre, which is
necessarily the one and only, there are 6 regional grid control centres, 30 provincial grid control centres, about 310
municipal grid control centres, and more than 2.000 county grid control centres in China. The six regional grids are
respectively the North China Grid, the Northeast Grid, the Central China Grid, the East China Grid, the Northwest
Grid and the South China Grid. The former five regional grids belong to SGCC (State Grid Corporation of China)
and the last one belongs to CSG (China Southern Power Grid).

Figure 2.16. The 5-level hierarchical structure of the control centres in China.
Figure 2.17 shows division of voltage levels controlled by different control centres levels. In general, Provincial Grid
Control Centres are also defined as TSOs and Municipal Grid Control Centres are defined as DSOs.
Traditional AVC system is deployed in transmission system control centre. With the development of smart grid, more
and more attention has been paid on distribution level. For example, in China, a hierarchical control structure is
adopted in power system dispatching, of which TSO and DSO are two important levels. TSO is responsible for the
power networks with 220 kV voltage level and above, and DSO is in charge of the power networks with 110kV and
below. While in Europe, the borders between TSO and DSO are not the same in different countries, and in some
Page 22
cases the distribution power grids are meshed and coupled with the TSO power grids. But for operational issues it is
still generally accepted to treat distribution grid as a radial grid. The control actions in TSO and DSOs will
inevitably affect each other. In order to get more reasonable reactive power flow and voltage profile in the whole
transmission and distribution grids, coordinated control between TSO and DSOs is necessary.

Figure 2.17. Division of voltage levels controlled by different control centres levels.
From the viewpoint of TSO, the DSOs’ radial power grids can be equivalent to be loads. The reactive power
compensation in DSOs will directly determine the reactive power absorbed from the higher system. On the other
hand, seen from DSOs, the TSO’s power grid can be equivalent to be a generator. The voltage profile on the
interface buses of DSOs will be majorly determined by TSO [25].
In China, a distributed bidirectional coordinated voltage control between provincial and district power networks was
implemented and applied in Jiangsu Province power network, as described in Fig. 2.18 [26].

Figure 2.18. MAS architecture of bidirectional coordinated voltage control between TSO and DSOs.
Multi-agent system (MAS) is adopted as architecture for such coordinated control. The reactive power flows and
voltages on the boundaries of TSO and DSOs are chosen as coordinated variables. The superior TSO agent
determines the voltage controllable ability and reactive power compensation requirement of TSO on the boundaries,
while the DSO agents determine the voltage requirement and reactive compensable ability of DSOs on the
boundaries. All these requirement and ability are considered as coordinated constraints to be sent to the coordinator
agent by communication networks. The coordinator agent checks the operation status on each boundary between
TSO and DSOs, calculates coordination strategy and sends it back to TSO and DSOs. TSO and DSOs receive the
coordination strategy and take it as new constraints to be considered in their TVR and SVR control models.
Page 23
2.1.4.1 The MAVIR system U/Q control

The structure of control
U/Q optimisation: performed by the VS network analysis function (see Fig. 2.19) that runs, like the other Network
Analysis (NA) functions, on the NA server as part of the real-time sequence. Its task is to calculate settings, starting
with the real-time network state obtained from the results of the State Estimator and involving the assigned
voltage/var control devices, in order to relieve limit violations with minimal control actions and to minimise network
loss.
Calculation and issuing of commands, that is, U/Q control proper: performed by the AVC function running on the
COM server that calculates and issues setpoints to control the U/Q control devices, based on the calculated results of
the VS function and on manual settings. The AVC is made up of two portions: the AVC-U controls buses and units, the
AVC-S controls the tap position of transmission grid LTC transformers.
Figure 2.19 shows the main segments and links of the U/Q control.
State Estimator
Supervisory
AVC-S control
(SCADA)
Alarm
U/Q
optimisation processing
[VS]
AVC-U RTU
Figure 2.19. Structure of the system-wide U/Q control.
The U/Q optimisation implements the strategy of the system-wide U/Q control, the actuation is done by the AVC by
knowing the real-time measured values and status indications, with participation and monitoring by the dispatchers.
Control reserve is to be maintained for operating the U/Q control. During iterations, the algorithm calculating the
optimum observes network constraints, device stress available for control purposes, control ranges and priorities.
Figure 20 shows the dispatcher overview display of the U/Q control.
2.1.4.1.1 Voltage/VAr optimization
The task of the U/Q optimisation (VS function) is, in normal state, to find the settings for U/Q control devices that
minimise the network active power loss, and in state of limit violation to find the minimum control adjustments for
U/Q control devices that relieve the limit violation.
The VS runs automatically as a part of the real-time sequence:
- periodically (current setting), after each periodic execution of the State Estimator which practically means a
periodicity of 5 minutes, or
- acyclically, after each event-triggered execution of the State Estimator.
It is also possible to initiate the VS manually.
Page 24
2.1.4.1.2 Generating units participation in the voltage optimisation
Enabling/disabling the participation of generating units in the optimisation can be set together (global enabling) or
individually. The individual enabling/disabling depends mainly on the state indications coming from the power
stations through telecontrol. Any unit can participate in the control for which the power plant:
- specified busbar control and assigned the busbar control to MAVIR,
- specified unit control and assigned the unit control to MAVIR.
The dispatcher decides about the actual optimisation participation of the unit eligible to participate in the control.

Figure 2.20. Overview display of the U/Q Control Screen.
2.1.4.1.3 Transformers participation in the voltage optimisation
Enabling/disabling the participation of LTC transformers in the optimisation can be set together (global enabling) or
individually but the global enabling affects only the individually enabled transformers. The global enabling may be
valid for the optimisation to relieve limit violations, for the loss minimisation or both.
2.1.4.1.4 Operating the U/Q control
The system-wide U/Q control is a new function in the MAVIR system control operation and the dispatchers are still to
become familiar with its operation so a relatively long trial operation phase will follow the commissioning of the
function. The trial operation will serve to establish user procedures, finalise the operator displays of the VS and AVC
functions, fine tune the VS optimisation iteration constants and the matching of AVC command calculation and output
in logics. A most practical way to comprehensively test the function before the trial operation is to do it on the
Dispatcher Training Simulator.
The results of the VS function and the calculated desired values can be actuated only as a whole. The automatic
execution of the central control assumes the commands reach the controlled devices and they execute the commands.
Page 25
2.1.4.2 The current Swissgrid practice
Currently the main means of voltage control and reactive power compensation for the Swiss transmission system is
the reactive power dispatching from generators connected to the transmission grid. The power plants connected
directly to the transmission grid are contractually obliged to offer voltage support. As of 01.01.2011, distribution
grids have the option to also participate in the voltage control with their tap-changing transformers or power plants
at lower voltage levels. As an addition to that, 380/220 kV coupling tap-changing transformers, as well as
topological measures (switching on/off of lines or transformers under no-load conditions) are applied, so as to
maintain a healthy voltage profile throughout the grid. Reactive compensations devices exist in lower voltages level
and future investments in such devices for the transmission grid are momentarily in the planning phase.
The reactive power planning is based on minimization of the costs for active losses and reactive energy. The costs for
the delivery of the required reactive power are minimized from the power plant operators.
The Optimal Power Flow program is implemented in the D-1 time frame. The main output of the software is a
voltage plan for every hour of the day ahead and for every node of the Swiss transmission system which is
regulated from a power plant or a distribution grid. On deviations of the grid’s actual situation in comparison to the
forecast, we have the opportunity to issue an intraday voltage plan.
There is no online reactive power dispatching system available at present. The reactive power dispatching of the
power plants is only implied through the target voltage of every node for each hour and monitored from the
dispatchers.
An offline cost-based optimization is applied.
The reactive power sources are only of one kind (generators) and are financially compensated for the voltage
support with a flat tariff. Therefore, our focus is primarily on the good voltage profile of the grid.
2.2 IMPACT OF CURRENT AND FUTURE TRENDS
2.2.1 AN INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: CURRENT SITUATION AND PERSPECTIVES IN SLOVENIAN

ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM
Slovenian power system consists of 2572 km of transmission lines (1.736 km in 110 kV, 328 km in 220 kV and 508
km in 400 kV voltage level) which are operated by one fully state owned TSO – Elektro Slovenia.
Figure 2.21 presents power lines, where 400 kV are coloured red, 220 kV are green. In medium-term plan are
dashed red lines which present 400 kV voltage level. By the year 2015 is planned the conclusion of the project
2x400 kV line Beričevo – Krško, by the year 2017 the project 2x400 kV line Cirkovce – Pince should be finished
and around 2020 the line 2x400 kV Okroglo - Udine.
The Slovenian EPS is also connected in the Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE). The
interconnections with neighbour countries are:
- with Italian grid 1x400 kV line and 1x220 kV line,
- with Austrian grid 2x400 kV lines and 1x220 kV line,
- with Croatian grid 1x400 kV line and 2x400 kV lines, 2x1x220 kV lines and 2x1x220 kV lines and 3x1x110 kV
lines.
Page 26
The electric power production overall consists of:

* 29% of hydropower generation (4,2 TWh, year 2009),
* 33% of coal power stations (4,7 TWh, year 2009) and
* 38% of nuclear power plant Krško (5,4 TWh, year 2009, whole production - Slovenian and Croatian parts
together).

