CONTENTS

Description Page No

Abstract i

List of Figures ii

List of symbols iii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1 Overview 1
2 Literature Survey 1
3 Organization of the thesis 4

CHAPTER 2: HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 5

2.1 Introduction 5

2.1.1 Natural commutated converters (NCC) 5

2.1.2 Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) 6

2.1.3 Forced Commutated Converters 6

2.2 Configurations of HVDC 6

2.2.1 Mono-polar HVDC system 6

2.2.2 Bipolar HVDC system 7

2.2.3 Homo-polar HVDC system 7

2.2.4. Multi-terminal HVDC system 8

2.3 12-pulse converters 11

 2.3.1 HVDC converter stations 13

2.4 Basic Control Principles 14

2.4.1 DC transmission control 14

2.4.2 Converter current/voltage characteristics 15

2.4.3 Master control system 18

2.4.4 Comparison of Different HVAC-HVDC 18

CHAPTER 3: VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER 19

3.1 Introduction 19

3.1.1 Voltage Source Converter based on IGBT Technology 20

3.1.2 GTO/IGBT (Thyristor based HVDC) 20

3.2 Power System Stability 22

3.2.1 Classification of Power System Stability 22

3.3 Voltage Stability 24

3.4 Frequency Stability 25

3.5 Classification based on the disturbance 25

3.5.1 Steady state 25

3.5.2 Dynamic state 28

3.5.3 Transient state 29

3.6 Stability Limits 30

3.7 Power System Control 31

3.8 Power System Protection 32

3.9 New Technologies 32

3.9.1 FACTS 32

3.9.2 New controls 33

3.9.3 Transmission power flow control 33

3.9.4 Voltage Control 33

3.9.5 Frequency Control 34

3.9.6 Voltage stability control 34

3.9.7 Small signal stability control 34

3.9.8 Transient stability control 35

3.10 Analysis of the PWM Converter and SHE-PWM 36

CHAPTER 4: PULSE WIDTH MODULATION 40

4.1 Pulse Width Modulation Technique 40

4.2 Pulse Width modulator 41

4.3 Why the PWM frequency is important 45

4.4 PWM Controller Features 46

4.5 Pulse Width Modulation in Inverters 47

4.6 Selective Harmonic Elimination 49

4.7 Total Harmonic Distortion 51

CHAPTER 5: SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 52

5.1 Three phase Two level VSC mode 52

 5.1.1 Control circuit for generating the SHE-PWM Signals 53

5.2 Three phase Two level VSC without repositioning technique 56

5.3 Three phase Two level VSC with repositioning technique 60

CHAPTER 6 : CONCLUSIONS 65

6.1 Conclusions 65

REFERENCES 66

Ms Modulating signal
 NEW BREED OF NETWORK FAULT-TOLERANT
VOLTAGE-SOURCE-CONVERTER HVDC
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
ABSTRACT
This paper proposes a new breed of high-voltage dc (HVDC) transmission
systems based on a hybrid multilevel voltage source converter (VSC) with ac-side
cascaded H-bridge cells. The proposed HVDC system offers the operational flexibility of
VSC based systems in terms of active and reactive power control, black start capability,
in addition to improved ac fault ride-through capability and the unique feature of current-
limiting capability during dc side faults. Additionally, it offers features such as smaller
footprint and a larger active and reactive power capability curve than existing VSC-based
HVDC systems, including those using modular multilevel converters. To illustrate the
feasibility of the proposed HVDC system, this paper assesses its dynamic performance
during steady-state and network alterations, including its response to ac and dc side
faults.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No Name Page. No

Fig. 2.1 Mono polar HVDC system 6

Fig. 2.2 Bipolar HVDC system system 7

Fig. 2.3 Homo-polar HVDC System 7

Fig. 2.4 Multi-terminal HVDC System 8

Fig. 2.5 12-Pulse Converter 12

Fig. 2.6 Main elements of a HVDC converter station with one 13

bipolar consisting of two 12-pulse converter unit

Fig. 2.7 Mono-polar HVDC transmission Voltage in station B 14

according to reversed polarity convention.

Fig. 2.8 Steady state diagram ud/id for converter station A 16

Fig. 2.9 Steady state diagram ud/id for converter station A&B 17

Fig.3.1 Classification of power system stability 23

Fig.3.2 Torque acting on the shaft 26

Fig.3.3 Relation between rotor torque and angle 26

Fig.3.4 Representation of synchronous machine connected to 26

infinite bus

Fig.3.5 Vector diagram of synchronous machine 27

Fig.3.6 Physical analogy of transmission line 28

Fig.3.7 Typical two-level PWM switching waveform with five 36

angles per quarter cycle.

Solution trajectories. (a) Per-unit modulation index over a

Fig.3.8 complete periodic (b) Five angles in radians. 38

Fig.4.1 PWM Waveforms 40

Fig.4.2 General waveform of PWM 41

Fig.4.3 Duty Cycles 42

Fig.4.4 Current Steady – State Value 43

Fig.4.5.(a) Low Frequency PWM with D<rise time resulting 43

Fig.4.5.(b) Low Frequency PWM with D>rise time resulting 43

Fig.4.6 Duty cycle I vs T current 44

Fig.4.7 PWM waveform with odd and half wave 49

Fig.4.8 A Two-level PWM waveform 51

Fig.5.1 Simulink model of the Three-phase two-level VSC 52

Fig.5.2 Control circuit for the generating the PWM signals 53

Fig.5.3 DC-link voltage 53

Fig.5.4 Solution trajectories with the modulating signal 54

( M=0.75).

Fig.5.5 Line-to-neutral voltage 54

Fig.5.6 Line-to-Line Voltage 55

Fig.5.7 Positive sequence Line-to-Line voltage spectra 55

Fig.5.8 Negative sequence Line-to-Line voltage spectra 56

Fig.5.9 Simulink model of the Three-phase two-level VSC 57

(without repositioning technique)

Fig.5.10 DC-link voltage with 10% ripple 57

Fig.5.11 Solution trajectories with the modulating signal (M=0.75) 58

Fig.5.12 Line-to-Neutral voltage. 58

Fig.5.13 Line-to-line voltage 59

Fig.5.14 Positive sequence line-to-line voltage spectra 59

Fig.5.15 Negative sequence line-to-line voltage spectra 60

Fig.5.16 Simulink model of the Three-phase two-level VSC(with 61
repositioning technique)

Fig.5.17 DC-link Voltage with 10% ripple 61

Fig.5.18 Modified modulating with the solution trajectories. 62

Fig.5.19 Line-to-Neutral Voltage 62

Fig.5.20 Line-to-Line Voltage 63

Fig.5.21 Positive sequence Line-to-Line Voltage spectra 63

Fig.5.22 Negative sequence Line-to-Line Voltage spectra
64
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

id The total current of the line, [A]

udA, udb Voltages at station A and station B, [V]

rd The total resistance of the line,[Ω]

PdB Power transmitted into station B, [W]

α Firing angle

γ Extinction angle

ud Direct voltage, [V]

μ Commutation angle

PM Mechanical power input, [W]

TMω The product of Torque and Speed

δ The rotor (torque) angle

F1 The stator magneto motive force (MMF)

F2 The Rotor magneto motive force (MMF)

Pe The power output from the generator, [W]

Eg The generator terminal voltage, [V]

ET The internal voltage, [V]

XL Line reactance, [Ω]

Xg Series impedance, [Ω]

D Duty Cycle

hi The magnitude of the ith harmonic

αj The jth primary switching angle

Sw Swicthing function, [p.u]

Vdc DC link voltages

k Eliminate the harmonics

VLN Line to Netural voltages, [V]

VLL Line to Line voltages, [V]

M Modulation index
 I. INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, voltage-source-converter high-voltage dc (VSC-HVDC) transmission
systems have evolved from simple two-level converters to neutral-point clamped converters and
then to true multilevel converters such as modular converters [1]–[5]. This evolution aimed to
lower semiconductor losses and increase power-handling capability of VSC-HVDC transmission
systems to the level comparable to that of conventional HVDC systems based on thyristor
current-source converters, improved ac side waveform quality in order to minimize or eliminate
ac filters, reduced voltage stresses on converter transformers, and reduced converter overall cost
and footprint [6]–[15].
With increased demand for clean energy, power system networks need to be reengineered
to be more efficient and flexible and reinforced to accommodate increased penetration of
renewable power without compromising system operation and reliability.
A VSC-HVDC transmission system is a candidate to meet these challenges due to its
operational flexibility, such as provision of voltage support to ac networks, its ability to operate
independent of ac network strength therefore makes it suitable for connection of weak ac
networks such as offshore wind farms, suitability for multi terminal HVDC network realization
as active power reversal is achieved without dc link voltage polarity change, and resiliency to ac
side faults (no risk of commutation failure as with line-commutating HVDC systems) [12], [16]–
[22]. However, vulnerability to dc side faults and absence of reliable dc circuit breakers capable
of operating at high-voltage restrict their application to point-to-point connection. Present VSC-
HVDC transmission systems rely on their converter station control systems and effective
impedance between the point-of-common-coupling (PCC) and the converter terminals to ride-
through dc side faults. With present converter technology, the dc fault current comprises the ac
networks contribution through converter free-wheeling diodes and discharge currents of the dc
side capacitors (dc link and cable distributed capacitors) [23], [24].
 The magnitude of the dc-side capacitors ‘discharge current decays with time and are
larger than the ac networks contribution. For this reason, dc fault interruption may require dc
circuit breakers that can tolerate high let-through current that may flow in the dc side during the
first few cycles after the fault, with high current breaking capacity and fast interruption time.
Recent HVDC converter topologies with no common dc link capacitors, such as the modular
multilevel converter (M2C), may minimize the magnitude and duration of the discharge current
first peak [2], [12], [14], [23], [25].

Fig. 1.1. Hybrid voltage multilevel converter with ac side cascaded H-bridge cells.

There are two approaches to assist VSC-HVDC transmission systems to ride-through dc

side faults. The first approach is to use a fast acting dc circuit breaker, with considerably high
let-through current to tolerate the high dc fault discharge current that may flow in the dc side.
This breaker must be capable of operating at high voltage and isolates temporary or permanent
dc faults, plus have a relatively high-current-breaking capacity. Reference [26] presents a
prototype 80-kV dc circuit breaker with dc current breaking capacity of 9kA within
2ms.However; this first step is inadequate, as the operating voltage of present VSC-HVDC
transmission systems reach 640 kV pole-to-pole (or ±320 kV for a bi-polar configuration), with
power-handling capability of 1 GW. This breaker approach may introduce significant steady-
state losses due to the semiconductors in the main current path.
 The second approach is to use converter stations with dc fault reverse-blocking capability
[1], [4], [23]. Each converter station must be able to block current flow between the ac and dc
sides during a dc fault, allowing dc-side capacitor discharge current, which is the major
component of the dc fault current, to decay to zero and then isolate the fault. Several converter
topologies with this inherent feature have been proposed, including an H-bridge modular
multilevel converter, an alternative arm modular multilevel converter, and a hybrid multilevel
converter with ac-side cascaded H-bridge cells. However, the drawback is that the active power
exchange between the ac networks reduces to zero during the dc fault period.
Commensurate with the second approach, this paper presents a new HVDC transmission
systems based on a hybrid-voltage-source multilevel converter with ac-side cascaded H-bridge
cells. The adopted converter has inherent dc fault reverse-blocking capability, which can be
exploited to improve VSC-HVDC resiliency to dc side faults. With coordination between the
HVDC converter station control functions, the dc fault reverse-blocking capability of the hybrid
converter is exploited to achieve the following:
• eliminate the ac grid contribution to the dc fault, hence minimizing the risk of converter failure
due to uncontrolled over current during dc faults;
• facilitate controlled recovery without interruption of the VSC-HVDC system from dc-side
faults without the need for opening ac-side circuit breakers;
• simplify dc circuit breaker design due to a reduction in the magnitude and duration of the dc
fault current; and
• improve voltage stability of the ac networks as converter reactive power consumption is
reduced during dc-side faults. Section II of this paper describes the operational principle and
control of the hybrid voltage source multilevel converter with ac-side cascaded H-bridge cells.
Section III describes the HVDC system control design, specifically, ac current controller
in synchronous reference frame, dc link voltage, and active power, and ac voltage controllers. A
detailed block diagram that summarizes how different control layers of the proposed HVDC
transmission system are interfaced is presented. Section IV presents simulations of a hybrid
converter HVDC transmission system, which demonstrate its response during steady-steady and
network disturbances. Included are simulations of four quadrant operation, voltage support
capability, and ac and dc fault ride-through capabilities.
 CHAPTER-2
HVDC
2-1. Introduction

HVDC or high-voltage, direct current electric power transmission systems contrast with the
more common alternating current systems as a means for the bulk transmission of electrical
power.

High voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long
distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is required
to be transmitted over very long distances, it is more economical to transmit using direct current
instead of alternating current. For a long transmission line, the value of the smaller losses, and
reduced construction cost of a DC line, can offset the additional cost of converter stations at each
end of the line. Also, at high AC voltages significant (although economically acceptable)
amounts of energy are lost due to corona discharge, the capacitance between phases or, in the
case of buried cables, between phases and the soil or water in which the cable is buried.
 2.1 One-line diagram of a two-terminal HVDC system

HVDC links are sometimes used to stabilize against control problems with the AC electricity
flow. In other words, to transmit AC power as AC when needed in either direction between
Seattle and Boston would require the (highly challenging) continuous real-time adjustment of the
relative phase of the two electrical grids. With HVDC instead the interconnection would: (1)
Convert AC in Seattle into HVDC. (2) Use HVDC for the three thousand miles of cross country
transmission. Then (3) convert the HVDC to locally synchronized AC in Boston, and optionally
in other cooperating cities along the transmission route. One prominent example of such a
transmission line is the Pacific DC Intertie located in the Western United States.

When converters are used for d.c. transmission in preference to a.c. transmission, it is generally
by economic choice driven by one of the following reasons:
1. An overhead d.c. transmission line with its towers can be designed to be less costly per unit of
length than an equivalent a.c. line designed to transmit the same level of electric power. However
the d.c. converter stations at each end are more costly than the terminating stations of an a.c. line
and so there is a breakeven distance above which the total cost of d.c. transmission is less than its
a.c. transmission alternative. The d.c. transmission line can have a lower visual profile than an
equivalent a.c. line and so contributes to a lower environmental impact. There are other
environmental advantages to a d.c. transmission line through the electric and magnetic fields
being d.c. instead of ac.
2. If transmission is by submarine or underground cable, the breakeven distance is much less
than overhead transmission. It is not practical to consider a.c. cable systems exceeding 50 km but
d.c. cable transmission systems are in service whose length is in the hundreds of kilometers and
even distances of 600 km or greater have been considered feasible.
3. Some a.c. electric power systems are not synchronized to neighboring networks even though
their physical distances between them is quite small. This occurs in Japan where half the country
is a 60 hz network and the other is a 50 hz system. It is physically impossible to connect the two
together by direct a.c. methods in order to exchange electric power between them. However, if a
d.c. converter station is located in each system with an interconnecting d.c. link between them, it
is possible to transfer the required power flow even though the a.c. systems so connected remain
asynchronous.

Advantages of high voltage transmission

High voltage is used for transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of the wires. For
a given quantity of power transmitted, higher voltage reduces the transmission power loss. Power
in a circuit is proportional to the current, but the power lost as heat in the wires is proportional to
the square of the current. However, power is also proportional to voltage, so for a given power
level, higher voltage can be traded off for lower current. Thus, the higher the voltage, the lower
the power loss. Power loss can also be reduced by reducing resistance, commonly achieved by
increasing the diameter of the conductor; but larger conductors are heavier and more expensive.

High voltages cannot be easily used in lighting and motors, and so transmission-level voltage
must be reduced to values compatible with end-use equipment. The transformer, which only
works with alternating current, is an efficient way to change voltages.

2.1 High Voltage Direct Current

 The High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology is used to transmit electricity
over long distances by overhead transmission lines or submarine cables. It is also used to
interconnect separate power systems, where traditional alternating current (AC) connections can
not be used.

Fig:2.2

Limitations of HVDC \
The scope of application of HVDC transmission is limited by the following factors.
High cost of terminal equipments
HVDC transmission system requires converters at both ends and those are very
expensive than ac equipments.
 Introduction of harmonics
Converter generate considerable amount of harmonics both on ac and dc sides.
Some harmonics are filtered out but some harmonics still enter into the system and affect the
apparatus these harmonics may also interfere with communication system.

 Blocking of reactive power

DC lines block the flow of reactive power from one end to another end. These
reactive powers are required by some load that must be fulfilled by the inverters.
 Point-to-point transmission not possible.
 It is not possible to tap dc power at several locations in the line. Wherever power
is to be trapped, a control station is required and coordinated with other terminals. This
increases the complexity and cost of the systems
2.2 Why HVDC
There are many different reasons as to why HVDC is chosen instead of ac
transmission .A few of them are listed below.
 Cost effective
HVDC transmission requires only two conductors compared to the three wire
ac transmission system. One –third less wire is used, thus readily reducing the cost of the
conductors. This corresponds to reduced tower and insulation cost, there by resulting in
cheaper construction. However, the ac converters stations involve high cost for installation;
thus, earlier advantage is offset by the increase in cost. If the transmission distance is long, a
break-even distance is reached above which total cost of HVDC transmission is less than the
ac.
 HVDC cable transmissions for long distance water crossing
In a long AC cable transmission, the reactive power flow due to the large cable
capacitance will limit the maximum possible transmission distance. With HVDC there is no such
limitation, why, for long cable links, HVDC is the only viable technical alternative. The longest
HVDC submarine cable presently in operation is the 250 km Baltic Cable transmission between
Sweden and Germany. Several HVDC Submarine cables of 500 km or more are currently being
planned in Europe and elsewhere.
 Asynchronous tie
HVDC transmission has the ability to connect ac systems of different frequencies.
Thus it can be used for intercontinental asynchronous tie. For example, in Japan HVDC could be
used to connect an ac system operating at 60Hz with one operating at 50 Hz.

 Lower line losses

Similar to an ac transmission, HVDC transmission has I 2R losses too. However,
for the same amount of power transfer, dc losses are less due to the lower resistance of the
conductors because of only two-third of the conductor length. The main losses are converter
losses.
 Offers better stability and control
 Insures low environmental impact and reduces construction time.

Other advantages of HVDC

 Require less space compared to ac for same voltage rating and size
 Ground can be used as returned conductor
 Less corona loss and radio interference
 No charging current
 No skin and Ferranti effect
 No switching transient
 An HVDC transmission limits short circuit currents
 HVDC transmission for controllability of power flow
Fig2.3

Design, Construction, Operation and Maintenance considerations

In general, the basic parameters such as power to be transmitted, distance of
transmission, voltage levels, temporary and continuous overload, status of the network on the
receiving end, environmental requirements etc. are required to initiate a design of an HVDC
system.
For tendering purposes a conceptual design is done following a technical specification or
in close collaboration between the manufacturer and the customer. The final design and
specifications are in fact the result of the tendering and negotiations with the
manufacturers/suppliers. It is recommended that a turnkey approach be chosen to contract
execution, which is the practice even in developed countries. In terms of construction, it can take
from three years for thyristor-based large HVDC systems, to just one year for VSC based HVDC
systems to go from contract date to commissioning.
Maintenance of HVDC systems is comparable to those of high
voltage AC systems. The high voltage equipment in converter stations is comparable to the
corresponding equipment in AC substations, and maintenance can be executed in the same way.
Maintenance will focus on: AC and DC filters, smoothing reactors, wall bushings, valve-cooling
equipment, and thyristor valves. In all the above, adequate training and support is provided by
the supplier during the installation, commissioning and initial operation period.
Normal routine maintenance is recommended to be one week per year. The
newer systems can even go for two years before requiring maintenance. In fact in a bipolar
system, one pole at a time is stopped during the time required for the
Maintenance and the other pole can normally continue to operate and depending on the in-built
overload capacity it can take a part of the load of the pole under maintenance.
In addition, preventive maintenance shall be pursued so that the plants and
equipment will achieve optimally balanced availability with regard to the costs of maintenance,
operating disturbances and planned outages. As a guideline value, the aim shall be to achieve an
availability of 98 % according to Cigrè protocol 14-97.
 While HVDC systems may only need a few skilled staff for operation and
maintenance, several factors influence the number of staff needed at a station. These factors are:
local routines and regulations, working conditions, union requirements, safety regulations, and
other local rules can separately or together affect the total number of personnel required for the
type of installed equipment.

Cost structure
The cost of an HVDC transmission system depends on many factors, such as
power capacity to be transmitted, type of transmission medium, environmental conditions and
other safety, regulatory requirements etc. Even when these are available, the options available for
optimal design (different commutation techniques, variety of filters, transformers etc.,) render it
is difficult to give a cost figure for an HVDC system. Nevertheless, a typical cost structure for
the converter stations could be as follows:

Cost effective
HVDC transmission requires only two conductors compared to the three wire ac transmission
system. One –third less wire is used, thus readily reducing the cost of the conductors. This
corresponds to reduced tower and insulation cost, there by resulting in cheaper construction.
However, the ac converters stations involve high cost for installation; thus, earlier advantage is
offset by the increase in cost. If the transmission distance is long, a break-even distance is
reached above which total cost of HVDC transmission is less than the ac.

Total cost/distance
Advantages of HVDC over AC transmission

The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long distances
with lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage level and
construction details, losses are quoted as about 3% per 1000 km. High-voltage direct current
transmission allows efficient use of energy sources remote from load centers.

In a number of applications HVDC is more effective than AC transmission. Examples include:

  Undersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC losses.
 Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps', for
example, in remote areas
 Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations where additional wires are
difficult or expensive to install
 Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronised AC distribution systems
 Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid.
 Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing maximum prospective
short circuit current
 Reducing line cost. HVDC needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support multiple
phases. Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer from the skin
effect
 Facilitate power transmission between different countries that use AC at differing
voltages and/or frequencies
 Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy sources

Long undersea cables have a high capacitance. While this has minimal effect for DC
transmission, the current required to charge and discharge the capacitance of the cable causes
additional I2R power losses when the cable is carrying AC. In addition, AC power is lost to
dielectric losses.

HVDC can carry more power per conductor, because for a given power rating the constant
voltage in a DC line is lower than the peak voltage in an AC line. This voltage determines the
insulation thickness and conductor spacing. This allows existing transmission line corridors to be
used to carry more power into an area of high power consumption, which can lower costs.

Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems, it

can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating from one
part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause portions of
an AC network to become unsynchronized and separate would not similarly affect a DC link, and
 the power flow through the DC link would tend to stabilize the AC network. The magnitude and
direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly commanded, and changed as needed to
support the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused many power system
operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone.

Applications of HVDC

 HVDC is particularly suited to undersea transmission, where the losses from AC are
large.
 First commercial HVDC link (Gotland 1 Sweden, in 1954) was an
undersea one.
 Back-to-back converters are used to connect two AC systems with different
frequencies – as in Japan – or two regions where AC is not synchronized – as in the
US.
 HVDC links can stabilize AC system frequencies and voltages, and help with
unplanned outages.
 A DC link is asynchronous, and the conversion stations include frequency control
functions.
 Changing DC power flow rapidly and independently of AC flows can help control
reactive power.
 HVDC links designed to carry a maximum load cannot be overloaded by outage
of parallel AC lines.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching and control.

The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At smaller
transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than in an AC transmission
line. The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in line construction cost and lower
line loss. Currently worldwide all former mercury rectifiers are dismantled or replaced by
thyristor units.
In contrast to AC systems, realizing multiterminal systems is complex, as is expanding existing
schemes to multiterminal systems. Controlling power flow in a multiterminal DC system
requires good communication between all the terminals; power flow must be actively regulated
by the control system instead of by the inherent properties of the transmission line. High voltage
DC circuit breakers are difficult to build because some mechanism must be included in the
circuit breaker to force current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact wear would be too great to
allow reliable switching.

AC network interconnections

AC transmission lines can only interconnect synchronized AC networks that oscillate at the same
frequency and in phase. Many areas that wish to share power have unsynchronized networks.
However, HVDC systems make it possible to interconnect unsynchronized AC networks, and
also add the possibility of controlling AC voltage and reactive power flow.

A generator connected to a long AC transmission line may become unstable and fall out of
synchronization with a distant AC power system. An HVDC transmission link may make it
economically feasible to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off-shore may use
HVDC systems to collect power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to the
shore by an underwater cable.