Figure 2.21. Transmission power system of Slovenia with 220 and 400 kV voltage level [27].
The production units and interconnection lines are satisfactorily dispersed in the Slovenian high voltage grid. The
peak power demand in Slovenia was about 2 GW. Most production units are in the northeast (Thermal power plant
Šoštanj, chain of hydro power plants on river Drava) and in the east (Nuclear power plant Krško), but the
consumption is mostly in the central part of the country and a lot of energy flows towards Italy. In 2010 pumped
storage power plant Avče was put in operation.
In December 2010 the first phase shift transformer (PST) started with operation which increased the reliability of
operation of 400 kV electricity transmission systems, restriction of uncontrolled big transit of electricity through the
Slovenian power system and the direct reduction of losses in the transmission network. At the same time there will
also be limitation of the uncontrolled transit of electricity from Eastern Europe to Italy and the settlement of
congestion.
2.2.1.1 Problems in Slovenian Electric Power System

The establishment of the electricity market has caused a trend of buying the cheapest electricity from the Balkans
and selling it to the Northern European countries. The problem of excessive power flows appears especially in the
400 kV connection between Italy and Slovenia. Therefore the Slovenian TSO ELES installed the phase shift
transformer in the HV substation Divača, which controls the power flows between Italy and Slovenia. Before the
phase shift transformer was put in operation the power flows exceeded many times the agreed maximum value.
There is an issue how the phase shift transformer will be capable to control the pick power flows up to 2.100 MW.
Page 27
2.2.2 WIND POWER: THE EXAMPLE OF GERMANY

The German Electric Energy System (EES) is specially affected by wind, because a total of 27,2 GW wind energy
converters are installed (end of 2010). The maximum electric consumption in Germany is 77 GW, the lowest demand
40 GW. Germany’s highly meshed extra-high-Voltage 380/220-kV-grid includes a line length of approximately
35.000 km. The dena I study, which analysed necessary means to integrate more Wind turbine generators, was
published in 2005 and reasoned 850 km new lines to be built until 2015. The latest dena II study, which looked into
2020/2025, concluded an additional grid extension of approximately 3500 km lines to integrate wind and other
renewable energy sources. The conventional power plant park consists of different generation technologies (year
2009):
Nuclear 21 GW
Lignite 22 GW
Hard Coal 25 GW
Gas (OCGT) + Oil 4 GW
Pump Storage 8,5 GW
Gas-fired power plant (CCGT) 16 GW
Renewable Energies play a major role in Germany’s power system. The installed capacity is 27,2 GW in wind and
13 GW in photovoltaic. State-aided subvention will continue, so that in 2020 it can be foreseen to have 51 GW
installed wind energy (37 GW On-shore, 12 GW Off-shore North Sea, 2 GW Off-shore Baltic) and 18 GW
Photovoltaic.
There are situations with low load and high wind, when infeed from wind energy dominates Germany’s power
system. Nowadays and especially in the future, power production (mainly from wind) far from loads (ca. 500 km)
brings German TSOs to new challenges. Especially the north of Germany, where most of wind turbines are installed,
network congestions are frequent. Different means are used to integrate renewable energies, e.g. special switching
status in the grid, step changes of phase-angle regulated transformer, coupling of busbars and redispatching of
power infeeds. §13 of Germany’s law on the energy industry enables TSO even to reduce the infeed of wind
energy as last resort. The central and southern part of Germany is also affected by high wind energy infeed,
namely high loadings of lines and low voltages due to missing local reactive power support from conventional power
plants (which are switched off). Therefore, capacitors are installed in the central/southern part of the grid in order
to maintain voltage support in high transit and high export characterized grid situations. At the moment, ca. 1.000
MVAr reactive power capacity is installed, but it will increase up to 3÷4 GVAr until 2015 and probably to 10
GVAr by 2020. In the northern part, switched shunt reactors are installed in order to compensate for high voltages
due to massive power infeed. The types of compensations are mechanically switched reactors with damping network
features (MSCDN). Semiconductor-based FACTS devices are not installed in Germany yet, due to today’s high costs.
The northern part of Germany is especially affected, because the installed capacity in wind is relatively high and
load is low. In fact, it is a local problem today, but it will spread into the central and southern part of the grid, when
the amount of renewable energies will increase. On Christmas 2009 (night from 25. to 26. of December), a strong
wind front induced 8,9 GW (of the installed 10 GW installed wind turbine capacity in the north east of Germany)
of wind energy, resulting in high exports to the south. Lines had loadings of more than 120% in (n-1)-calculations. As
last resort, the responsible TSO had to redispatch power plants and reduce wind power infeed of 1000 MW for 3
hours and 500 MW for 1 hour.
An important dynamic requirement for wind turbines is the so called Fault-Ride-Through (FRT) (also called Low
Voltage Ride-Through (LVRT)) ability. It means, that an infeed keeps connected to the grid and feeds in a reactive
current, when voltage decreases because of a short-circuit. This feed-in of reactive current stabilizes the local
Page 28
voltage and other generating devices to stay connected to the grid. This support is necessary, because otherwise,
infeeds on high/medium voltage level can not support the extra high voltage grid sufficiently. Older wind turbines
consist of an asynchronous generator, which has a (negative) inductive behaviour when voltage recovers. A switching
off of wind turbines should be avoided, because a high outage of wind power infeed destabilises the whole grind.
Two different wind turbine techniques exist: 1. doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) and 2. full converter devices.
DFIG consist of a rotor side converter (RSC) and a line side converter (LSC), which are coupled via a DC-Link. In case
of a voltage dip, an additional capacitive reactive current is fed in via the RSC and DFIG into the grid (some
devices allow an infeed of reactive current via the LSC directly). TSOs demand a deadband control of +-10% for
on-shore and +-5% for off-shore wind turbines. The deadband control should avoid an uncoordinated control of
different DFIG-based wind turbines and transformer tap changers in normal operation. Of course, another control,
e.g. continuous, would be possible for the controller. Deep voltage dips cause DFIG-based wind turbines to deliver a
high current from the RSC through the rotor. This current can be so high, that the RSC must be blocked and the
controllability of the device is lost for a short time (100 ms). In this time the DFIG behaves like a slip ring rotor
asynchronous machine with a reactive power demand from the grid. With additional techniques, the blocking time
period can be reduced to a few milliseconds.
Wind turbines with a full converter consist of a synchronous (permanent field) machine, which’s stator is connected to
a machine side convertor, which is connected to the line side converter (LSC) via a DC link. The LSC affects the
behavior in voltage dip situations. A reactive current can be delivered in stationary and transient (e.g. short circuit)
situations and a Fault-Ride-Through ability is ensured. Voltage control is set similarly to DFIG-based wind turbines
with the aforementioned deadband for the LSC.
Today, both wind turbine technologies are able to deliver a reactive current of 1 p.u. A response time of 30 ms and
a settling time of 60 ms after a step response is recommended. Most manufacturers can guarantee these requests
today or in near future.
Because wind turbines are connected mainly to medium voltage level, a feed-in of reactive current results in a low
voltage support to the high/extra high voltage level due to large transformer impedances. This effect can be
encountered with an increase of the amplification factor of the voltage controller.
To increase the reactive current infeed without enlargement of the converter (which would cause additional costs),
following measures are possible:
- use of overload capability of semiconductor-elements,
- reduction of active current in favour of reactive current.
During operation and also during low wind conditions, converters of wind turbines can be used to deliver reactive
power to the grid. DFIG devices can use the LSC to support voltage (30 % of nominal power), full converter devices
can deliver reactive power approximately to their full rated power output.
If wind turbines should be used for voltage support tasks, it is necessary to have a controllability of the voltage
controller from the network control station. Devices can deliver reactive power and so support voltage best in the
voltage level, they are connected to. Due to high transformer impedances between voltage levels, it is not possible
to support the EHV from the medium voltage level. Concerning transient phenomena, wind turbines should be able to
remain connected to the grid during faults and deliver a reactive current. In the past, manufacturers were able to
equip their wind turbines with the claimed requirements.
Page 29
2.2.3 HIGHER AND MORE VOLATILE TRANSITS: THE EXAMPLE OF CHINA

A characteristic of China’s resource allocation is that the majority of the hydro-power resources are in the west and
the coal resources are in the northwest, but huge consumption is located in the east and south. So there is a long
distance and large capacity transmission from west to east. The principal power flow directions between the six
regional grids are shown in Fig. 2.22.
The long distance power flow transfer is the motivation for China's decision to go for UHV (Ultra High Voltage)
transmission project. The 1.000 kV Changzhi-Nanyang-Jingmen UHV AC demonstration project constructed by SGCC
(State Grid Corporation of China) is the first commercial UHV transmission project in the world. It is a 640 km AC line
with capacity of 6.000 MVA and highest operating voltage of 1.100kV, which links the south-eastern part of Shanxi
Province, a coal-rich region, with Jingmen City of Hubei Province in central China. The construction started in
November 2006 and completed in December 2008. After an 18-month trial operation, the UHV transmission line is
under normal operation now.

Figure 2.22. Regional Grids and the principal power flow directions in Chains EPSs.
2.2.3.1 Impact on Steady Operation

The amplitude of voltage fluctuation caused by transmission power fluctuation in UHV system is much larger than that
of 500 kV grids. The variation of amplitude of voltage is inversely proportional to the three-phase short-circuit
capacity of the bus. The three-phase short-circuit current of the UHV demonstration project is only 7÷8 kA, and that
of the 500 kV system is 30÷50 kA. Field test voltage curves measured by PMUs are shown as the following figures
[28]. When power of the UHV lines changes from 2,64 to 2,83 GW, the voltage of the Jingmen 500 kV bus
decreases from 527,5 kV to 524,5 kV with a change of 3 kV, and the voltage of the Jingmen 1000 kV bus
decreases from 1.018 kV to 1.003 kV with a change of 15 kV, which is 5 times more than the 500 kV ones.
At present, due to the lacking of reactive equipment at 1.000 kV system, the voltage control effects of UHV largely
depends on the reactive capacity at 500 kV system nearby the UHV substation. The control strategy of these 500
kV buses should follow and meet the operation requirement of UHV. With the construction of more and more UHV
and HVDC transmission lines, it is inevitable that multiple HVDC transmission lines connect to the same converter
Page 30
station. This brings a challenge to the voltage support capacity of the AC system. Based on the above reasons, it’s
necessary to equip reasonable reactors and capacitors on 500 kV system nearby UHV, which are supposed to
provide reactive power support effectively and improve the voltage stability margin greatly.

Figure 2.23. UHV power and voltage change of the Jingmen bus at 500 kV (left),
UHV power and voltage change of the Jingmen bus at 1.000 kV (right).
2.2.3.2 Impact on Transient Stability

With the construction of UHV transmission lines, the power grid around the whole nation is connected more and more
intensively. If there is a fault happening in one line, the influence is difficult to be limited in a small area. The stability
problem becomes more challenging. A simulation example [29] is shown here, assuming an overhead fault occurred
on XuZhou-Nanjing 1.000 kV double circuit transmission lines, which are UHV lines under construction now and will be
brought into use in 2012. Transient stability curves are shown on Fig. 2.24.
The characteristic of the curve in Fig. 2.24 is different from the normal transient instability. It shows a process that the
voltage curve falls slowly until losing stability, instead of the fast power-angle increasing in normal cases. This is
because the severity failure in one UHV interface leads to a trend of large-scale power flow shift to another UHV
transmission interface, which will make huge impact on the system and result in voltage instability finally.