In general, however, an HVDC power line will interconnect two AC regions of the power-
distribution grid. Machinery to convert between AC and DC power adds a considerable cost in
power transmission. The conversion from AC to DC is known as rectification and from DC to
AC as inversion. Above a certain break-even distance (about 50 km for submarine cables, and
perhaps 600–800 km for overhead cables), the lower cost of the HVDC electrical conductors
outweighs the cost of the electronics.

The conversion electronics also present an opportunity to effectively manage the power grid by
means of controlling the magnitude and direction of power flow. An additional advantage of the
existence of HVDC links, therefore, is potential increased stability in the transmission grid.

Rectifying and inverting

Rectifying and inverting components

Early static systems used mercury arc rectifiers, which were unreliable. Two HVDC systems
using mercury arc rectifiers are still in service (as of 2008). The thyristor valve was first used in
HVDC systems in the 1960s. The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device similar to the
diode, but with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a particular
instant during the AC cycle. The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is now also used and
offers simpler control and reduced valve cost.

Because the voltages in HVDC systems, up to 800 kV in some cases, exceed the breakdown
voltages of the semiconductor devices, HVDC converters are built using large numbers of
semiconductors in series.

The low-voltage control circuits used to switch the thyristors on and off need to be isolated from
the high voltages present on the transmission lines. This is usually done optically. In a hybrid
control system, the low-voltage control electronics sends light pulses along optical fibres to the
high-side control electronics. Another system, called direct light triggering, dispenses with the
high-side electronics, instead using light pulses from the control electronics to switch light-
triggered thyristors (LTTs).

A complete switching element is commonly referred to as a 'valve', irrespective of its

construction.

Rectifying and inverting systems

Rectification and inversion use essentially the same machinery. Many substations are set up in
such a way that they can act as both rectifiers and inverters. At the AC end a set of transformers,
often three physically separate single-phase transformers, isolate the station from the AC supply,
to provide a local earth, and to ensure the correct eventual DC voltage. The output of these
transformers is then connected to a bridge rectifier formed by a number of valves. The basic
configuration uses six valves, connecting each of the three phases to each of the two DC rails.
However, with a phase change only every sixty degrees, considerable harmonics remain on the
DC rails.
An enhancement of this configuration uses 12 valves (often known as a twelve-pulse system).
The AC is split into two separate three phase supplies before transformation. One of the sets of
supplies is then configured to have a star (wye) secondary, the other a delta secondary,
establishing a thirty degree phase difference between the two sets of three phases. With twelve
valves connecting each of the two sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase
change every 30 degrees, and harmonics are considerably reduced.

In addition to the conversion transformers and valve-sets, various passive resistive and reactive
components help filter harmonics out of the DC rails.

There are three ways of achieving conversion

1. Natural commutated converters
2. Capacitor Commutated Converters
3. Forced Commutated Converters
Natural commutated converters: (NCC)
NCC are most used in the HVDC systems as of today. The component that enables this
conversion process is the thyristor, which is a controllable semiconductor that can carry very
high currents (4000 A) and is able to block very high voltages (up to 10 kV). By means of
connecting the thyristors in series it is possible to build up a thyristor valve, which is able to
operate at very high voltages (several hundred of kV).The thyristor valve is operated at net
frequency (50 hz or 60 hz) and by means of a control angle it is possible to change the DC
voltage level of the bridge..
Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC).
An improvement in the thyristor-based Commutation, the CCC concept is characterized
by the use of commutation capacitors inserted in series between the converter transformers and
the thyristor valves. The commutation capacitors improve the commutation failure performance
of the converters when connected to weak networks.
Forced Commutated Converters.
This type of converters introduces a spectrum of advantages, e.g. feed of passive
networks (without generation), independent control of active and reactive power, power quality.
The valves of these converters are built up with semiconductors with the ability not only to turn-
on but also to turn-off. They are known as VSC (Voltage Source Converters). A new type of
HVDC has become available. It makes use of the more advanced semiconductor technology
instead of thyristors for power conversion between AC and DC. The semiconductors used are
insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), and the converters are voltage source converters
(VSCs) which operate with high switching frequencies (1-2kHz) utilizing pulse width
modulation (PWM).

Configurations

Monopole and earth return

In a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected to
earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground, is connected to a
transmission line. The earthed terminal may or may not be connected to the corresponding
connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.

If no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth between the earth electrodes at the
two stations. Therefore it is a type of Single wire earth return. The issues surrounding earth-
return current include

 Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal objects such as pipelines

 Underwater earth-return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise affect
water chemistry.
  An unbalanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect magnetic
navigational compasses for ships passing over an underwater cable.

These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor between the two
ends of the monopolar transmission line. Since one terminal of the converters is connected to
earth, the return conductor need not be insulated for the full transmission voltage which makes it
less costly than the high-voltage conductor. Use of a metallic return conductor is decided based
on economic, technical and environmental factors.

Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically 1500 MW. If underground or
underwater cables are used the typical value is 600 MW.

Most monopolar systems are designed for future bipolar expansion. Transmission line towers
may be designed to carry two conductors, even if only one is used initially for the monopole
transmission system. The second conductor is either unused, used as electrode line or connected
in parallel with the other (as in case of Baltic-Cable).

Bipolar
In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to
ground, in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full voltage,

transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. However, there are a
number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it the attractive option.

 Under normal load, negligible earth-

current flows, as in the case of monopolar
 transmission with a metallic earth-return. This reduces earth return loss and
environmental effects.
 When a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of the
line, approximately half the rated power can continue to flow using the earth as a return
path, operating in monopolar mode.
 Since for a given total power rating each conductor of a bipolar line carries only half the
current of monopolar lines, the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a
monopolar line of the same rating.
 In very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of
transmission towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one line
is damaged.

A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.

Bipolar systems may carry as much as 3000 MW at voltages of +/-533 kV. Submarine cable
installations initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded with additional cables and
operated as a bipole.

Multi-terminal HVDC system:

In the multi terminal configuration, three or more HVDC converter stations are
geographically separated and interconnected through transmission lines or cables. The system
can be either parallel, where all converter stations are connected to the same voltage as shown in
Fig(b). or series multiterminal system, where one or more converter stations are connected in
series in one or both poles as shown in Fig. (c). A hybrid multiterminal system contains a
combination of parallel and series connections of converter stations
Homo-polar HVDC system:
In the homo polar configuration, shown in Fig . Two or more conductors have the
negative polarity and can be operated with ground or a metallic return. With two Poles operated
in parallel, the homopolar configuration reduces the insulation costs. However, the large earth
return current is the major disadvantage.

Converter Transformer
The converter transformers transform the voltage of the AC busbar to the required entry voltage
of the converter. The 12-pulse converter requires two 3-phase systems which are spaced apart
from each other by 30 or 150 electrical degrees. This is achieved by installing a transformer on
each network side in the vector groupsYy0 andYd5. At the same time, they ensure the voltage
insulation necessary in order to make it possible to connect converter bridges in series on the DC
side, as is necessary for HVDC technology. The transformer main insulation, therefore, is
stressed by both the AC voltage and the direct voltage potential between valve-side winding and
ground. The converter transformers are equipped with on-load tap-changers in order to provide
the correct valve voltage.

Special Tests for HVDC Transformers

Special tests for verifying operating functionality are required for HVDC transformers. The
applicable international standards are subject to constant further development. Separate tests with
DC voltage, switching and lightning impulse voltages cover the range of different voltage loads.
The 2-MV DC voltage generators in the Nuremberg Transformer Plant are well-suited for all
required DC voltage and reverse poling tests. The most important criterion is partial discharge. A
maximum of 10 discharges over 2000 pC during the last 10 minutes of the test is permitted.

Smoothing Reactor
Smoothing Reactor Functions
1. Prevention of intermittent current
The intermittent current due to the current ripple can cause high over-voltages in the transformer
and the smoothing reactor. The smoothing reactor is used to prevent the current interruption at
minimum load.
2. Limitation of the DC fault current
The smoothing reactor can reduce the fault current and its rate of rise for commutation failures
and DC line faults. This is of primary importance if a long DC cable is used for the transmission.
For an overhead line transmission, the current stress in valves is lower than the stress which will
occur during valve short circuit.
3. Prevention of resonance in the DC circuit
The smoothing reactor is selected to avoid resonance in the DC circuit at low order harmonic
frequencies like 100 or 150 Hz. This is important to avoid the amplification effect for harmonics
originally from the AC system, like negative sequence and transformer saturation.

4. Reducing harmonic currents including limitation of telephone interference

Limitation of interference coming from the DC overhead line is an essential function of the DC
filter circuits. However, the smoothing reactor also plays an important role to reduce harmonic
currents acting as a series impedance.

Sizing of the smoothing Reactor

While the current and voltage rating of the smoothing reactor can be specified based on the data
of the DC circuit, the inductance is the determining factor in sizing the reactor. Taking all design
aspects above into account, the size of smoothing reactors is often selected in the range of 100 to
300 mH for long distance DC links and 30 to 80 mH for back-to-back stations.

Arrangement of the Smoothing Reactor

In an HVDC long-distance transmission system, it seems quite logical that the smoothing reactor
will be connected in series with the DC line of the station pole. This is the normal arrangement.
However in back-to-back schemes, the smoothing reactor can also be connected to the low-
voltage terminal.
Harmonic Filters
The filter arrangements on the AC side of an HVDC converter station have two main duties:
• To absorb harmonic currents generated by the HVDC converter and thus to reduce the impact
of the harmonics on the connected AC systems, like AC voltage distortion and telephone
interference
• To supply reactive power for compensating the demand of the converter station Each filter
branch can have one to three tuning frequencies.
DC Filter Circuits
Harmonic voltages which occur on the DC side of a converter station cause AC currents which
are superimposed on the direct current in the transmission line. These alternating currents of
higher frequencies can create interference in neighboring telephone systems despite limitation by
smoothing reactors. DC filter circuits, which are connected in parallel to the station poles, are an
effective tool for combating these problems. The configuration of the DC filters very strongly
resembles the filters on the AC side of the HVDC station. There are several types of filter design.
Single and multiple-tuned filters with or without the high-pass feature are common. One or
several types of DC filter can be utilized in a converter station.
VOLTAGE-SOURCE CONVERTER:

A voltage-source converter is connected on its ac-voltage side to a three-phase electric power

network via a transformer and on its dc-voltage side to capacitor equipment. The transformer has
on its secondary side a first, a second, and a third phase winding, each one with a first and a
second winding terminal. Resistor equipment is arranged at the transformer for limiting the
current through the converter when connecting the transformer to the power network. The
resistor equipment includes a first resistor, connected to the first winding terminal of the second
phase winding, and switching equipment is adapted, in an initial position, to block current
through the phase windings, in a transition position to form a current path which includes at least
the first and the second phase windings and, in series therewith, the first resistor, which current
path, when the converter is connected to the transformer, closes through the converter and the
capacitor equipment, and, in an operating position, to interconnect all the first winding terminals
for forming the common neutral point.

In VSC HVDC, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is used for generation of the fundamental
voltage. Using PWM, the magnitude and phase of the voltage can be controlled freely and almost
instantaneously within certain limits. This allows independent and very fast control of active and
reactive power flows. PWM VSC is therefore a close to ideal component in the transmission
network. From a system point of view, it acts as a zero inertia motor or generator that can control
active and reactive power almost instantaneously. Furthermore, it does not contribute to the short
circuit power, as the AC current can be controlled.