Figure 2.24. A simulation of overhead fault on a double circuit UHV line XuZhou-Nanjing 1.000 kV.
Page 31
2.2.4 UNDERGROUND CABLES

The overhead lines are the economical and reliable means of high voltage transmission. Due to environmental
considerations, new transmission circuits are required to be built underground as far as possible to minimise visual
and electromagnetic field impact on the communities in close vicinity of a new transmission facility. There is also a
rising tendency to seek the replacement of overhead lines with underground cables. However development of
underground cable transmission for long length connection has always been limited mainly due to economic (HV
underground cables are considerably more expansive than overhead lines of the same transmission capacity) and
some technical constraints limiting length of the cable transmission. Cable system technology has reached a
development level and track record that allows it to be considered as highly reliable.
At present, the longest 500 kV AC cable line is operated in Japan (40 km). A 100 km long 150 kV AC cable to
Horns Rev 2 offshore wind farm is in operation in Denmark since 2009.
2.2.4.1 Current and future power cable technology

Oil-filled cables, and since 1970’s also extruded cables, are commonly used for power transmission. Cross-linked
Polyethylene (XLPE) and High Pressure Fluid Filled (HPFF) are two main types of HV AC cables installed in most high
voltage networks. Extruded cables have now superseded the older oil-filled designs.
The underlying reason for developing the extruded-dielectric system for transmission voltages was to find a simpler
lower-cost alternative, and more friendly to the environment, to existing systems such as pipe-type, fluid- and gas-
filled, and self-contained liquid-filled.
Extruded-dielectric cables [30, 31] utilize cross-linked polyethylene as insulation (XLPE cables).XLPE insulated power
cables have low dielectric constant (ε=2,2) that results in low charging current and low dielectric losses, both factors
vital for low loss, long length power transmission capability. XLPE cable in general has much lower shunt capacitance
than HPFF cable has. Compared to oil-impregnated paper (ε= 3,5) insulation loss factor is at least a decade lower.
An XLPE cable can be reenergized immediately which is very important from operation point of view. The XLPE
insulation system has been developed for operating voltages up to 500 kV AC.
The XLPE cables are also used for DC voltage for up to 500 MW load, for higher loads are used the MI (mass
impregnated) cables. The insulation consists of paper impregnated with high viscosity oil. Therefore, is a cable
environment friendly.
Gas insulated [32] lines (GIL) and superconducting cables [33] are future transmission systems.
2.2.4.2 HV and EHV cable characteristics

The four primary constants of any transmission line which affect its performance as a part of a power system are
capacitance, resistance, reactance, conductance and susceptance (Fig. 2.25).

Figure 2.25. Cable equivalent circuit.
Page 32
The parameters and characteristics of underground cables are significantly different form those of overhead lines.
The lower series inductance, because the phase conductors are much closer and especially much higher shunt
capacitance must be taken into account when integrating cables into a transmission system. Higher cable capacitance
is a result of much closer distance of the high-voltage conductor to the ground and several times higher dielectric
constant of electrical insulation than that of air. Shunt elements represent capacitive susceptance and conductance
which reflects dielectric losses. Shunt conductance can be neglected in a system planning considerations. Capacitance
of a single core cable is expressed as:
2⋅ π⋅ε
cb =
r
ln( 0 )
ri
where
cb Capacitance [F/m]
⎡ As ⎤
ε Dielectric constant ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Vm ⎦
r0 Insulation radius [m]
ri Conductor radius [m]
Table 3 shows typical values for the dielectric constant for insulation materials commonly used in transmission cables
[34].
TABLE 3: TYPICAL OHL AND CABLE PARAMETERS FOR NOMINAL VOLTAGE 230 KV, TABLE 6.1 AND 6.2 FROM REFERENCE [34].
Nominal voltage 230 kV

OHL / cable OHL cable PILC cable PIPE
R (Ohm/km) 0,050 0,0277 0,0434
XL (Ohm/km) 0,488 0,3388 0,2052
Bc ( μS/km ) 3,371 245,6 298,8
α (nepers/km) 0,000067 0,000372 0,000824

β (rad/km) 0,00128 0,00913 0,00787
Zc (Ohm) 380 37,1 26,2

SIL (MW) 140 1426 2019
Charging MVA/km = U 02 ⋅ BC 0,18 13,0 15,8
The higher dielectric constant means higher cable capacitance. Therefore, in general, XLPE cable has lower shunt
capacitance than HPFF cable but higher capacitance than GIL type cable.
The capacitance is essential for determining the cable charging current which is given by equation
I c = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ f ⋅ C ⋅U
Where
Ic charging current [A]
f frequency [Hz]
U operating voltage, line-to-ground [V]
C capacitance of cable [F].
Page 33
The charging current is proportional to the length of the cable.

The series impedance of a cable is the complex sum of conductor resistance and inductive reactance. Calculating the
series inductance for cables is as easy as calculating shunt capacitance. The reason is magnetic coupling among the
phase currents.
The HV cable capacitance is at least 15÷20 times that of overhead lines, while the cable inductance ranges
between 0.25÷1 times.
2.2.4.3 Reactive power compensation
The large capacitance of a cable results in the flow of a significant charging current in quadrature with the real
current. For this reason the maximum distance a cable can transmit power without compensation is limited. For
example [35] a solid dielectric cable at 150 kV has a real power transfer capability of only 80% of its thermal
capacity up to a distance of 70 km, while a fluid-filled cables, which has a higher charging current, is limited to
20÷25 km. At 400 kV, 50 km can be covered by a solid dielectric cable while a fluid-filled cable could not exceed
10÷20 km.
To ensure stable operation of the transmission grid, reactive power should be controlled at both ends. Therefore,
compensation equipment (shunt reactors) needs to be installed at both cable ends when AC cable exceeds a certain
length. For long cable circuit lengths, it may be necessary to place shunt compensation at some intermediate points
along to reduce maximum charging current flowing in the cable. If a long length high voltage underground cable
trips with its relatively large supply of reactive power due to cable charging, the voltage related consequences can
be particularly severe.
Power electronics based SVC’s or STATCOM technology can be applied for reactive power compensation purposes.
Such compensation will fulfil different complex functions as steady state reactive compensation, dynamic and
transient voltage control and enhancing the stability limits of the transmission system thus increasing the power
transmission capability. This extra equipment has a negative impact on the total cost of the system as well as for the
energy losses. Shunt compensation of a long utility cable circuit range from 50% to 100% of total VArs produced
by the cable circuit. The optimum amount and location of shunt compensation in the EPS must be determined by
examining load flow cases for different load levels and taking in to the consideration of future expansion.
If reactive compensation is adopted, and today’s technology allows its use at limited costs, the limits in maximum
cable lengths are substantially increased.
2.2.4.4 Voltage profile in steady state
The high capacitance of cable circuits in EPS may have a significant effect on steady state voltages. The situation is
worst during light-load conditions.
2.2.4.5 Transient voltages and c urrents
In the higher voltage range long underground cables may cause lower order voltage resonances and cause
operational problems. Resonances in combination with a harmonic source may cause unacceptable temporary
overvoltages and current distortion. Resonances lower than the 10th harmonic could deserve closer attention.
Cable circuit energization and de-energization creates high transient currents.
2.2.4.6 Load sharing
A cable in parallel with an OHL will share more load due to its lower series reactance. In highly meshed OHLs
network the introduction of cables could result in significant power flow changes. Control measures are required to
mitigate the problem (for example: PSTs in series with cables). Long term overloads are more critical for cables than
OHLs.
Page 34
2.2.4.7 DC HV cables
Long undersea/underground HV cables have high electrical capacitance. Where alternating current is used for
cable transmission, this capacitance appears in parallel with load. Additional current must flow in the cable to
charge the cable capacitance, which generates additional losses in the conductors of the cable. The maximum
distance a cable can transmit power without compensation is limited.
However, when direct current is used, the cable capacitance is charged only when the cable is first energized or
when the voltage is changed; there is no steady-state additional current required. For a long AC cable, the entire
current-carrying capacity of the conductor could be used to supply the charging current alone. The cable
capacitance limits the length and power carrying capacity of AC cables. DC cables have no such limitations.
2.2.4.8 Summary
AC XLPE cables seem to be the most appropriate systems for power transmission now and for the nearest future. At
present numerous high voltage XLPE cable systems with nominal voltages up to 500 kV and circuit length up to 40
km are in operation worldwide. Low dielectric constant of these cables allowed minimization of technical
disadvantages like high electrical capacitance. State of the art extruded EHV cables are characterized by super-
clean insulation in a triple extrusion and dry curing process.
Higher transfer capability is achievable at present with second generation of GIL which use a mixture of nitrogen
and SF6.
Environmental issues and restriction on land-use will stay as a main driver for widespread application of
underground transmission. The high population density and limited space for new infrastructure, as well as visual
objections against overhead lines in scenic landscapes will probably generate a tendency for more extra high
voltage cables.
New and improved technologies of underground transmission will cause increasing tendency to go underground
particularly at the lower transmission voltages where the cost differential with overhead lines is less severe.
2.2.5 HVDC LINKS

New control possibilities arise with HVDC. HVDC has been vigorously developed in the last fifty years, so much so
that now provides a very reliable and available power transmission choice.
There are two types of HVDC available. The classic HVDC with line commutated converters, i.e.: the HVDC-LCC
(using thyristors) that offers a range of application up to +800 kV – 12 GW – 3.000 km, and the more-recent new
HVDC with Voltage sourced converters, i.e.: the HVDC-VSC (using IGBTs) which offers a range of application up to
+320 kV – 1.100 MW – 800 km. When HVDC-VSC technology based on Voltage Source Converters (VSCs) is
utilized, active and reactive power can be controlled rapidly and independently of each-other. This technology is
now available for transfer capacities exceeding 1.000 MW. Using this technology, the requirements for the short-
circuit capacity of the AC -connection are low.
When designing an HVDC grid, its performance should be carefully considered, so that advantages (i.e.: increase in
controllability, and stability) are weighted against possible disadvantages.
Several conventional HVDC lines can present a problem in an interconnected system. However, HVDC are useful for
controlling power flows over long distances, while achieving loss reductions.
Submarine HVDC cables could have limitations in terms of the overall length as well as the depth and the steep
gradients of the sea floor.
Page 35
2.2.6 FACTS
FACTS devices offer wide control possibilities. Let’s take a glance at Q-sources and Voltage control means.
Shunt capacitors at the transmission-distribution border, at the TSO command, allows the minimization of reactive
power flow on the TSO network, minimizing the active power losses and keeping a good voltage at the DSO.
The use of shunt reactors at the TSO network allows the voltage not to exceed the equipment tolerance.
The problem with this type of equipment is that since they are static, the reactive contribution depends on the
quadratic of the voltage: Q= B·U2, when the voltage goes down, the reactive output is less when we need more
reactive power to boost the voltage up to the previous value. That’s why we need generators with voltage control to
react immediately to an event.
The static VAr compensation, besides the loss minimization, is used to give some reactive slack to the generation, with
VAr control, to have more spare reactive power to cope with the events.
Static VAr sources are adequate for steady-state but not for transient situations, for that you need FACTS devices
that are able to react fast to voltage dips, like STATCOM. The main problem is the cost of these devices. Economic
justification based on voltage quality issues is very difficult to assess.
Due to the large extent of the analysis required for a rigorous treatment of FACTS devices, this is presented
separately in the Chapter 4 – solely on FACTS at the end (see section 4.1). The SVC has been thoroughly presented
in Section 2.1.1 above.
2.2.7 INCENTIVES FOR PRODUCERS AND MARKETS OF REACTIVE POWER: THE EXAMPLE OF POLAND
In Poland, in accordance with Polish Grid Code Requirement, all power plants connected to transmission system have
to be equipped with secondary voltage control system (ARNE). Available reactive power is determined for each
power plant by the generators capability curve. Power plant can get additional profit whenever TSO dispatch
centre remotely activate ARNE system. There is a fix rate (PLN/hour) for this kind of ancillary service.
Page 36
Chapter 3
ON PREVENTING AND MITIGATING INTERRUPTIONS
3.1 VOLTAGE DEPRESSIONS

Different types of electrical apparatus will react in different ways to a voltage dips. Some devices will be severely
affected, while others may not be affected at all.
The heat output of any resistance device, such as an electric space heater will vary with the real power consumption,
which is proportional to the square of the applied voltage. Therefore a significant loss of heat output will occur with
a relatively small reduction in voltage. Similarly, an incandescent lamp will dim due to the lower heat emission from
the filament. Generally speaking, no damage will occur but functionality will be impaired.
Commutated electric motors, such as universal motors, whose mechanical power output also varies with the square of
the applied voltage, will run at reduced speed and reduced torque. Depending on the motor design, no harm may
occur. However, under load, the motor will draw more current due to the reduced back-EMF developed at the lower
rotor speed. Unless the motor has ample cooling capacity, it may eventually overheat and burn out.
An induction motor will draw more current to compensate for the decreased voltage, which may lead to overheating
and burnout.
A switching power supply may be affected, depending on the design. If the input voltage is too low, it is possible for
a switching power supply to malfunction.
Reduced voltages can cause unexpected behaviour in systems with digital control circuits. Reduced voltages can
bring control signals below the threshold at which logic circuits can reliably detect which state is being represented.
As the voltage returns to normal levels the logic can latch at an incorrect state; even can't happen states become
possible. The seriousness of this effect and whether steps need to be taken by the designer to prevent it depends on
the nature of the equipment being controlled; for instance a brownout may cause a motor to begin running
backwards.
For voltage depression an alternative expression would be undervoltage.
Undervoltage is a decrease in voltage below 90% of its nominal value for more than one minute.
Undervoltage is sometimes called a "brownout" although this term is not officially defined. Brownout is more often
used when the utility intentionally uses islanding as a means to avert a total blackout.
The term “voltage sag” can often be found in power quality studies.
A voltage depression occurs often in the period before a voltage collapse. If a voltage collapse is evolving slowly,
in the period before the collapse, the voltage can be low for over five minutes to an hour. See reference [36] for
examples of slow evolving voltage collapses.
Figure 3.1. Two bus system.
Page 37
A basic understanding of voltage dependency on increasing load can be presented on the two bus system shown in
Fig. 3.1.
The first bus is slack bus with constant voltage magnitude U1=const. and voltage angle is set to zero δ1 = 0 . The
second bus is load bus with known active Pload and reactive Qload. The generator – slack bus is connected to a load
bus through a lossless – transmission line (resistance of the line R=0) with known reactance (jX).
The relation between active P2, reactive Q2 power and voltage U2 and angle δ 2 at the end of the line give
equations:
We consider that the load power Pload = P2 gradually increases and that the reactive power is linear dependent on
active power: Q2 = P2 · 0,2. With increase of the load Pload the voltage U2 at the load bus decreases and reaches a
critical value that corresponds to the maximum power transfer. In general this maximum power transfer is related to
voltage instability if the load is constant power type. Beyond this point there is no equilibrium. However if the load is
other than constant power then the system can operate below this critical voltage, but draws higher current for the
same amount of power transfer.
1,1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
U 2 [p.u.]
0,5
0,4
0,3
R = 0; X = 0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2
P load [p.u.]

Figure 3.2. Voltage dependency on active power Pload.
With consideration of equation for P2 and Q2 and initial values for U2=1 p.u. and δ 2 = 0 the load flow procedure
based on Newton-Raphson method calculates the final value of load bus voltage U2 and angle δ 2 . Figure 3.2 shows
the results, so called P-U ( P − δ ) curve for the two bus system according to parameters:
U1= 1 p.u. δ1 = 0 Urated = U1= 1 p.u.
R=0 X=0,3 p.u. Irated = 1 p.u.

Pload = 0 ÷ Pmax Qload = 0,2 · Pload Prated = 1 p.u.
This model parameters and initial values are also used in simulations with FACTS.
In Fig. 3.2 we see that the voltage at the end of the line with the increase of transferred power, gradually
decreases till the point of voltage collapse at the Pmax. The maximal transfer power for given parameters is
Pmax=1,36 p.u. at the bus voltage U2= 0,68 p.u. and voltage angle δ 2 = −0, 64 . The additional attempt of
increasing of the load power leads in a voltage collapse – the voltage drops and the transfer power decrees.
Due to later devices’ ratings comparison let us define the so called rated current Irated. In the per unit values:
Prated [p.u.]
I rated [ p.u.] = = 1 p.u.
U1 [ p.u.]
Page 38
In a real EPS operation the voltage curves before voltage collapse are not as smooth and predicable as shows Fig.
3.2. The diagram of measured voltages in Fig. 3.3 [37] shows how the voltage collapse spread in the Greek EPS on
12th of July 2004.

Figure 3.3. Voltage collapse in Greece, July 12, 2004 [37].
3.1.1 PROTECTION AGAINST VOLTAGE DEPRESSIONS

Under normal operating conditions the control of voltage are performed by controlling the production and
absorption of reactive power. Different sources and sinks of reactive power are discussed in chapter four of this
report.
During periods of abnormal voltage conditions (e.g. voltage depressions), other control actions can be undertaken.
Those control actions can include among others: adjusting (lower) voltage setpoint on secondary side, reverse tap
changing, blocking of load tap changers, fast capacitor switching and under voltage load shedding. These last two
actions/principles are discussed in the following paragraphs.
3.1.2 FAST CAPACITOR SWITCHING

In [38] some switched capacitance installations are discussed. Switched capacitance is a method of providing
reactive power support to maintain voltages within tolerable limits. Switching must be automatic to be effective in
the transient time frame, but maybe manual of automatic for slower collapses. By fast switching a capacitor bank,
they try to restore the voltage before load needs to be shed. Different fast capacitor switching installations are
discussed in [38]. Switching times frame from 0.75÷0.15 second, the amount of MVArs is up to 12x440 MVAr.
However a serious drawback of fast capacitor switching is the high magnitude and high frequency that can occur.
3.1.3 UNDER-VOLTAGE LOAD SHEDDING

In [34] it is stated that under voltage load shedding can economical solution (or partial solution) to the voltage
stability challenges facing electric utilities. It can be a cost effective solution compared to more expensive options,
such as investments in FACTS devices or even new transmission lines. One argument is that load is probably lost
anyway during abnormal voltage situations. It is better to have the load shedding under utility control, with known
trip setting and time delays. The experience and judgment of power system engineers familiar with protective
relaying, system operations, distribution engineering, load characteristics, and bulk system simulation are required
for the development of a workable design.
Page 39
Reference [38] states guidelines for UVLS schemes. Main conclusions are that UVLS schemes should be automatic and
should be properly coordinated with other load shedding schemes within the same system and neighbouring systems.
The following design considerations are given [38]:
1. Load shedding scheme should be designed to coordinate with protective devices and control schemes for
momentary voltage dips, sustained faults, low voltages caused by stalled air conditioners, etc.
2. Time delay to initiate load shedding should be in seconds, not in cycles. A typical time delay varies between 3
to 10 seconds.
3. UVLS relays must be on PTs that are connected above automatic OLTCs.
4. Voltage pick-up points for the tripping signal should be set reasonably higher than the “nose point” of the
critical P-V or Q-V curve.
5. Voltage pick-up points and the time delays of the local and the neighbouring systems should be checked and
coordinated.
6. Redundancy and enough intelligence should be built into the scheme to ensure reliable operation and to
prevent false tripping.
7. Enough load should be shed to bring voltages to minimum operating voltage levels or higher. Maintain VAr
margin according to WSCC’s Voltage Stability Criteria.
3.2 INSTABILITIES
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the report [41] developed by a Task Force, set up jointly by the CIGRE Study Committee 38 and the IEEE Power
System Dynamic Performance Committee is addressed the issue of stability definition and classification in power
systems from a fundamental viewpoint. The report [41] aims to define power system stability more precisely,
provide a systematic basis for its classification, and discuss linkages to related issues such as power system reliability
and security.
The report [41] also describes the term of voltage collapse:
“Voltage collapse is the process by which the sequence of events accompanying voltage instability leads to a
blackout or abnormally low voltages in a significant part of the power system. Stable (steady) operation at low
voltage may continue after transformer tap changers reach their boost limit, with intentional and/or unintentional
tripping of some load. Remaining load tends to be voltage sensitive, and the connected demand at normal voltage
is not met.”
3.3 VOLTAGE COLLAPSE
3.3.1 DIAGNOSIS
The following measured quantities can be used as input values to detect an instable voltage situation:
* Voltages on different voltage levels (primary +secondary side of EHV/HV- and HV/MV-transformers)
* Taps of transformer tap-changers
* Reactive power flow of EHV/HV- and HV/MV-transformers
Page 40
Voltages must be regarded on all voltage levels both as absolute values and as time depending dU/dt-values.
Especially voltage differences after a tap-change are of importance.
Transformer tap-changes have to be monitored, too. Absolute values and an average value (with a sliding time
frame) can be recommended. The behaviour of automatic tap-changing’s of single transformers and a transformer
collective within a certain network group is necessary to observe. Reactive power flows on transformers provide an
indication of voltage instabilities. Absolute flows and (time) gradients should be watched, too.
3.3.2 LOGICAL OPERATIONS TO DETECT A VOLTAGE COLLAPSE