OBJECTIVE:
This project illustrates modeling of a forced-commutated Thyristor based 12-
pulse HVDC transmission link. The objectives of this project are to demonstrate the use of
Sim Power Systems blocks in the simulation of a HVDC transmission link based on three-
level Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) Perturbations are applied to examine the system dynamic
performance .
VSC based HVDC system
The VSC-HVDC is a new DC transmission system technology. The valves are
built by IGBTs and PWM is used to create the desired voltage waveform. With PWM it is
possible to create any waveform, any phase angle and magnitude of the fundamental frequency
component. This high controllability allows for a wide range of applications.
Converters:
The converters are VSCs employing IGBT power semiconductors, one operating as
a rectifier and the other as an inverter. The two converters are connected either back-to back or
through a DC cable, depending on the application.
Transformers:

Normally, the converters are connected to the AC system via transformers. The most
important function of the transformers is to transform the voltage of the AC system to a level
suitable for the converter.
Phase reactors:
The phase reactors are used for controlling both the active and the reactive power
flow by regulating currents through them. The reactors also function as AC filters to reduce the
high frequency harmonic contents of the AC currents which are caused by the switching
operation of the VSCs.
AC filters:
The AC voltage output contains harmonic components, caused by the switching of the
IGBTs. The harmonics emitted into the AC system have to be limited to prevent them from
causing malfunction of AC system equipment or radio and telecommunication disturbances.
High-pass filter branches are installed to moderate these high order harmonics. With VSC
converters there is no need to compensate any reactive power and the current harmonics on the
AC side are related directly to the PWM frequency. Therefore, the amount of filters in this type
of converters is reduced as compared with line commutated converters.
DC capacitors:

On the DC side there are two capacitor stacks with the same size. The size of these
capacitors depends on the required DC voltage. The objective of the DC capacitors is to provide
an energy buffer to keep the power balance during transients and reduce the voltage ripple on the
DC side.
DC cables:
The cable used in the VSC-HVDC applications is a new developed type where the
insulation is made of an extruded polymer that is particularly resistant to DC voltage. Polymeric
cables are the preferred choice for HVDC mainly because of their mechanical strength,
flexibility and low weight.

A
VSC-HVDC system
 MULTILEVEL CONVERTER
INVERTER:
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current
(AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate
transformers, switching, and control circuits.
Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current
applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from
DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early
mechanical AC to DC converters was made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to
convert DC to AC.
The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier
CASCADED H-BRIDGES INVERTER
A single-phase structure of an m-level cascaded inverter is illustrated in Figure 31.1.
Each separate dc source (SDCS) is connected to a single-phase full-bridge, or H-bridge, inverter.
Each inverter level can generate three different voltage outputs, +Vdc, 0, and –Vdc by

connecting the dc source to the ac output by different combinations of the four switches, S1, S2,

S3, and S4. To obtain +Vdc, switches S1 and S4 are turned on, whereas –Vdc can be obtained by

turning on switches S2 and S3. By turning on S1 and S2 or S3 and S4, the output voltage is 0.
The ac outputs of each of the different full-bridge inverter levels are connected in series such that
the synthesized voltage waveform is the sum of the inverter outputs. The number of output phase
voltage levels m in a cascade inverter is defined by m = 2s+1, where s is the number of separate
dc sources. An example phase voltage waveform for an 11-level cascaded H-bridge inverter with
5 SDCSs and 5 full bridges is shown in Figure 31.2. The phase voltage v an = va1 + va2 + va3 +

va4 + va5.

For a stepped waveform such as the one depicted in Figure 31.2 with s steps, the Fourier
Transform for this waveform follows
 Single-phase structure of a multilevel cascaded H-bridges inverter

Output phase voltage waveform of an 11-level cascade inverter with 5 separate dc sources.
The magnitudes of the Fourier coefficients when normalized with respect to Vdc are as follows:

The conducting angles, θ1, θ2, ..., θs, can be chosen such that the voltage total harmonic
distortion is a minimum. Generally, these angles are chosen so that predominant lower frequency

th
harmonics, 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13 , harmonics are eliminated. More detail on harmonic
elimination techniques will be presented in the next section.
Multilevel cascaded inverters have been proposed for such applications as static var
generation, an interface with renewable energy sources, and for battery-based applications.
Three-phase cascaded inverters can be connected in wye, as shown in Figure, or in delta. Peng
has demonstrated a prototype multilevel cascaded static var generator connected in parallel with
the electrical system that could supply or draw reactive current from an electrical system.
The inverter could be controlled to either regulate the power factor of the current drawn
from the source or the bus voltage of the electrical system where the inverter was connected.
Peng [20] and Joos [24] have also shown that a cascade inverter can be directly connected in
series with the electrical system for static var compensation. Cascaded inverters are ideal for
connecting renewable energy sources with an ac grid, because of the need for separate dc
sources, which is the case in applications such as photovoltaic’s or fuel cells.
Cascaded inverters have also been proposed for use as the main traction drive in electric
vehicles, where several batteries or ultra capacitors are well suited to serve as SDCSs. The
cascaded inverter could also serve as a rectifier/charger for the batteries of an electric vehicle
while the vehicle was connected to an ac supply as shown in Figure. Additionally, the cascade
inverter can act as a rectifier in a vehicle that uses regenerative braking.
 Three-phase wye-connection structure for electric vehicle motor drive and battery charging.

The main advantages and disadvantages of multilevel cascaded H-bridge converters are
as follows
ADVANTAGES:
 The number of possible output voltage levels is more than twice the number of dc sources
(m = 2s + 1).
 The series of H-bridges makes for modularized layout and packaging. This will enable
the manufacturing process to be done more quickly and cheaply.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Separate dc sources are required for each of the H-bridges. This will limit its application
to products that already have multiple SDCSs readily available.
DIODE-CLAMPED MULTILEVEL INVERTER
The neutral point converter proposed by Nabae, Takahashi, and Akagi in 1981 was
essentially a three-level diode-clamped inverter. In the 1990s several researchers published
articles that have reported experimental results for four-, five-, and six-level diode-clamped
converters for such uses as static var compensation, variable speed motor drives, and high-
voltage system interconnections. A three-phase six-level diode-clamped inverter is shown in
Figure. Each of the three phases of the inverter shares a common dc bus, which has been
subdivided by five capacitors into six levels. The voltage across each capacitor is V dc, and the

voltage stress across each switching device is limited to V dc through the clamping diodes. Table
lists the output voltage levels possible for one phase of the inverter with the negative dc rail
voltage V0 as a reference. State condition 1 means the switch is on, and 0 means the switch is
off. Each phase has five complementary switch pairs such that turning on one of the switches of
the pair requires that the other complementary switch be turned off. The complementary switch
pairs for phase leg a are (Sa1, Sa’1), (Sa2, Sa’2), (Sa3, Sa’3), (Sa4, Sa’4), and (Sa5, Sa’5). Table
also shows that in a diode-clamped inverter, the switches that are on for a particular phase leg are
always adjacent and in series. For a six-level inverter, a set of five switches is on at any given
time.

Three-phase six-level structure of a diode-clamped inverter.

Diode-clamped six-level inverter voltage levels and corresponding switch states.
ADVANTAGES:
 All of the phases share a common dc bus, which minimizes the capacitance requirements
of the converter. For this reason, a back-to-back topology is not only possible but also
practical for uses such as a high-voltage back-to-back inter-connection or an adjustable
speed drive.
 The capacitors can be pre-charged as a group.
 Efficiency is high for fundamental frequency switching.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Real power flow is difficult for a single inverter because the intermediate dc levels will
tend to overcharge or discharge without precise monitoring and control.
 The number of clamping diodes required is quadratically related to the number of levels,
which can be cumbersome for units with a high number of levels.
FLYING CAPACITOR MULTILEVEL INVERTER
Meynard and Foch introduced a flying-capacitor-based inverter in 1992 [32]. The structure of
this inverter is similar to that of the diode-clamped inverter except that instead of using clamping
diodes, the inverter uses capacitors in their place. The circuit topology of the flying capacitor
multilevel inverter is shown in Figure 31.7. This topology has a ladder structure of dc side
capacitors, where the voltage on each capacitor differs from that of the next capacitor. The
voltage increment between two adjacent capacitor legs gives the size of the voltage steps in the
output waveform.

Three-phase six-level structure of a flying capacitor inverter.

One advantage of the flying-capacitor-based inverter is that it has redundancies for inner voltage
levels; in other words, two or more valid switch combinations can synthesize an output voltage.
Table 31.2 shows a list of all the combinations of phase voltage levels that are possible for the
six-level circuit shown in Figure 31.7. Unlike the diode-clamped inverter, the flying-capacitor
inverter does not require all of the switches that are on (conducting) be in a consecutive series.
Moreover, the flying-capacitor inverter has phase redundancies, whereas the diode-
clamped inverter has only line-line redundancies [2, 3, 33]. These redundancies allow a choice of
charging/discharging specific capacitors and can be incorporated in the control system for
balancing the voltages across the various levels.
 In addition to the (m-1) dc link capacitors, the m-level flying-capacitor multilevel
inverter will require (m-1) × (m-2)/2 auxiliary capacitors per phase if the voltage rating of the
capacitors is identical to that of the main switches. One application proposed in the literature for
the multilevel flying capacitor is static var generation [2, 3]. The main advantages and
disadvantages of multilevel flying capacitor converters are as follows [2, 3].

ADVANTAGES:
 Phase redundancies are available for balancing the voltage levels of the capacitors.
 Real and reactive power flow can be controlled.
 The large number of capacitors enables the inverter to ride through short duration outages
and deep voltage sags.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Control is complicated to track the voltage levels for all of the capacitors. Also,
precharging all of the capacitors to the same voltage level and startup are complex.
 Switching utilization and efficiency are poor for real power transmission.
The large numbers of capacitors are both more expensive and bulky than clamping diodes
in multilevel diode-clamped converters. Packaging is also more difficult in inverters with a high
number of levels.

NUETRAL POINT CLAMPED (NPC) INVERTERS

NPC converters also known as three-level inverters.
Problems of 2-level inverter in high-power applications.
 High DC link voltage requires series connection of devices.
 Difficulty in dynamic voltage sharing during switching.
These problems are solved by using NPC inverter or multilevel inverter.
The below fig shows the NPC inverter circuit.
 fig. NPC inverter
 DC link capacitor split to create neutral point 0
 Q11, Q14 : main devices (2-level inverter)
 Q12, Q13 : auxiliary devices – clamp output potential to neutral point with help of
clamping diodes D10 D10’
 Apply all PWM techniques
NPC inverter operation
 Consider HEPWM technique to eliminate 2 lowest significant harmonics (5th and 7th)
and control fundamental voltage
 Phase voltage waveform (va0) and corresponding gate signals
 

 Each output potential clamped to neutral potential in off periods of PWM control
 For positive phase current +ia,
Q11, Q12 : when va0 positive
D13, D14 : when va0 negative
D10, Q12 : at neutral clamping condition
 For negative phase current -ia,
D11, D12 : when va0 positive
Q13, Q14 : when va0 negative
O13, D10’ : at neutral clamping condition
 Operation mode gives :
3 levels waveform for phase voltage (va0 ) ® +0.5 Vd, 0 , -0.5 Vd
 Levels of line voltage (vab) waveform of ® +Vd, -Vd, +0.5 Vd, -0.5 Vd and 0
 Prove that each device has to withstand 0.5 Vd voltage
 D10, D10’ conducting : voltage across main device clamped to +0.5 Vd
 When lower devices conducting : Vd appears across the upper devices in series (devices
share 0.5 Vd statically)
  At any switching, voltage step size across the series string = 0.5 V d ® permits series
connection of devices without exceeding 0.5 Vd rating
 Each leg has 3 switching states
 State A : Upper switches ON
 State B : Lower switches ON
 State C : Auxiliary switches ON
 Available switching states = 33 = 27 ( 8 for two-level inverters)
ADVANTAGES
 Allows voltage clamping
 Improve PWM harmonic quality
 Based on HEPWM technique, lower significant harmonics of NPC inverter attenuated
considerably compared to two-level inverter
 Can be extended to more voltage levels for higher voltage/power levels
DISADVANTAGES
 Extra devices required
 Fluctuation of neutral point voltages with finite size of DC link capacitors ( voltage level
redundancies permits manipulation of PWM signals without diminishing quality)
APPLICATIONS
 Multi Megawatt induction /synchronous motor drives for industrial applications

APPLICATIONS:
DC POWER SOURCE UTILIZATION
 Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an
automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or enough to
power two sixty watt light bulbs.
An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or
fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can
operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired
voltage.
Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they
produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the
distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.
Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating
current for the electric grid.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC
power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to
supply DC power to recharge the batteries.
INDUCTION HEATING
Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for use in
induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then
changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.
HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION
With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is
transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant
converts the power back to AC.
VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES
A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling
the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled
power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the
inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-
frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.
ELECTRIC VEHICLE DRIVES
Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motors
in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and
hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in inverter
technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications.[2] In vehicles with
regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator)
and stores it in the batteries.
AIR CONDITIONING
An air conditioner bearing the inverter tag uses a variable-frequency drive to control the
speed of the motor and thus the compressor.
THE GENERAL CASE
A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same
frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or
DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never
exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power
dissipated as waste heat.
 BASIC CONTROLLER TYPES

PID controllers use a 3 basic behavior types or modes: P - proportional, I - integrative

and D - derivative. While proportional and integrative modes are also used as single control
modes, a derivative mode is rarely used on its own in control systems. Combinations such as PI
and PD control are very often in practical systems. It can be also shown that PID controller is a
natural generalization of a simplest possible controller - On-off controller.