The assessment of the measurands is an important task and allows the distinction of situations between normal, alert
and violated (“Blackout” is another and last status = voltage equal zero). The measurands have to be combined
logically (Boolean algebra) and according to their outputs, a situation can be normal, alert or violated.
3.3.3 MEASURES AGAINST A VOLTAGE COLLAPSE

The following counteractions can be used to compensate for a voltage collapse:
Evaluating of real-time voltage stability margin
Blocking of a tap changer of a EHV/HV-transformer and a tap changer of a HV/MV-transformer
Changing of the set-point of AVR
Switching on available reactive power resources
A warning alarm can be used in order to forewarn the system operator of a potential voltage collapse. The next
step is to switch the set-point on the secondary voltage side on a lower value. If that is not promising, the tap-
changer of EHV/HV-transformers have to be blocked, after that the tap-changer of HV/MV-transformers (probably
all tap changers must be blocked at the same time). If the voltage collapse is not stopped, manual load sheddings
must be performed. The last step is to reject load automatically (load on lowest voltage is rejected first). This load
shedding results in a rejection of load on secondary side of HV/MV-transformers.
In a first phase, outputs should be realized only as a message and not as an automated action.
3.3.3.1 Clearing (of the applied provisions) and return into “normal state”
The removal of the realised measures must happen in reversed to the above order.
3.3.4 VOLTAGE COLLAPSE STUDY CASES

3.3.4.1 The Greek case
On the 11th of July 2004 at 16:30 hours a 125 MW generating unit in the southern-most generating station of
Megalopolis went off due to a fault and remained off for all the period of what will be described here. On the
following day the 12th of July at 07:08 hours a 300 MW generating unit went off due to fault at Lavrion power
station near Attica, this unit was initially expected to go back in shortly, but, it actually took up to 12:01 hours to go
back into the system. In the meantime the system load had rapidly risen, and, as a result, the HV at substations in
Attica-region had fallen: the 150 kV down to: 142 kV, 137 kV, 135 kV, and the 400 kV down to 367 kV. The
aforementioned unit of 300 MW remained in the system only for 11 min and went off again at 12:12 hours. Just
before going off this unit provided the system with 70 MW and 150 MVAr. At 12:22 hours it was decided by the
Page 41
TSO to shed 80 MW of load, because Voltages were still falling (down to: 133 kV, and 125 kV), which was done at
12:30 hours. But, the situation did not improve, and a further 200 MW was shed. At this time the load stood at
9.320 MW. To make things worse one more thermal generating unit went off, this time at the Aliveri power station.
At 12:39 hours the separation of the North part of the system from the South part of the system was complete and
the Southern part of the Greek power system went into a complete Blackout. At the time just before this, the total
load was 9.370 MW, 3.173 MW of which was in Attica and 890 MW in Peloponese. The reactive demand was
6.096 MVAr total out of which 1.655 MVAr was in Attica and 609 MVAr in Peloponese.
The analysis of this case revealed that there was too little reactive power support available in the South part of the
system. Substantial plant in the system had been down for maintenance. An operator’s action for increasing the
reactive power output of a thermal plant at the expense of its real power output had negative overall result since it
loaded more the North-to-South transmission corridor and increased the lack of reactive power more! The main
generators are in the North (Ptolemaida) and the bulk of power is transmitted by the North-to-South 400 kV
corridor. So, due to the impossibility to transmit reactive power over long distance, the reactive power demand of
the South was impossible to be met. Also, decisions for load shedding proved to be taken too late.
3.3.4.2 The Polish case

Voltage instability incident on June 26th, 2006 is presented.
The 2006 summer weather conditions were far from average:
unusually long lasting heat wave, for over a month,
high temperatures up to 36,5°C, average 24°C comparing to 18°C,
drought, 25% of average rainfall, natural disaster declared in agriculture,
the whole territory of Poland affected,
no equivalent in the latest 227 years, i.e. since temperatures are recorded in Poland.
The day ahead routine operational planning procedures did not indicate any problem. Pre-incident system
conditions:
violation of two important TSO requirements (must run generation) in the north of Poland,
- tight power balance due to forced outages and capacity reductions on operating units:
*till 7 am: 600 MW compensated with 200 MW (1 start up),
*further losses (up to 1200 MW at 1 pm) not compensated due to long start up time of thermal units (6 hours),
*system demand 600 MW higher than forecasted (extremely high temperatures up to 35°C),
- high reactive power consumption:
*increased use of air conditioning,
* tgϕ = 0, 42 (EHV/110 kV) in central and northern Poland,
- all the above just before morning peak resulted in:

*decrease of spinning reserve available for TSO to 300 MW,
*exhausting of reactive power reserves available for TSO.
At 13:00 voltages in the north of 400/220 kV network were below normal limits and continued to fall. All
generating units in the north run with their maximum active and reactive power. Consumption increased, peak
occurred at 13.00 (18.722 MW). Consequently, this led to the adverse voltage profiles in the transmission network.
Page 42
Voltage stability margin dropped to 1.3%. Number of generators at power plant reached maximum of available
reactive power capacity. As a result, there were further reductions in voltage due to significant losses on the
transmission of reactive power from remote areas.
The event that directly initiated a voltage collapse was emergency shutdown of two 200 MW generators in
Ostrołęka power plant. It was caused by improper operation of generator stator current limiters of AVR’s. In a few
minutes four other generators and SwePol HVDC link to Sweden were tripped. Recordings of 400 kV network
voltages are shown in Fig. 3.4.
Voltage recordings in 400 kV network

440
19000
430
18000
420
17000
410
400 16000
[M W]
[kV]
390
15000
380
14000
370
13000
360
350 12000
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
Krajnik Słupsk Płock Miłosna Rogowiec Kozienice Consumption

Figure 3.4. Voltage recordings in the 400 kV network [39].
Conclusions from the analysis included the ad-hoc, short-term and long term. The long-term actions include:
- speed up investments in transmission system carried on,
- complete installation of new reactive power sources in the transmission system,
- speed up new investments in transmission system by removing administrative barriers,
- include extreme summer conditions in planning procedures,
- include the whole 110 kV network in on line monitoring and analyses (exchange of on line data with DSOs),
- improve operational planning procedures accordingly,
- strive for new legal regulations in the area of reactive power management,
- include local generation in must run where necessary,
-introduce undervoltage load shedding,
-implement training simulator,
- reorganize region al control centres.
Page 43
Chapter 4
FACTS DEVICES
4.1 FACTS
Beyond the SVC which was thoroughly presented in Section 2.1.1 above.
The aim of this section is to present how with FACTS devices the voltage profile at the load bus can be modified.
Such modification can play a significant role in the voltage stability margin enhancement. In order to be able to
determine suitable parameters of FACTS devices static models based on to bus – generic model are developed. The
interdependence between the power transmission characteristic, the simplified system parameters and controllable
parameters of relevant, in operational point of view, FACTS device are resumed from the reference [40].
4.1.1 CONTROLLABLE SERIES COMPENSATION (CSC)

From the system point of view, CSC can be represented as a controllable capacitance connected in series into the
line. The model of the network with CSC included is presented in Fig. 4.1. CSC controllable parameter may be
assumed its reactance XCSC. If CSC is operating in capacitive mode, XCSC is negative. On the contrary, in inductive
operating mode XCSC is positive.

Figure 4.1. Model of the transmission system with CSC: network scheme.
KCSC being the so-called “series compensation degree” is defined with expression:
X CSC
KCSC = −
X1 + X 2
The transmission characteristic of CSC is determined with:
U1 ⋅U 2
P = P1 = − P2 = ⋅ sin (δ1 − δ 2 ) for active power
(1 − KCSC ) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 )
and with
U12 − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) U 22 − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ 2 − δ1 )

Q1 = Q2 =
(1 − KCSC ) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 ) (1 − KCSC ) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 )
for reactive powers at the both end of the line.
Page 44
Voltages U1 and U2 are defined as:

U 1 = U1 at the reference bus ( δ1 = 0 ) and
U 2 = U 2 ⋅ ( cos δ 2 + jsin δ 2 ) at the load bus.
*
S1
Following the expression I 1 = * , the current I1 can be written as
U1
I 1 = Re { I 1} + jIm { I 1}
where
P1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) + Q1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) P1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) − Q1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )

Re { I 1} = Im{ I 1} =
U1 U1
Using the expressions for active and reactive powers (P1, Q1), real and imaginary part of current I1 can be written
as:
U1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) U1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) − U 2
Re { I 1} = Im{ I 1} =
(1 − KCSC ) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 ) ( KCSC − 1) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 )
Voltage on the left side of CSC (UA) is written as:
U A = U 1 − jI 1 ⋅ X1 = Re {U A } + jIm{U A }
Where the real part of UA is calculated considering expression:
U1 ⋅ ( KCSC ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 ) − X 2 ) ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) − U 2 ⋅ X1
Re {U A } =
( KCSC − 1) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 )
and the imaginary of UA is:
KCSC ( X1 + X 2 ) − X 2
Im{U A } = U1 ⋅ ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) ,
( KCSC −1) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 )
finally the magnitude of UA determines expression:
U A = Re {U A } + Im {U A } .
2 2
Similar, voltage on the right side of CSC (UB) can be written as
U B = U A − jI 1 ⋅ X CSC = Re {U B } + jIm {U B }
where:
U 2 ⋅ ( X1 ⋅ ( KCSC − 1) + KCSC ⋅ X 2 ) − U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )

Re {U B } = ,
( KCSC −1) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 )
U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 )
Im{U B } = ,
(1 − KCSC ) ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 )
U B = Re {U B } + Im {U B } .
2 2
Page 45
The magnitude of load bus voltage U2 depends on active power Pload for various compensation degrees KCSC and is
presented in Fig. 4.2 (CSC is positioned in the electrical middle of a line, X1 = X2). One must be aware that in this
case, CSC has a symmetrical effect on voltage magnitudes on both sides of CSC. This can be explained by studying
a corresponding phasor diagram, depicted in Fig. 4.3.
1,1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
U 2 [p.u.]
0,5
R = 0; X = 0,3
pu
0,4
Kcsc = 0,0
0,3
Kcsc = 0,1
0,2
Kcsc = 0,2
0,1
Kcsc = 0,3
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2
P load [p.u.]