(1.2)

where:

u0 – amplitude of control signal when control error is equal 0

K – P controller gain for P mode nominal area e(t)<|e0|

Many industrial controllers have defined a proportional band (PB) instead of gain:

(1-3)

It should be noted that for K=1 a proportional band is equal PB = 100%. Static characteristic of P
controller is given in Fig. 1-2.
 Fig. 1-2: Static characteristic of P controller

P controller can eliminate forced oscillations caused by use of on-off controller. However, a
second problem arises. There exists now a steady state error. A relationship between control
signal and error inside area e(t) < |e0| is given with:

(1-4)

Error is then:

(1-5)

For a properly designed control system steady state error should be zero. With P controller that is
possible if:

a) K = ¥

b) u(t) = u0

The first alternative (K = ¥) cannot be physically realized in any proportional band (PB) excerpt
for PB = 0 [%] which leads back to on-off controller and forced oscillations. The second
alternative (u(t) = u0) implies that it is possible to find u0 at every moment and that it is possible
to satisfy condition u(t) = u0 for every given reference value r(t). This can be achieved if integral
mode is added to P controller.
 Proportional signal generation for P controller is shown in Fig. 1-3a) assuming u0 = 0
and K > 1. P controller transfer function (unit step response) for K > 1 is shown in Fig. 1-3b).

(a) Proportional signal generation

b) Transfer function

Fig. 1-3: Proportional signal generation and P controller transfer function

In general it can be said that P controller cannot stabilize higher order processes. For the 1st
order processes4., meaning the processes with one energy storage, a large increase in gain can be
tolerated. Proportional controller can stabilize only 1st order unstable process. Changing
controller gain K can change closed loop dynamics. A large controller gain will result in control
system with:
a) smaller steady state error, i.e. better reference following

b) faster dynamics, i.e. broader signal frequency band of the closed loop system and larger
sensitivity with respect to measuring noise

c) smaller amplitude and phase margin

PI controller

PI controller forms control signal in the following way:

(1-6)

where:

Ti – integral time constant of PI controller

This is graphically shown in Fig. 1-4 assuming K = 1 and Ti = 1.

Constant Ki =K/Ti is called "reset mode". Integral control is also sometimes called reset
control.

Fig. 1-4: PI controller signal generation

 The name comes from the term "manual reset" which marks a manual change of
operating point or of "bias" u0 in order to eliminate error. PI controller performs this function
automatically.

If control signal of P controller in proportional area is compared with PI controller output

signal it can be seen that constant signal u0 is replaced with signal proportional with the area
under error curve:

(1-7)

The fact that u0 is replaced with an integral allows PI controller to eliminate steady state
error. On the other hand, P controller cannot eliminate steady state error since it does not have
any algorithm that would allow for the controller to increase control signal u(t) in order to
increase controlled variable y(t) (assuming positive process gain) if in some moment t1 error
e(t1) = const. > 0. Proportional control law stays constant in this case and it will not try to change
a controlled variable in such manner that control error is diminished.

PI controller on the other hand will increase control signal when error e(t1) = const. > 0.
To the proportional part of the signal (P in Fig. 1-4) will be added integral part (I in Fig. 1-4)
proportional to the area under curve e(t), so, overall signal

(1-8)

will be bigger.

Assuming positive process gain, increase in control signal will result in increase in
controlled variable and error will tend toward zero.

When e(t) < 0, control signal will decrease, control variable will also also decrease and
error will tend toward zero. PI controller will not be active only when e(t) = 0. In all other
situations PI controller will act to lead steady state control error to zero.
 It can be concluded that PI controller will eliminate forced oscillations and steady state
error resulting in operation of on-off controller and P controller respectively. However,
introducing integral mode has a negative effect on speed of the response and overall stability of
the system.

PI controllers are very often used in industry, especially when speed of the response is
not an issue. Deceleration of response can be seen from transfer function of integrator shown in
Fig. 1-5a).

a) Transfer function of integrator

b) PI controller transfer function

Fig. 1-5: Transfer functions of integrator and PI controller

 As it can be seen from Fig. 1-5 a sudden change in input signal (step) will result in
gradual change of the output signal (ramp). Transfer function of PI controller is given in Fig. 1-
5b). It can be seen that step change of the output is a result of proportional action, not integral

Degradation of stability can be seen in frequency (Nyquist) characteristic where phase

shift caused by integrator for all frequencies is - 90° (Fig. 1-6a)), thus the frequency
characteristic moves closer to the critical point (-1, j0) (Fig. 1-6b)).

a) Frequency characteristic of integrator (Nyquist)

(b) Destabilizing effect of integrator (Nyquist)

Frequency characteristic of PI controller is given in Fig. 1-7. It can be seen that phase
lagging caused by PI controller is smaller than phase lag caused by pure integrator. Phase leg is
the biggest at low frequencies and decreases with the rise of frequency.
 a) Frequency characteristic of PI controller (Nyquist)

(b)Frequency characteristic of PI controller

Fig. 1-7: Frequency characteristic of PI controller

Thus, PI controller will not increase the speed of response. It can be expected since PI
controller does not have means to predict what will happen with the error in near future. This
problem can be solved by introducing derivative mode which has ability to predict what will
happen with the error in near future and thus to decrease a reaction time of the controller.

Integral action can occur in the controller only on purpose, by design. Integral action can
be noted on the other parts of the control system (actuators, plant etc.). These components may
help in diminishing steady state error, but control system designer generally cannot tune this
components.

PID controller

The role of derivative mode is illustrated in Fig. 1-8. It can be seen that two different
situations are illustrated and one should expect different action from the controller. However, if
PI controller is used the control signal will be the same in moment t1 : u(t1). Proportional will be
proportional to error in t1:

(1-9)

Integral part of the signal will be proportional to the area under error curve till moment t1:

(1-10)

If e(t1) is the same in both cases, and if the area under error curve is the same, overall
control signal in both cases will be the same. But, those two situations are different and required
intervention should not be the same.

(a) PI controller signal (error decreases at t1)

 (b) PI controller signal (error increases at t1)

Fig. 1-8: PI controller output is the same for two different situations

In Fig. 1-8a) is illustrated a situation when error rapidly decreases. In that case a role of
the controller is to decrease control signal in order to avoid possible control signal overshoot. In
Fig. 1-8b) another situation is illustrated. After a sharp decrease the error start rising again. In
this case controller has to react by increasing control signal in order to decrease the error.

This example shows a need for a controller that will generate control signal that will be
also proportional to the error change (error trend). Derivative mode in PID controller fulfils that
role.

Control signal of PID controller is:

(1-11)

Or

(1-12)
 Derivative part of PID controller is proportional to the prognosis of error signal at time t
+ Td where Td is derivative time constant of the controller. In Fig. 1-9 PID controller control
signal generation at time t1 is illustrated.

Fig. 1-9: PID controller control signal generation

Derivative mode is never used on it’s own in the controller because derivative mode
cannot eliminate control error. That fact can be seen in from transfer function of derivative
element (Fig. 1-10). Derivative mode reacts only on change of the controller input. For ramp
input derivative element will give a constant on its output as can be seen from Fig. 1-10b).

a) Transfer function of differentiator

 b) D controller response on ramp input

Fig. 1-10: Transfer function and response on ramp input of derivative element

A transfer function of PID controller is obtained as sum of transfer functions of

individual P, I and D elements (Fig. 1-11).

Fig. 1-11: Transfer function of PID controller

It can be concluded that PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on
change of the controller input (D mode), increase in control signal to lead error towards zero (I
mode) and suitable action inside control error area e(t) < e0 to eliminate oscillations (P mode).
Choice of the controller type

Insofar were described proportional, integrative and derivative modes of the controllers
and a rational behind their use was explained. However, excerpt for a few tips, an attention was
not given to a question when to use different types of controllers. The rest of this section will
give some answers on that particular topic.

P controller

When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve steady state error. Stable
system do not have a problems when large gain is used. Such systems are systems with one
energy storage (1st order capacitive systems). If constant steady state error can be accepted with
such processes, than P controller can be used. Small steady state errors can be accepted if sensor
will give measured value with error or if importance of measured value is not too great anyway.
Example of such system is liquid level control in tanks when exact approximate level of liquid
suffice for the proper plant operation. Also, in cascade control sometime it is not important if
there is an error inside inner loop, so P controller can a good solution in such cases.

Derivative mode is not required if the process itself is fast or if the control system as
whole does not have to be fast in response. Processes of 1st order react immediately on the
reference signal change, so it is not necessary to predict error (introduce D mode) or compensate
for the steady state error (introduce I mode) if it is possible to achieve satisfactory steady state
error using only P controller.

PD controller

It is well known that thermal processes with good thermal insulation act almost as
integrators. Since insulation is good and thermal losses are small, the most significant part of the
energy that is led to the system is used temperature rise. Those processes allow for large gains so
that integral mode in the controller is not needed. These processes can be described as different
connections of thermal energy storages. Thermal energy is shifted from one storage into another.
In general, with such processes there is present a process dynamics with large inertia. Since
dynamics is slow, derivative mode is required for control of such processes. Integral mode would
only already slow dynamics make more slowly. The other reason for using PPD controllers in
such systems is that is possible to measure temperature with low level of noise in the measured
signal.

PD controller is often used in control of moving objects such are flying and underwater
vehicles, ships, rockets etc. One of the reason is in stabilizing effect of PD controller on sudden
changes in heading variable y(t). Often a "rate gyro" for velocity measurement is used as sensor
of heading change of moving object.

PI controller

PI controllers are the most often type used today in industry. A control without D mode is used
when:

a) fast response of the system is not required

b) large disturbances and noise are present during operation of the process

c) there is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or inductive)

d) there are large transport delays in the system

If there are large transport delays present in the controlled process, error prediction is required.
However, D mode cannot be used for prediction because every information is delayed till the
moment when a change in controlled variable is recorded. In such cases it is better to predict the
output signal using mathematical model of the process in broader sense (process + actuator).
 WORKING WITH THE FUZZY LOGIC TOOLBOX:

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox provides GUIs to let you perform classical fuzzy system
development and pattern recognition. Using the toolbox, you can develop and analyze fuzzy
inference systems, develop adaptive neuro fuzzy inference systems, and perform fuzzy
clustering. In addition, the toolbox provides a fuzzy controller block that you can use in Simulink
to model and simulate a fuzzy logic control system. From Simulink, you can generate C code for
use in embedded applications that include fuzzy logic.

BUILDING A FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM:

Fuzzy inference is a method that interprets the values in the input vector and, based on
user defined rules, assigns values to the output vector. Using the GUI editors and viewers in the
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, you can build the rules set, define the membership functions, and analyze
the behavior of a fuzzy inference system (FIS). The following editors and viewers are provided.

fig fuzzy interference system

KEY FEATURES:

■ Specialized GUIs for building fuzzy inference systems and viewing and analyzing results

■ Membership functions for creating fuzzy inference systems

■ Support for AND, OR, and NOT logic in user-defined rules

■ Standard Mamdani and Sugeno-type fuzzy inference systems

■ Automated membership function shaping through neuro adaptive and fuzzy clustering learning
techniques

■ Ability to embed a fuzzy inference system in a Simulink model

■ Ability to generate embeddable C code or stand-alone executable fuzzy inference engines.

In this section we'll be building a simple tipping example using the graphical user
interface (GUI) tools provided by the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Although it's possible to use the
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox by working strictly from the command line, in general it's much easier to
build a system graphically. There are five primary GUI tools for building, editing, and observing
fuzzy inference systems in the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. The Fuzzy Inference System or FIS Editor,
the Membership Function Editor, the Rule Editor, the Rule Viewer, and the Surface Viewer.
These GUIs are dynamically linked, in that changes you make to the FIS using one of them, can
affect what you see on any of the other open GUIs. You can have any or all of them open for any
given system. These are shown in Fig.
 fig. The Primary GUI Tools of the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox

The FIS Editor handles the high level issues for the system: How many input and output
variables? What are their names? The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox doesn't limit the number of inputs.
However, the number of inputs may be limited by the available memory of your machine. If the
number of inputs is too large, or the number of membership functions is too big, then it may also
be difficult to analyze the FIS using the other GUI tools.

The Membership Function Editor is used to define the shapes of all the membership
functions associated with each variable. The Rule Editor is for editing the list of rules that
defines the behavior of the system.

The Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer are used for looking at, as opposed to editing,
the FIS. They are strictly read-only tools. The Rule Viewer is a matlab-based display of the fuzzy
inference diagram shown at the end of the last section. Used as a diagnostic, it can show (for
example) which rules are active, or how individual membership function shapes are influencing
the results. The Surface Viewer is used to display the dependency of one of the outputs on any
one or two of the inputs that is, it generates and plots an output surface map for the system.
 The five primary GUIs can all interact and exchange information. Any one of them can
read and write both to the workspace and to the disk (the read-only viewers can still exchange
plots with the workspace and/or the disk). For any fuzzy inference system, any or all of these
five GUIs may be open. If more than one of these editors is open for a single system, the various
GUI windows are aware of the existence of the others, and will, if necessary, update related
windows. Thus if the names of the membership functions are changed using the Membership
Function Editor, those changes are reflected in the rules shown in the Rule Editor. The editors for
any number of different FIS systems may be open simultaneously. The FIS Editor, the
Membership Function Editor, and the Rule Editor can all read and modify the FIS data, but the
Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer do not modify the FIS data in any way.

We'll start with a basic description of a two-input, one-output tipping problem. The Basic
Tipping Problem. Given a number between 0 and 10 that represents the quality of service at a
restaurant (where 10 is excellent), and another number between 0 and 10 that represents the
quality of the food at that restaurant (again, 10 is excellent), what should the tip be?

The starting point is to write down the three golden rules of tipping, based on years of personal
experience in restaurants.

1. If the service is poor or the food is rancid, then tip is cheap.

2. If the service is good, then tip is average.

3. If the service is excellent or the food is delicious, then tip is generous.

We'll assume that an average tip is 15%, a generous tip is 25%, and a cheap tip is 5%. It's
also useful to have a vague idea of what the tipping function should look like. A simple tipping
function is shown as in Fig.2. Obviously the numbers and the shape of the curve are subject to
local traditions, cultural bias, and so on, but the three rules are pretty universal. Now we know
the rules, and we have an idea of what the output should look like. Let's begin working with the
GUI tools to construct a fuzzy inference system for this decision process.
 fig The Tipping Function

THE FIS EDITOR:

The following discussion walks you through building a new fuzzy inference system from
scratch. If you want to save time and follow along quickly, you can load the already built system
by typing fuzzy tipper This will load the FIS associated with the file tipper.fis (the .fis is implied)
and launch the FIS Editor. However, if you load the pre-built system, you will not be building
rules and constructing membership functions.

The FIS Editor displays general information about a fuzzy inference system. There's a
simple diagram as shown in Fig.3 that shows the names of each input variable on the left, and
those of each output variable on the right. The sample membership functions shown in the boxes
are just icons and do not depict the actual shapes of the membership functions.

Below the diagram is the name of the system and the type of inference used. The default,
Madman-type inference, is what we'll continue to use for this example. Another slightly different
type of inference, called Surgeon-type inference, is also available.

Below the name of the fuzzy inference system, on the left side of the figure, are the pop-
up menus that allow you to modify the various pieces of the inference process. On the right side
at the bottom of the figure is the area that displays the name of an input or output variable, its
associated membership function type, and its range. The latter two fields are specified only after
the membership functions have been. Below that region are the Help and Close buttons that call
up online help and close the window, respectively. At the bottom is a status line that relays
information about the system.
 To start this system from scratch, type fuzzy at the mat lab prompt. The generic untitled
FIS Editor opens, with one input, labeled input1, and one output, labeled output1. For this
example, we will construct a two-input, one output system, so go to the Edit menu and select
Add input. A second yellow box labeled input2 will appear. The two inputs we will have in our
example are service and food. Our one output is tip.

Fig The FIS Editor

We'd like to change the variable names to reflect that, though:

o Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input1 (the box will be
highlighted in red).
o In the white edit field on the right, change input1 to service and press Return.
o Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input2 (the box will be
highlighted in red).
o In the white edit field on the right, change input2 to food and press Return.
o Click once on the right-hand (blue) box marked output1.
o In the white edit field on the right, change output1 to tip.
o From the File menu select Save to workspace as.. and a window appears as shown
in fig.
o Enter the variable name tipper and click on ok.
 You will see the diagram updated to reflect the new names of the input and output
variables. There is now a new variable in the workspace called tipper that contains all the
information about this system.

fig. ‘Save to workspace as...’ Window

By saving to the workspace with a new name, you also rename the entire system. Your
window will look like as shown in Fig.5.

fig The updated FIS Editor

 Leave the inference options in the lower left in their default positions for now. You've
entered all the information you need for this particular GUI. Next define the membership
functions associated with each of the variables. To do this, open the Membership Function
Editor. You can open the Membership Function Editor in one of three ways:

 Pull down the View menu item and select Edit Membership Functions....
 Double-click on the icon for the output variable, tip.
 Type mfedit at the command line.

THE MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION EDITOR:

The Membership Function Editor shares some features with the FIS Editor. In fact, all of
the five basic GUI tools have similar menu options, status lines, and Help and Close buttons. The
Membership Function Editor is the tool that lets you display and edit all of the membership
functions associated with all of the input and output variables for the entire fuzzy inference
system. Fig.6 shows the Membership Function Editor.

When you open the Membership Function Editor to work on a fuzzy inference system
that does not already exist in the workspace, there is not yet any membership functions
associated with the variables that you have just defined with the FIS Editor
 fig. The Membership Function Editor

On the upper left side of the graph area in the Membership Function Editor is a "Variable
Palette" that lets you set the membership functions for a given variable. To set up your
membership functions associated with an input or an output variable for the FIS, select an FIS
variable in this region by clicking on it.

Next select the Edit pull-down menu, and choose Add MFs.... A new window will
appear, which allows you to select both the membership function type and the number of
membership functions associated with the selected variable. In the lower right corner of the
window are the controls that let you change the name, type, and parameters (shape), of the
membership function, once it has been selected.
 The membership functions from the current variable are displayed in the main graph.
These membership functions can be manipulated in two ways. You can first use the mouse to
select a particular membership function associated with a given variable quality, (such as poor,
for the variable, service), and then drag the membership function from side to side. This will
affect the mathematical description of the quality associated with that membership function for a
given variable. The selected membership function can also be tagged for dilation or contraction
by clicking on the small square drag points on the membership function, and then dragging the
function with the mouse toward the outside, for dilation, or toward the inside, for contraction.
This will change the parameters associated with that membership function.

Below the Variable Palette is some information about the type and name of the current
variable. There is a text field in this region that lets you change the limits of the current variable's
range (universe of discourse) and another that lets you set the limits of the current plot (which
has no real effect on the system).

The process of specifying the input membership functions for this two input tipper problem
is as follows:

 Select the input variable, service, by double-clicking on it. Set both the Range and the
Display Range to the vector [0 10].
 Select Add MFs... from the Edit menu. A window pops open as shown in Fig.

fig. Add MFs… Window

  Use the pull-down tab to choose gaussmf for MF Type and 3 for Number of MFs. This
adds three Gaussian curves to the input variable service.
 Click once on the curve with the leftmost hump. Change the name of the curve to poor.
To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the mouse, as described
above, or type in a desired parameter change, and then click on the membership function.
The default parameter listing for this curve is [1.5 0].
 Name the curve with the middle hump, good, and the curve with the rightmost hump,
excellent. Reset the associated parameters if desired.
 Select the input variable, food, by clicking on it. Set both the Range and the Display
Range to the vector [0 10].
 Select Add MFs... from the Edit menu and add two trapmf curves to the input variable
food.
 Click once directly on the curve with the leftmost trapezoid. Change the name of the
curve to rancid. To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the mouse,
as described above, or type in a desired parameter change, and then click on the
membership function. The default parameter listing for this curve is [0 0 1 3].
 Name the curve with the rightmost trapezoid, delicious, and reset the associated
parameters if desired.

Next you need to create the membership functions for the output variable, tip. To create the
output variable membership functions, use the Variable Palette on the left, selecting the output
variable, tip. The inputs ranged from 0 to 10, but the output scale is going to be a tip between 5
and 25 percent.

Use triangular membership function types for the output. First, set the Range (and the
Display Range) to [0 30], to cover the output range. Initially, the cheap membership function will
have the parameters [0 5 10], the average membership function will be [10 15 20],and the
generous membership function will be [20 25 30].Your system should look something like
shown in Fig.
 fig. The updated Membership Function Editor

Now that the variables have been named, and the membership functions have appropriate
shapes and names, you're ready to write down the rules. To call up the Rule Editor, go to the
View menu and select Edit rules..., or type ruleedit at the command line. The Rule Editor
window pops open as shown in Fig

THE RULE EDITOR:

Constructing rules using the graphical Rule Editor interface is fairly self-evident. Based
on the descriptions of the input and output variables defined with the FIS Editor, the Rule Editor
allows you to construct the rule statements automatically, by clicking on and selecting one item
in each input variable box, one item in each output box, and one connection item. Choosing none
as one of the variable qualities will exclude that variable from a given rule.
 Choosing not under any variable name will negate the associated quality. Rules may be
changed, deleted, or added, by clicking on the appropriate button.

The Rule Editor also has some familiar landmarks, similar to those in the FIS Editor and
the Membership Function Editor, including the menu bar and the status line. The Format pop-up
menu is available from the Options pull-down menu from the top menu bar -- this is used to set
the format for the display. Similarly, Language can be set from under Options as well. The Help
button will bring up a MATLAB Help window.

Fig 6.9. The Rule Editor

To insert the first rule in the Rule Editor, select the following:

Poor under the variable service

 Rancid under the variable food
 The radio button, or, in the Connection block
 Cheap, under the output variable, tip.
The resulting rule is

1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)

The numbers in the parentheses represent weights that can be applied to each rule if
desired. You can specify the weights by typing in a desired number between zero and one under
the Weight setting. If you do not specify them, the weights are assumed to be unity (1).
Follow a similar procedure to insert the second and third rules in the Rule Editor to get

1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)

2. If (service is good) then (tip is average) (1)

3. If (service is excellent) or (food is delicious) then (tip is generous) (1)

To change a rule, first click on the rule to be changed. Next make the desired changes to that
rule, and then click on Change rule. For example, to change the first rule to

1. If (service not poor) or (food not rancid) then (tip is not cheap) (1) click not under each
variable, and then click Change rule.

The Format pop-up menu from the Options menu indicates that you're looking at the
verbose form of the rules. Try changing it to symbolic. You will see

1. (Service==poor) => (tip=cheap) (1)

2. (Service==good) => (tip=average) (1)

3. (Service==excellent) => (tip=generous) (1)

There is not much difference in the display really, but it's slightly more language neutral,
since it doesn't depend on terms like "if" and "then." If you change the format to indexed, you'll
see an extremely compressed version of the rules that has squeezed all the language out.

1, 1 (1) : 1

2, 2 (1): 1

3, 3 (1): 1

This is the version that the machine deals with. The first column in this structure
corresponds to the input variable, the second column corresponds to the output variable, the third
column displays the weight applied to each rule, and the fourth column is shorthand that
indicates whether this is an OR (2) rule or an AND (1) rule. The numbers in the first two
columns refer to the index number of the membership function.
 A literal interpretation of rule 1 is: "if input 1 is MF1 (the first membership function
associated with input 1) then output 1 should be MF1 (the first membership function associated
with output 1) with the weight 1." Since there is only one input for this system, the AND
connective implied by the 1 in the last column is of no consequence.

The symbolic format doesn't bother with the terms, if, then, and so on. The indexed
format doesn't even bother with the names of your variables. Obviously the functionality of your
system doesn't depend on how well you have named your variables and membership functions.
The whole point of naming variables descriptively is, as always, making the system easier for
you to interpret. Thus, unless you have some special purpose in mind, it will probably be easier
for you to stick with the verbose format.