Figure 4.2. Voltage amplitude at the load bus U2 for various values of compensation degree KCSC (X1 = X2).
The rated power, which is explained in the section 3.1 Voltage depression, of the CSC is determined:
SCSC rated = I rated ⋅ ( KCSC ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 ) ) = 0,3 ⋅ KCSC .

Figure 4.3. Phasor diagram referring to model in Fig. 4.1.
4.1.2 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (STATCOM)

From the system point of view STATCOM may be assumed as a parallel connected current source due to the fact
that in the major part of its operating area its current is independent of the terminal voltage magnitude USTATCOM.
The STATCOM controllable parameter may be its current magnitude IQ. When losses are neglected, IQ represents
the STATCOM reactive current phasor which is perpendicular to the terminal voltage phasor USTATCOM. The network
scheme is presented in Fig. 4.4 and the corresponding phasor diagram in Fig. 4.5.
Page 46
U1 USTATCOM U2
X1 X2
P1 P2
Q1 Q2
IQ Pload
Qload

Figure 4.4. Model of the transmission system with STATCOM: network impedance scheme.
Transmission characteristic is described by the following equation:
U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎛ I Q ⋅ X1 ⋅ X 2 ⎞
P1 = ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ X ⋅ X ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
⎝ 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 ⎠
U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ sin(δ 2 − δ1 ) ⎛ I Q ⋅ X1 ⋅ X 2 ⎞
P2 = ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ X ⋅ X ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
⎝ 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 ⎠
and reactive powers correspond to the expressions:
U1 ⎛ I Q ⋅ X 2 ⋅ (U1 ⋅ X 2 + U 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) ) ⎞
Q1 = ⋅ ⎜U1 − U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) − ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ X ⋅ X ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
⎝ 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 ⎠
U2 ⎛ I Q ⋅ X1 ⋅ (U 2 ⋅ X1 + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos(δ 2 − δ1 ) ) ⎞
Q2 = ⋅ ⎜ U 2 − U1 ⋅ cos(δ 2 − δ1 ) + ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ U 2
⋅ X 2
+ 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ X ⋅ X ⋅ cos( δ − δ ) ⎟
⎝ 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 ⎠

Figure 4.5. Model of the transmission system with STATCOM referring to model in Fig 4.4.
Voltages U1 and U2 are defined in the same manner as in previous cases:
U 1 = U1 δ1 = 0
U 2 = U 2 ⋅ ( cos δ 2 + jsin δ 2 )
δ = δ1 − δ 2
Page 47
According to Kirchhoff’s laws, the following expressions are written:
U STATCOM = U 1 − jI 1 ⋅ X 1 = Re {U STATCOM } + jIm {U STATCOM }
U STATCOM − U 2
I2 =
jX 2
I 2 = I1 − I Q
Using these expressions, the current I1 can be easily calculated as follows:
U1 −U 2 X2
I1 = + IQ ⋅
j ( X1 + X 2 ) X1 + X 2
Now USTATCOM is defined:
U STATCOM = U 1 −
(U 1 − U 2 ) ⋅ X1 − jI ⋅
X1 ⋅ X 2 X ⋅X
= U S − jI Q ⋅ 1 2
Q
X1 + X 2 X1 + X 2 X1 + X 2
Taking into consideration that:

US
I Q = j IQ ⋅
US
Expression for USTATCOM is rewritten as follows:
U S X1 ⋅ X 2 ⎛ I Q X1 ⋅ X 2 ⎞
U STATCOM = U S + I Q ⋅ ⋅ = U S ⋅ ⎜1 + ⋅ ⎟⎟
US ( X1 + X 2 ) ⎝ US ( X1 + X 2 ) ⎠
⎜
It can be noticed that new variable US has been introduced. It is in fact the STATCOM terminal voltage if STATCOM
US
is out of operation (is not connected to the system, i.e. IQ = 0). IQ is shifted by 90o regard to US ( being unity
US
phasor in US direction).
As US is defined as:
U S = U1 −
(U 1 − U 2 ) ⋅ X1
X1 + X 2
It is possible to obtain
⎛ U ⋅ X + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎞ ⎛ X1 ⋅ X 2 ⎞
Re {U STATCOM } = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 + ⋅ IQ ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ U1 ⋅ X 2 + U 2 ⋅ X1 + 2 ⋅U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎟
2 2 2 2
⎝ ⎠
U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎛ X1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ I Q ⎞
Im {U STATCOM } = ⋅ ⎜ X1 + X 2 + ⋅ ( X1 + X 2 ) ⎟
( X1 + X 2 ) ⎜ ⎟
2
⎝ U12 ⋅ X 2 2 + U 22 ⋅ X12 + 2 ⋅U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎠
The voltage magnitudes at load bus U2 dependent on active load power P2 for various values of IQ are presented in
Fig. 4.6.
Page 48
1,1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
U 2 [p.u.]
0,5
R = 0; X = 0,3
pu
0,4
Srated = Iq = 0,0 p.u.

0,3

0,2
0,1
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2
P load [p.u.]

Figure 4.6. Voltage amplitude at load bus U2 for various values of IQ.
The rated power, which is explained in the section 3.1 Voltage depression, of the STATCOM is determined:
SSTATCOM rated = U rated ⋅ I q = Iq .
4.1.3 STATIC SERIES SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (SSSC)

As it is known SSSC may be assumed as a series connected reactive voltage source. In the major part of its
operating area SSSC injected voltage USSSC is independent of the throughput current. Therefore the SSSC
controllable parameter may be assumed an injected voltage magnitude USSSC. If the device is assumed without
losses, the phasor USSSC is perpendicular to the SSSC throughput current. The network scheme is presented in Fig. 4.7.

Figure 4.7. Model of the transmission system with SSSC: network impedance scheme.
Considering determination of voltages U1 and U2:
U 1 = U1 δ1 = 0
U 2 = U 2 ⋅ ( cos(δ 2 − δ1 ) + jsin(δ 2 − δ1 ) ) ,
δ = δ1 − δ 2
Page 49
the following equation is written:
I1 = I 2 = I =
1 ⎛ (U − U 2 ) ⎞ = j (U 2 − U 1 ) ⋅ ⎛1 − USSSC
⋅ ⎜ (U 1 − U 2 ) − USSSC ⋅ 1
⎞
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
j ( X1 + X 2 ) ⎝⎜ U 1 − U 2 ⎠⎟ X1 + X 2 ⎜⎝ U 1 − U 2 ⎟
⎠
In the last equation “(U1 – U2)” represents the phasor difference between U1 and U2. Without SSSC this would be the
voltage drop on reactance X = X1 + X2. The phasor of the injected voltage USSSC has the same direction as it is a
U1 −U 2
reactive voltage source (Fig. 4.8). This direction is determined by the term . Multiplication with the injected
U1 −U 2
voltage magnitude USSSC mathematically describes the phasor USSSC. The difference between (U1 – U2) and USSSC is
the sum of voltage drops on reactance X1 and X2 in the SSSC presence.

Figure 4.8. Model of the transmission system with SSSC referring to model in Fig. 4.7.
Considering: U 1 − U 2 = U12 + U 22 − 2 ⋅U1 ⋅ U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )
it is possible to calculate the current I, where one must be aware that only one of two solutions for I is the correct
one: the one with a minus sign. Therefore:
I = Re { I } + jIm { I }
where
⎛ USSSC ⎞
U1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ U 2
+ U 2
− 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
Re { I } = ⎝ 1 2 1 2 1 2 ⎠
X1 + X 2
⎛ USSSC ⎞
(U 2 − U1 ⋅ cos δ ) ⋅ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ U12 + U 2 2 − 2 ⋅U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎠⎟
Im { I } =
X1 + X 2
Transmission characteristics are determined by equations:
U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎛ USSSC ⎞
P1 = ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U 2
+ U 2
− 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
⎝ 1 2 1 2 1 2 ⎠
Page 50
U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ sin(δ 2 − δ1 ) ⎛ USSSC ⎞
P2 = ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U 2
+ U 2
− 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
⎝ 1 2 1 2 2 1 ⎠
and reactive powers are calculated according to:
U12 − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎛ USSSC ⎞

Q1 = ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U1 + U 2 − 2 ⋅U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⎠⎟
2 2
⎝
U 22 − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ 2 − δ1 ) ⎛ USSSC ⎞
Q2 = ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
X1 + X 2 ⎜ U 2
+ U 2
− 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
⎝ 1 2 1 2 2 1 ⎠
Voltage on the left side of SSSC (UA) is written as
U A = U 1 − jI ⋅ X 1 = Re {U A } + jIm {U A }
where:
USSSC ⋅ X1
⋅ (U1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) − U 2 ) + U 2 ⋅ X1 + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )
U + U 2 − 2 ⋅U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )
2 2
Re {U A } = 1
X1 + X 2
⎛ USSSC ⋅ X1 ⎞
U1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⋅ ⎜ X 2 + ⎟
⎜ U 2
+ U 2
− 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
Im {U A } = ⎝ 1 2 1 2 1 2 ⎠
,
X1 + X 2
U A = Re {U A } + Im {U A } .
2 2
Similar, voltage on the right side of SSSC (UB) can be written as
U B = U 2 + jI ⋅ X 2 = Re {U B } + jIm {U B }
where:
⎛ USSSC ⎞
X 2 ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⋅ (U1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) − U 2 )
⎜ U 2
+ U 2
− 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
Re {U B } = U 2 + ⎝ 1 2 1 2 1 2 ⎠
X1 + X 2
⎛ USSSC ⎞
U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ U 2
+ U 2
− 2 ⋅ U ⋅ U ⋅ cos(δ − δ ) ⎟
Im {U B } = ⎝ 1 2 1 2 1 2 ⎠
X1 + X 2
U B = Re {U B } + Im{U B }
2 2
The amplitude for both voltages UA and UB, dependent on angle δ = δ1 − δ 2 , for various values of USSSC are
presented in Fig. 4.9 (SSSC is positioned in the electrical middle of a line, X1 = X2). One must be aware that in this
case, SSSC has a symmetrical effect on voltage magnitudes on both sides of SSSC. This can be explained by
studying a corresponding phasor diagram, depicted in Fig. 4.8.
Page 51
1,1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
U 2 [p.u.]
R = 0; X = 0,3 p.u.
0,5
0,4 Usssc = 0,0 p.u.
Usssc = -0,05 p.u.

0,3
Usssc = -0,1 p.u.
0,2
Usssc = -0,15 p.u.
0,1 Usssc = -0,2 p.u.
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2
P load [p.u.]

Figure 4.9. Voltage amplitudes U2 for various values of USSSC.
The rated power, which is explained in the section 3.1 Voltage depression, of the STATCOM is determined:
SSSSC rated = USSSC ⋅ I rated = USSSC .
4.1.4 THE PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMER (PST)

With the term Phase Shifting Transformers (PST) the devices are denoted which, from the system point of view, have
the ability to introduce phase shift between terminal voltage phasors more or less independently of throughput
current. If losses of the devices (active and reactive) are neglected then PSTs do not produce neither consume active
and reactive power (PST power is balanced). They can, among others, be modelled as a combination of a series
injected voltage source uT and a parallel connected current source IT. The IT magnitude and phase as well as uT
phase are determined by the system parameters and the type of a PST. In terms of their basic structure various PST
types may be realized. For practical application two types are most interesting i.e. the so-called Phase Angle
Regulator (PAR) and Quadrature Boosting Transformer (QBT). Regarding their impact on power flow PAR and QBT
may differ considerably and will therefore be discussed separately. The model of the system with PST included is
presented in Fig. 4.10.

Figure 4.10. Model of the transmission system with PST: network impedance scheme.
Page 52
4.1.5 PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (PAR)

As PAR the type of PST is denoted, which has the ability to separate the phase of its terminal voltage phasors
without changing their magnitude. Of course, one must keep in mind that losses are not taken into consideration. The
PAR phasor diagram is presented in Fig. 4.11.

Figure 4.11. Model of the transmission system with PAR referring to model in Fig. 4.10.
As the controllable PAR parameter, the terminal voltage phasors separation (i.e. the angle α ) may be assumed.
According to basic relations the following equations can be written:
u PST1 = u1 − j ⋅ I 1 ⋅ X1
u PST2 = u PST1 ⋅ e jα
u PST2 − u 2
I 2 = I 1 ⋅ e jα =
j ⋅ X2
As already mentioned, PST powers are balanced. Therefore PAR input and output powers are equal i.e.
* *
u PST1 ⋅ I 1 = u PST2 ⋅ I 2 . From this relation it is easy to prove that the phasors I1 and I2 are shifted for the same angle α
as the PAR terminal voltages, whereas their magnitudes remain equal. Using above equations it is possible to
calculate I1 and consequently I2 as follows:
-1
I1 = j
X1 + X 2
( )
⋅ u1 − u 2 e-jα = Re {I 1} + jIm{ I 1}
-1
I2 = j
X1 + X 2
( )
⋅ u1e jα − u 2 = Re { I 2 } + jIm {I 2 }
where
U 2 ⋅ sin α + U1 ⋅ sin δ U 2 ⋅ cos α − U1 ⋅ cos δ

Re { I 1} = Im{ I 1} =
X1 + X 2 X1 + X 2
and
U1 ⋅ sin (α + δ ) U 2 − U1 ⋅ cos (α + δ )
Re { I 2 } = Im {I 2 } =
X1 + X 2 X1 + X 2
Page 53
Transmission characteristic is the following
U1 ⋅U 2
P1 = P2 = P = ⋅ sin (δ + α )
X1 + X 2
Using equations for uPST1 and uPST2, it is possible to obtain:
u PST1 = Re {u PST1} + jIm {u PST1}
u PST2 = Re {u PST2 } + jIm {u PST2 }
where
U 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ cos α + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos δ U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ sin δ − U 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ sin α

Re {u PST1} = Im{u PST1} =
X1 + X 2 X1 + X 2
and
U 2 ⋅ X1 + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos (α + δ ) U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ sin (α + δ )
Re {u PST2 } = Im{u PST2 } =
X1 + X 2 X1 + X 2
Influence of PAR can be seen from Fig. 4.12, which has been obtained by placing PAR in the middle of the line (X1 =
X2). One must keep in mind that PAR changes only phase between u PST1 and u PST2 . Therefore, amplitude remains the
same and the graphs in Fig. 4.12 are the same for both voltages in question.
A device is denoted as “symmetrical” when transmission characteristics does not depend on orientation (how the PST
terminals are connected to the system – Fig. 4.10) and as “non-symmetrical” in the opposite case. The equations
describing PAR have been derived taking “orientation 1” into consideration. If they should also be valid for
“orientation 2”, then the system in Fig. 4.10 should be observed in the opposite direction, i.e. U1 should be replaced
with U2, X1 with X2, α with −α and δ with −δ . If those replacements are done, then in case of a “symmetrical”
device transmission characteristic remains unchanged (power flowing in opposite direction of the model, therefore
negative sign). Of course for a “non-symmetrical” device this is not the case.
Taking the above into consideration, PAR can be considered as a symmetrical device also in case of system voltage
influence.
Figure 4.12. Voltage amplitudes u PST1 and u PST2 for various values of α .
Page 54
4.1.6 QUADRATURE BOOSTING TRANSFORMER (QBT)

Similar as PAR, QBT also separates its terminal voltage phasors. However, injected uT voltage phase is fixed with
regard to the input voltage phasor u PST1 i.e. u T is perpendicular to u PST1 . The QBT phasor diagram is presented in
Fig. 4.13. Like in case of PAR, the controllable QBT parameter may be assumed the terminal voltage phasors
separation i.e. the angle α . The following equations can be written:
u PST1 = u1 − j ⋅ I 1 ⋅ X 1
1
u PST2 = u PST1 ⋅ e jα ⋅
cos α
u PST2 − u 2
I 2 = I 1 ⋅ e jα ⋅ cos α =
jX 2
uPST1
uT
α uPST2

Figure 4.13. Model of the transmission system with QBT: corresponding phasor diagram.
* *
Following the fact, that power conditions are balanced also in the case of QBT (i.e. u PST1 ⋅ I 1 = u PST2 ⋅ I 2 ) expressions
for I1 and I2 can be written:
-1 ⎛ u ⎞
I1 = j ⋅ ⎜ 1 − u 2 ⋅ e-jα ⎟ = Re { I 1} + jIm{ I 1}
⎛ X1 ⎞ ⎝ cos α ⎠
⎜ cos α + X 2 ⋅ cos α ⎟
⎝ ⎠
-1
I2 = j
⎛ X1 ⎞
(u ⋅ e
1
jα
)
− u 2 ⋅ cos α = Re { I 2 } + jIm {I 2 }
⎜ cos α + X 2 ⋅ cos α ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where
sin δ cos δ
U 2 ⋅ sin α + U1 ⋅ U 2 ⋅ cos α − U1 ⋅
Re { I 1} = cos α Im{ I 1} = cos α
⎛ X1 ⎞ ⎛ X1 ⎞
⎜ cos α + X 2 ⋅ cos α ⎟ ⎜ cos α + X 2 ⋅ cos α ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
and
2 ⋅U1 ⋅ cos α ⋅ sin (α + δ ) 2 ⋅ cos α ⋅ (U 2 ⋅ cos α − U1 ⋅ cos (α + δ ) )

Re { I 2 } = Im{ I 2 } =
2 ⋅ X1 + X 2 + X 2 ⋅ cos ( 2α ) 2 ⋅ X1 + X 2 + X 2 ⋅ cos ( 2α )
Transmission characteristic is the following
U1 ⋅U 2
P1 = P2 = P = ⋅ sin (δ + α )
X1
+ X 2 ⋅ cos α
cos α
Using equations for u PST1 and u PST2 , it is possible to obtain:
Page 55
u PST1 = Re {u PST1} + jIm {u PST1}
u PST2 = Re {u PST2 } + jIm {u PST2 }
where
cos α ⋅ (U 2 ⋅ X1 + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos δ ) U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos α ⋅ sin δ − U 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ sin α

Re {u PST1} = Im{u PST1} =
X X
X 2 ⋅ cos α + 1 X 2 ⋅ cos α + 1
cos α cos α
and
2 ⋅U 2 ⋅ X1 + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ ( cos δ + cos ( 2α + δ ) ) 2 ⋅U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos α ⋅ sin (α + δ )

Re {u PST2 } = Im{u PST2 } =
2 ⋅ X1 + X 2 + X 2 ⋅ cos ( 2α ) 2 ⋅ X1 + X 2 + X 2 ⋅ cos ( 2α )
Consequently, also regarding voltage influence, QBT can be considered as a non-symmetrical device. This can be
seen in Fig. 4.14 and Fig. 4.15, which have been obtained by placing QBT in the middle of the line (X1 = X2).
α=
+ 60º
Abs (uPST1) [p.u.]
+ 30º
2.00 0º
1.75 - 30º
1.50 - 60º
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
δ
[radian]
-1 0 1 2 3
Figure 4.14. Voltage amplitude u PST1 for various values of α .
Figure 4.15. Voltage amplitude u PST2 for various values of α .
Page 56
4.1.7 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC)