At this point, the fuzzy inference system has been completely defined, in that the
variables, membership functions, and the rules necessary to calculate tips are in place. It would
be nice, at this point, to look at a fuzzy inference diagram like the one presented at the end of the
previous section and verify that everything is behaving the way we think it should. This is
exactly the purpose of the Rule Viewer, the next of the GUI tools we'll look at. From the View
menu, select View rules....
THE RULE VIEWER:

Fig the Rule Viewer

The Rule Viewer displays a roadmap of the whole fuzzy inference process. It's based on
the fuzzy inference diagram described in the previous section. You see a single figure window as
shown in fig.10 with 10 small plots nested in it. The three small plots across the top of the figure
represent the antecedent and consequent of the first rule. Each rule is a row of plots, and each
column is a variable. The first two columns of plots (the six yellow plots) show the membership
functions referenced by the antecedent, or the if-part of each rule. The third column of plots (the
three blue plots) shows the membership functions referenced by the consequent, or the then-part
of each rule. If you click once on a rule number, the corresponding rule will be displayed at the
bottom of the figure. Notice that under food, there is a plot which is blank. This corresponds to
the characterization of none for the variable food in the second rule. The fourth plot in the third
column of plots represents the aggregate weighted decision for the given inference system. This
decision will depend on the input values for the system.
 There are also the now familiar items like the status line and the menu bar. In the lower
right there is a text field into which you can enter specific input values. For the two-input system,
you will enter an input vector, [9 8], for example, and then click on input. You can also adjust
these input values by clicking anywhere on any of the three plots for each input. This will move
the red index line horizontally, to the point where you have clicked. You can also just click and
drag this line in order to change the input values. When you release the line, (or after manually
specifying the input), a new calculation is performed, and you can see the whole fuzzy inference
process take place. Where the index line representing service crosses the membership function
line "service is poor" in the upper left plot will determine the degree to which rule one is
activated. A yellow patch of color under the actual membership function curve is used to make
the fuzzy membership value visually apparent. Each of the characterizations of each of the
variables is specified with respect to the input index line in this manner. If we follow rule 1
across the top of the diagram, we can see the consequent "tip is cheap" has been truncated to
exactly the same degree as the (composite) antecedent--this is the implication process in action.
The aggregation occurs down the third column, and the resultant aggregate plot is shown in the
single plot to be found in the lower right corner of the plot field. The de-fuzzyfied output value is
shown by the thick line passing through the aggregate fuzzy set.

The Rule Viewer allows you to interpret the entire fuzzy inference process at once. The
Rule Viewer also shows how the shape of certain membership functions influences the overall
result. Since it plots every part of every rule, it can become unwieldy for particularly large
systems, but, for a relatively small number of inputs and outputs, it performs well (depending on
how much screen space you devote to it) with up to 30 rules and as many as 6 or 7 variables.

The Rule Viewer shows one calculation at a time and in great detail. In this sense, it
presents a sort of micro view of the fuzzy inference system. If you want to see the entire output
surface of your system, that is, the entire span of the output set based on the entire span of the
input set, you need to open up the Surface Viewer. This is the last of our five basic GUI tools in
the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, and you open it by selecting View surface... from the View menu. The
Surface Viewer window pops open as shown in fig.
THE SURFACE VIEWER:

Upon opening the Surface Viewer, we are presented with a two-dimensional curve that
represents the mapping from service quality to tip amount. Since this is a one-input one-output
case, we can see the entire mapping in one plot. Two-input one-output systems also work well,
as they generate three-dimensional plots that mat lab can adeptly manage. When we move
beyond three dimensions overall, we start to encounter trouble displaying the results.
Accordingly, the Surface Viewer is equipped with pop-up menus that let you select any two
inputs and any one output for plotting. Just below the pop-up menus are two text input fields that
let you determine how many x-axis and y-axis grid lines you want to include. This allows you to
keep the calculation time reasonable for complex problems. Pushing the Evaluate button initiates
the calculation, and the plot comes up soon after the calculation is complete. To change the x-
axis or y-axis grid after the surface is in view, simply change the appropriate text field, and click
on either X-grids or Y-grids, according to which text field you changed, to redraw the plot.

The Surface Viewer has a special capability that is very helpful in cases with two (or
more) inputs and one output: you can actually grab the axes and reposition them to get a different
three-dimensional view on the data. The Ref. Input field is used in situations when there are
more inputs required by the system than the surface is mapping. Suppose you have a four-input
one-output system and would like to see the output surface. The Surface Viewer can generate a
three-dimensional output surface where any two of the inputs vary, but two of the inputs must be
held constant since computer monitors cannot display a five-dimensional shape. In such a case
the input would be a four-dimensional vector with Na Ns holding the place of the varying inputs
while numerical values would indicate those values that remain fixed. An Na N is the IEEE
symbol for "not a number."
 Fig The Surface Viewer

This concludes the quick walk-through of each of the main GUI tools. Notice that for the
tipping problem, the output of the fuzzy system matches our original idea of the shape of the
fuzzy mapping from service to tip fairly well. In hindsight, you might say, "Why bother? I could
have just drawn a quick lookup table and been done an hour ago!" However, if you are interested
in solving an entire class of similar decision-making problems, fuzzy logic may provide an
appropriate tool for the solution, given its ease with which a system can be quickly modified.

IMPORTING AND EXPORTING FROM THE GUI TOOLS:

When you save a fuzzy system to disk, you're saving an ascii text FIS file representation
of that system with the file suffix .FIS. This text file can be edited and modified and is simple to
understand. When you save your fuzzy system to the mat lab workspace, you're creating a
variable (whose name you choose) that will act as a mat lab structure for the FIS system. FIS
files and FIS structures represent the same system.
 MODELING OF CASE STUDY
II. HYBRID MULTILEVEL VSC WITH AC-SIDE CASCADED H-BRIDGE CELLS
Fig. 1 shows one phase of a hybrid multilevel VSC with H-bridge cells per phase. It can
generate voltage levels at converter terminal “a” relative to supply midpoint “0.” Therefore, with
a large number of cells per phase, the converter presents near pure sinusoidal voltage to the
converter transformer as depicted in Fig. 1 [1]. The two-level converter that blocks high-voltage
controls the fundamental voltage using selective harmonic elimination (SHE) with one notch per
quarter cycle, as shown in Fig. 1. Therefore, the two-level converter devices operate with 150-Hz
switching losses, hence low switching losses and audible noise are expected. The H-bridge cells
between “M” and “a” are operated as a series active power filter to attenuate the voltage
harmonics produced by the two-level converter bridge. These H-bridge cells are controlled using
level-shifted carrier-based multilevel pulse width modulation with a 1-kHz switching frequency.
To minimize the conversion losses in the H-bridge cells, the number of cells is reduced such that
the voltage across the H-bridge floating capacitors sum to.
This may result in a small converter station, because the number of H-bridge cells
required per converter with the proposed HVDC system is one quarter of those required for a
system based on the modular multilevel converter. With a large number of cells per phase, the
voltage waveform generated across the H-bridge cells is as shown in Fig. 1, and an effective
switching frequency per device of less than 150 Hz is possible. The dc fault reverse-blocking
capability of the proposed HVDC system is achieved by inhibiting the gate signals to the
converter switches, therefore no direct path exists between the ac and dc side through freewheel
diodes, and cell capacitor voltages will oppose any current flow from one side to another.
Consequently, with no current flows, there is no active and reactive power exchange
between ac and dc side during dc-side faults. This dc fault aspect means transformer coupled H-
bridges cannot be used. The ac grid contribution to dc-side fault current is eliminated, reducing
the risk of converter failure due to increased current stresses in the switching devices during dc-
side faults. From the grid standpoint, the dc fault reverse-blocking capability of the proposed
HVDC system may improve ac network voltage stability, as the reactive power demand at
converter stations during dc-side faults is significantly reduced. The ac networks see the nodes
where the converter stations are connected as open circuit nodes during the entire dc fault period.
However, operation of the hybrid multilevel VSC requires a voltage-balancing scheme that
 V dc
ensures that the voltages across the H-bridge cells are maintained at under all operating
N
conditions, where V dc is the total dc link voltage. The H-bridge cells voltage balancing scheme is
realized by rotating the H-bridge cell capacitors, taking into account the voltage magnitude of
each cell capacitor and phase current polarity. An additional PI regulator is used to ensure that

V dc
the cell capacitors be maintained at as depicted in Fig. 2(b) (inner control layer).
N
III. CONTROL SYSTEMS
A HVDC transmission system based on a hybrid multilevel VSC with ac-side cascaded
H-bridge cells requires three control system layers. The inner control layer represents the
modulator and capacitor voltage-balancing mechanism that generates the gating signals for the
converter switches and maintains voltage balance of the H-bridge cell capacitors. The
intermediate control layer represents the current controller that regulates the active and reactive
current components over the full operating range and restraints converter station current injection
into ac network during network disturbances such as ac and dc side faults. The outer control
layer is the dc voltage (or active power) and ac voltage (or reactive power) controller that
provide set points to the current controllers. The inner controller has only been discussed to a
level appropriate to power systems engineers. The intermediate and outer control layers are
presented in detail to give the reader a sense of HVDC control system complexity.
The current, power, and dc link voltage controller gains are selected using root locus
analysis, based on the applicable transfer functions. Some of the controller gains obtained using
root locus analysis give good performance in steady state but failed to provide acceptable
network disturbance performance. Therefore, the simulation final gains used are adjusted in the
time domain to provide satisfactory performance over a wide operating range, including ac and
dc side faults. Fig. 2 summarizes the control layers of the hybrid multilevel VSC.
Current Controller Design:
The differential equations describing the ac-side transient and steady-state are

(1)

(2)
Assume

(3)

(4)
The new control variables and can be obtained from two proportion-integral controllers (PI)
having the same gains:

(5)

(6)
❑ ❑
Where i dand i q represent reference direct and quadrature current components.
To facilitate control design in state space, the integral parts of λ d and λ q are replaced by
W d =K i∫ ( i❑d −i d ) dt and W q =K i∫ ( i❑ q − iq ) dt, rearranged in the following form:

(7)

(8)
The integral parts, in differential equations form, are

(9)

(10)
After substitution of (7) and (8) into (3) and (4), two identical and independent sets of equations,
suitable for control design, are obtained as

(11)

(12)
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 2. (a) Representation of VSC station and (b) schematic diagram summarizing the control
layer of the hybrid multilevel converter with ac side cascaded H-bridge cells

After Laplace manipulations of the state-space equations in (11) and (12), one transfer
function is obtained for i d andi q, which is used for the current controller design

(11)
 ❑ ❑
Equations relating the reference voltages to the modulator v cd and v cq , current controller output,
λ d and λ q feed forward terms can be obtained from expressions for and as follows:

(13)

(14)
Based on (5), (6), (13), and (14), the structure of the current controller shown in Fig. 2(b)
(intermediate layer) is obtained.
DC Voltage Controller: Based on Fig. 2, the differential equation describing the converter dc-
side dynamics is

(15)
Assuming a lossless VSC, dc power at the converter dc link must equal the ac power at converter
terminal I i=( V cd i d + V cq i q ) /V dc . Therefore, (15) can be written as

(16)
Equation (16) can be linearized using a Taylor series with the higher order terms neglected.
Therefore, the linearized form of (16) is

(17)
Let
Pac =V cd i d + V cq i q
And
V cd V cq id iq
∆ u dc=∆ I dc − ( ) ( ) ( )
V dc
∆ id −
V dc
∆ iq −
V dc
∆ V cd − ( )
V dc
∆ V cq

and the variable ∆ u dc can be obtained from the DC voltage controller based on the PI control as
follows:

(18)
Equation (17) can be reduced to
 (19)
❑
Where V dc represents reference dc link voltage.
Let the new control variable introduced for the integral part of the dc voltage controller be z dc,
therefore:

(20)

(21)
The state equations in (20) and (21) in matrix form are:

(22)

Equation (22) in the s-domain is

(23)
Where

(24)
From (24), the transfer function for the dc voltage controller is

(25)
Normally, the voltage angle at the converter terminal relative to the PCC is sufficiently small,
resulting in V cq ≈ 0 and ∆ V cq ≈ 0 . Therefore, the reference current for the current controller can
be obtained from the outer dc voltage controller as follows:

(26)
where v́ cdand v́ cq are normalized by V dc .
❑

Active Power Controller:

The active power controller sets the reference active current component assuming a constant
voltage at the PCC as follows:

(27)
Assume the voltage vector at the PCC is aligned with the -axis and its magnitude is regulated at
V ❑d asV ❑q=0, and P❑represents active power reference. After replacing the integral part with a
new control variable, the following sets of equations result:
(28)

(29)
After substituting (28) into (11), the following state space representation for the power controller
is obtained:

where we have (30), shown at the bottom of the page.