UPFC is considered a universal tool for power flow control because it has an ability of simultaneous and
independent control of all the three system parameters which affect power flow, i.e. transmission angle, terminal
voltage and system reactance. According to its impact on the system it might be modelled as a combination of a
series voltage source, an active and a reactive current source. The network scheme is presented in Fig. 4.16.
According to its structure, UPFC resembles PST. However, when active and reactive losses are neglected, its
apparent power is not balanced. Injected voltage phasor uT can have any phase with regard to its throughput
current (I2 or I1 - depending on orientation, see Fig. 4.16. The active power inserted into the system via uT is
balanced by the current source IT. IQ represents a reactive current source and is independent of uT. Its presence might
be considered identical as a presence of a STATCOM (not taking dimensioning of a UPFC into consideration). The
UPFC controllable parameters are thus: uT magnitude UT, uT phase ϕT and current IQ magnitude IQ. The system
presented in Fig. 4.16 with a corresponding phasor diagram in Fig. 4.17 can be described with the following set of
equations:
u UPFC1 = u1 − jI 1 ⋅ X1
u UPFC2 = u UPFC1 + uT
u UPFC2 − u 2
I2 = = I1 − I Q − I T
jX 2
{ *
}
where (injected active power is balanced by IT i.e. Re u T ⋅ I 2 = u UPFC1 ⋅ I T ):
*
IT =
(
Re u T I 2
∗
)
∗
u UPFC1

Figure 4.16. Model of the transmission system with UPFC: network impedance scheme.

Figure 4.17. Model of the transmission system with UPFC: referring to model in Fig. 4.16.
Page 57
By splitting all complex quantities to their real and imaginary part and by replacing IQ with a parallel susceptance,
it is possible to determine currents I1 and I2 as functions of system parameters and UPFC controllable parameters.
Then it is easy to calculate voltages u UPFC1 and u UPFC2 . Derivation is quite comprehensive and is out of scope of this
work. Nevertheless, the result for real and imaginary part of I1 is given (physically correct solution is with a positive
sign):
K E2 ± eE1 ⋅ DET
Re { I 1} = −
2 ⋅ KE1
dE2 ⋅ eE1 ⋅ eE2 − dE2 ⋅ eE22 − 2 ⋅ dE0 ⋅ eE1 ⋅ eE3 ± eE2 ⋅ DET
Im{ I 1} = −
2 ⋅ KE1
where
KE22 − 4 ⋅ K E1 ⋅ KE3
DET =
eE12
and
dE0 = X1 ⋅ X 2 ( X1 ⋅ X 2 ( B2 + B3 + BT ) − X1 − X 2 )
( (
dE1 = X 2 ⋅ U 2 ⋅ X1 − UT ⋅ X1 ⋅ cos φT (1 − X 2 ⋅ B3 ) − U1 ⋅ cos δ ⋅ X 2 + 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ (1 − X 2 ⋅ ( B2 + B3 + BT ) ) ))
( (
dE2 = X 2 ⋅ UT ⋅ X1 ⋅ sin ϕT (1 − X 2 ⋅ B3 ) + U1 ⋅ sin δ ⋅ X 2 + 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ (1 − X 2 ⋅ ( B2 + B3 + BT ) ) ))
(
dE3 = U1 ⋅ X 2 U 2 ⋅ cos δ − U1 ⋅ (1 − X 2 ⋅ ( B2 + B3 + BT ) ) − UT ⋅ cos (ϕT − δ ) ⋅ (1 − X 2 ⋅ B3 ) )
eE1 = −U1 X 22 ⋅ sin δ
eE2 = − X 2 ⋅ (U 2 ⋅ X1 + U1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ cos δ )
eE3 = U 2 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ (UT ⋅ sin ϕT + U1 ⋅ sin δ )
Where current IQ is expressed in the terms of a susceptance BT.
As in the case of UPFC three different control parameters exist, influence of all three on voltages u UPFC1 and u UPFC2
will be shown. One must keep in mind, that orientation 1 is used for obtaining the following graphs.
First, let us take a look at the influence of UT, where IQ and ϕT are set to zero.
Page 58
Figure 4.18. Voltage amplitude u UPFC1 for various values of UT.
Figure 4.19. Voltage amplitude u UPFC2 for various values of UT.
Next, let us take a look at the influence of ϕT , where IQ is set to zero and UT to its maximum value of 0,5. In this
way, the influence of ϕT variation can be best seen.
Figure 4.20. Voltage amplitude u UPFC1 for various values of ϕT .
Page 59
Figure 4.21. Voltage amplitude u UPFC2 for various values of ϕT .
Finally, let us observe also the influence of IQ, where UT is set to zero. In this way, ϕT has no effect, as it is a phase
angle of injected voltage uT. It os obvious that since UT = 0, u UPFC1 equals u UPFC2 .
Abs (uUPFC1), Abs (uUPFC2)

[p.u.]
2.00
1.75
1.50
IQ =
1.25
-1.0
1.00 -0.5
0
0.75
0.5
0.50 1.0
0.25
δ
[radian]
-1 0 1 2 3
Figure 4.22. Voltage amplitudes u UPFC1 and u UPFC2 for various values of IQ.

Page 60
Conclusion
Voltage and Reactive Power Support is a vital issue in System Operation. This problem is a complicated one in the
case of a large interconnected system. This issue has been examined in the past and a CIGRE TB was published five
years ago. But, the reality in electric power systems is developing in such a very fast pace that it was decided to
examine anew this issue and report the latest developments. Thus this Technical Brochure dwells within the context of
the Technical Issue #8 New Tools for system Technical performance assessment, because of new Customer, Generator
and Network characteristics of the CIGRE Technical Committee’s Project “Network of the Future” [3]. In accordance
with the Terms of Reference (ToR) of WB C2.13, it takes into account the issues of Distributed Generator
characteristics, the evolution of power system control at Continental, Country, Regional, and Local level, as well as
the increased level of automation in Control Centres, and last but not least the available now latest technological
means and ways, and reports best practices within Europe and China. Very valuable information is provided for all
the interested on the subject professionals in electric power systems and the electricity sector at large.
Page 61
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Page 64

504 - Voltage and VAr Support in System Operation

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Voltage and VAr Support in

Thales M. PAPAZOGLOU, Convenor (GR)

Voltage and VAr Support in

3.3.2 Logical Operations to detect a voltage collapse 41

On preventing and mitigating interruptions, and in particular on:

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND TERMINOLOGY

NVR National Voltage Regulator

ON MAINTAINING A GOOD VOLTAGE PROFILE IN STEADY-STATE AND TRANSIENT

2.1 HOW TO MAINTAIN A GOOD VOLTAGE PROFILE

TABLE 1: OPERATIONAL VOLTAGE LIMITS ON NORMAL SYSTEM SITUATION

400 kV 220 kV 150 kV*, or 110 kV**

Rated voltage 400 kV 800 kV 1.100 kV

Power transmission: 0 ... 3.000 MW

333 ... 1.000 km Line (series Series

PC=105 %, SC=50 %, P=0 MW

PC=105 %, SC=80 %, P=0 MW

PC=105 %, SC=80 %, P=1000 MW

PC=105 %, SC= 0 %, P=2000 MW

no PC, SC=50 %, P=0 MW

no PC, SC=80 %, P=0 MW

no PC, SC= 0 %, P=1000 MW

Transmission length / km no PC, SC=80 %, P=1000 MW

Parallel compensation 2x1150 kV line

6000 MW 4000 MW 2000 MW 0 MW

Losses [MW] 2x400 kV line

Losses [MW] 2x1150 kV line

2.1.1 WHAT CONTROLLABLE/SWITCHABLE REACTIVE POWER SOURCES ARE AVAILABLE

The Static VAr Compensator (SVC)

and the reactive powers correspond to the expressions:

U12 ⋅ (1 − BSVC ⋅ X 2 ) − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) U 22 ⋅ (1 − BSVC ⋅ X1 ) − U1 ⋅U 2 ⋅ cos(δ 2 − δ1 )

P1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 ) + Q1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) P1 ⋅ sin(δ1 − δ 2 ) − Q1 ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )

1 − BSVC ⋅ X 2 U 2 − U1 ⋅ (1 − BSVC ⋅ X 2 ) ⋅ cos(δ1 − δ 2 )

Voltage USVC is therefore written as:

U SVC = U 1 − jI 1 ⋅ X 1 = Re {U SVC } + jIm {U SVC }

So, the magnitude Usvc is: USVC = Re {U SVC } + Im {U SVC } .

R = 0 p.u.; X = 0,3 p.u.

Srated = Bsvc=0,2 p.u.

0,2 Srated = Bsvc=0,4 p.u.

SSVC rated = U rated

2.1.2 CONTROL SCHEMES

2.1.2.1 The hierarchical control scheme

V P1SET V P2SET V P3SET

SVR 1 SVR 2 SVR 3

2.1.3.1 The Slovenian Control Scheme

2.1.3.2 The Chinese hierarchical control scheme

2.1.3.2.1 Zone division

Figure 2.14. Hierarchical clustering based zone division.

2.1.3.2.2 Reactive Optimal Power Flow

with the following constraints:

δs Phase angle of slack bus

QGimin , QGimax Reactive power limits for generator on bus i

tkmin , tkmax Tap ratio limits for transformer k

U imin , U imax Voltage magnitude limits for bus i

2.1.3.2.3 Control strategies of SVR

2.1.3.2.4 Substation Voltage Control with Discrete Devices

2.1.4 TSO AND DSO INTERACTION

2.1.4.1 The MAVIR system U/Q control

Figure 2.19. Structure of the system-wide U/Q control.

2.1.4.1.1 Voltage/VAr optimization

2.1.4.1.2 Generating units participation in the voltage optimisation

2.1.4.1.3 Transformers participation in the voltage optimisation

2.1.4.1.4 Operating the U/Q control

2.1.4.2 The current Swissgrid practice