AC Voltage Controller: The reference reactive power current component is set by the ac voltage
controller as

❑
Where|V ac| represents reference voltage magnitude at PCC. However, the gains for the ac
voltage controllers are obtained using a trial0and-error search method that automatically runs the
overall system simulation several times in an attempt to find the gains that produce the best time
domain performance. The gains for all of the controllers and test network parameters used in this
paper are listed in Tables I–III.

(30)
 TABLE I
CONVERTER STATIONS PARAMETERS

TABLE II
CONVERTER TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS

TABLE III
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS PARAMETERS

IV. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION The viability of the VSC-HVDC system that uses a
hybrid multilevel VSC with ac-side cascaded H-bridge cells is investigated here, with emphasis
on its dynamic performance during network alterations. In the steady state, the test network in
Fig. 3(a) is used to assess its power control and voltage support capabilities. To further illustrate
the advantages of the hybrid multilevel converter during ac and dc network disturbances, the
same test network is subjected to a three-phase ac-side fault and a pole-to-pole dc-side fault at
locations depicted in Fig. 3(a), both for a 140-ms duration. Converter stations 1 and 2 in Fig. 3(a)
are represented by detailed hybrid VSC models with seven cells per phase, with the controllers in
Fig. 2(b) incorporated. Seven cells per arm are used in this paper in order to achieve acceptable
simulation times without compromising result accuracy, as each system component is
represented in detailed. Also, the hybrid converter with seven H-bridge cells per phase generates
29 voltage levels per phase, which is the same as the two-switch modular multilevel converter
with 28 cells per arm, for the same dc link voltage such that devices in both converters
experience the same voltage stresses. The converters are configured to regulate active power
exchange and dc link voltage, and ac voltage magnitudes at PCC 1and PCC 2 respectively. The
test system in Fig. 3(a) is simulated in the MATLAB Simulink environment.
A. Four-Quadrant Operation and Voltage Support
To demonstrate four0quadrant operation and voltage support capability of the presented
VSC-HVDC system, converter station 1 is commanded to increase its output power export from
grid G1to G 2 from 0 to 0.5 pu (343.5 MW) at 2.5 pu/s. At time t=1s it is commanded to reverse
the active power flow in order to import 343.5 MW from grid G 2, at -2.5 pu/s. At t=2s a load of
120+j90 MVA is introduced to PCC 2, illustrating the voltage support capability of converter
station 2 during network alteration.
Fig. 3(b) and (c) show converters 1 and 2 active and reactive power exchange with and
respectively. The converters are able to adjust their reactive power exchange with and in order to
support the voltage during the entire operating period. Fig. 3(c) and (d) show that converter 2
adjusts its reactive power exchange with when the load is introduced at t=2s to support the
voltage magnitude. Fig. 3(e) and (f) show that converter 2 injects and presents high-quality
current and voltage waveforms into PCC 2 with no ac filters installed). Fig. 3(g) demonstrates
that the voltage stresses across the H-bridge cell capacitors of converter 1 are controlled to the
desired set point during the entire period. Fig. 3(h) displays the total dc link voltage across
converter 2, which regulates the dc link voltage. Based on these results, the proposed VSC-
HVDC system is able to meet basic steady-state requirements, such as provision of voltage
support and four quadrant operation without compromising the voltage and current stresses on
the converters switches.
B. AC Network Faults
To demonstrate the ac fault ride-through capability of the presented HVDC system, the test
network is subjected to a 140 ms three-phase fault to ground at the location shown in Fig. 3(a).
During the fault period the power command to converter 1 is reduced in proportion to the
reduction in the ac voltage magnitude (this is achieved by sensing PCC 2, voltage). This is to
minimize the two-level converter dc link voltage rise because of the trapped energy in the dc
side, since power cannot be transferred as the voltage at PCC 2, collapses. Fig. 4 displays the
results when the test network exports 0.5 pu (343.5 MW) from grid G1to G 2and is subjected to
the three-phase fault at t=1s. Fig. 4(a) shows the active and reactive powers converter 1
exchanges with PCC 1. Note that converter 1 matches its active power export to G 2in order to
minimize the rise of converter 2 dc link voltage as its ability to inject active power into grid
reduces with the voltage collapse at PCC 2, as shown in Fig. 4(d) and stated above. Fig. 4(b)
shows the active and reactive powers that converter 2 injects into PCC 2.

(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
 (g)

(h)
Fig. 3. Test network and waveforms demonstrating the steady-state operation of HVDC system
based on hybrid voltage source multilevel converter with ac side cascaded H-bridge cells. (a)
Test network used to illustrate the viability of the hybrid multilevel voltage source converter
HVDC systems; (b) active and reactive power converter station 1 exchanges with PCC 1; (c)
active and reactive power converter station 2 exchanges with PCC 2; (d) voltage magnitude at
PCC 2; (e) voltage waveforms at ; (f) current waveforms converter station 1 exchanges with
PCC 1; (g) voltage across 21 cell capacitors of the three phases of converter 1; (h) voltage across
the dc link of converter station
The system is able to recover as soon as the fault is cleared, and converter 2 adjusts its
reactive power exchange with grid G 2 in order support voltage at PCC 2 [see Fig. 4(d)]. The
transients shown of active and reactive powers at PCC2 are related to the reaction of the ac
voltage controller that regulates the ac voltage at PCC 2. Fig. 4(c) shows that the voltage
magnitude at remains unaffected; confirming that the hybrid voltage source
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)
 (j)
Fig. 4. Waveforms demonstrating ac fault ride-through capability of HVDC transmission
systems based on hybrid voltage multilevel converter with ac side cascaded H-bridge cells. (a)
Active and reactive power converter 1 exchanges with PCC1. (b) Active and reactive power
converter 2 injects into PCC2. (c) Voltage magnitude at PCC1. (d) Voltage magnitude at PCC2.
(e) Current waveforms converter 2 injects into PCC2. (f) Converter 2 dc link voltage. (g) Voltage
across 21 H-bridge cells of the converter 2. (h) Line-to-line voltage waveform at the terminal of
converter 1 (before transformer). (i) Active and reactive power at PCC1. (j) Active and reactive
power at PCC2. Results in (i)–(o) demonstrate the case when the converter stations operate close
to their maximum active power capabilities (power command at converter 1 is set to 0.75 pu,
which is 515 MW) and system is subjected to a three-phase fault with a 300-ms duration.

multilevel converter does not compromise the HVDC transmission system’s decoupling feature
despite adopting active power matching at converter 1, as explained. Fig. 4(e) shows that
converter 2 restrains its contribution to the fault current to less than full load current despite the
voltage at PCC2collapsing to 20% of its rated voltage, due to converter 2’s current controller.
Fig. 4(f) shows that coordination of the HVDC controllers, as illustrated, minimizes the impact
of ac-side faults on the transient
 Fig. 4. (Continued.) Waveforms demonstrating ac fault ride-through capability of HVDC
transmission systems based on hybrid voltage multilevel converter with ac side cascaded H-
bridge cells. (k) Voltage magnitude at PCC1. (l) Voltage magnitude at PCC2. (m) Current
waveforms converter 2 injects into PCC2. (n) Converter 2 dc link voltage. (o) Voltage across the
21 H-bridge cell capacitors of converter 2. Results in (i)–(o) demonstrate the case when the
converter stations operate close to their maximum active power capabilities (power command at
converter 1 is set to 0.75 pu, which is 515 MW) and system is subjected to a three-phase fault
with a 300-ms duration.
power flow on the dc side, hence minimizing disturbance on the dc link voltage. Fig. 4(g) shows
that the H-bridge cell voltage stresses are controlled as the system rides through the ac-side fault.
This confirms that the complexity of a HVDC system based on the hybrid multilevel VSC does
not compromise its ac fault ride-through capability. Fig. 4(h) shows the hybrid multilevel VSC

dv
presents high-quality voltage to the converter transformer, with low harmonic content and .
dt
This may permit elimination of ac-side filters and the use of standard insulation ac transmission
transformers.
The results in Fig. 4(i)–(o) are presented to demonstrate the ability of the proposed HVDC
system to operate in faulty networks, independent of its operating point and fault duration. This
case demonstrates the superiority of current-limiting VSCs over a synchronous generator during
ac network disturbances. (Converter 2 current injection into PCC2 is always controlled and less
than full load rated current despite the fault duration and the amount of power exchange between
ac networks G1and G2.)
C. DC Network Faults The inherent current-limiting capability of the hybrid multilevel VSC
with ac-side cascaded H-bridge cells that permits the VSC-HVDC system to ride-through dc-side
faults will be demonstrated here. The test network is subjected to a 140 ms solid pole-to-pole dc-
side fault at the location indicated in Fig. 3(a). During the dc-side fault period, active power
exchange between the two grids G1and G2 is reduced to zero. This facilitates uninterruptable
system recovery from the temporary dc fault with minimal inrush current, since the power paths
between the converter’s ac and dc sides are blocked (by inhibiting all converter gate signals) to
eliminate a grid contribution to the dc fault.
Fig. 5 shows the results when the test network is subjected to a temporary solid pole-to-pole dc
fault at the middle of the dc link. Fig. 5(a) and (b) shows the active and reactive powers that
converter stations 1 and 2 exchanges with PCC1 and PCC2. Observe zero active and reactive
power exchange between the converter stations and ac grids G1and G2 during the fault period;
hence there is no current flow in the switches of converters 1 and 2. However, a large surge in
active and reactive power is observed when the gating signals to converters 1 and 2 are restored
after the fault is cleared, in order to restart the system. Fig. 5(c) and (d) shows that the current
surge experienced by both converter stations causes noticeable voltage dipping at PCC1 and
PCC2 due to increased consumption of reactive power during system start-up and dc link voltage
build-up following fault clearance. The surge in active and reactive powers in both converter
stations occurs as the dc side capacitors try to
 Fig. 5. Waveforms demonstrating dc fault ride-through capability of HVDC transmission
systems based on hybrid voltage multilevel converter with ac side cascaded H-bridge cells. (a)
 Active and reactive power converter 1 exchanges with PCC1. (b) Active and reactive power
converter 2 exchanges with PCC2. (c) Voltage magnitude at PCC2. (d) Voltage magnitude at
PCC2. (e) Current waveforms converter 1 exchange with gridG1 at PCC1. (f) Current
waveforms converter 2 exchange with gridG2 at PCC2. (g) Converter 2 dc link voltage. (h)
Zoomed version of dc link current demonstrating the benefits of dc fault reverse blocking
capability.
charge from both ac sides; this causes a large current flow from both ac sides to the dc side to
charge the dc link capacitors and cable distributed capacitors as shown in Fig. 5(e) and 5(f). The
results in Fig. 5(e) and 5(f) also demonstrate the benefits of dc fault reverse blocking capability
inherent in this hybrid system, as the converter switches experience high current stresses only
during dc link voltage build-up. Fig. 5(g) shows that converter 2 dc link voltage recovers to the
pre-fault state after the fault

Fig. 5. (Continued.) Waveforms demonstrating dc fault ride-through capability of HVDC

transmission systems based on hybrid voltage multilevel converter with ac side cascaded H-
bridge cells. (i) Voltage across the H-bridge cell capacitors of converter 1. (j) Voltage across the
H-bridge cell capacitors of converter 2.
is cleared. Notice the recovery period for the dc link voltage is relatively long; this is the major
disadvantage of the proposed HVDC systems as it uses a common dc link capacitor. Fig. 5(h)
expands the dc fault current and shows the 60-kA peak decays to zero in less than four cycles
(for 50 Hz) after discharge of dc link and cable distributed capacitors. This result confirms the
possibility of eliminating dc circuit breakers to isolate permanent dc side faults in dc networks
that use HVDC converters with current limiting capability. Fig. 5(h) also shows the ac grids start
to contribute to the dc link current after the fault is cleared, to charge the dc side capacitors. Fig.
5(i) and (j) shows the voltage across the 21 H-bridge cells of the converter stations 1 and 2 (each
group of traces represent voltages across 7 H-bridge cell capacitors in each phase). The voltage
across the H-bridge cell capacitors remains unaffected during the entire fault period as the
converters are blocked. The cell capacitors start to contribute energy to the main dc link
capacitors during dc link voltage build-up after restoration of the converter gating signals. This
contribution creates a noticeable reduction in the cell capacitor voltages during system restart.
The cell capacitors of converter 2 that regulate dc link voltage, experience a larger voltage dip
than converter 1, which regulates active power. However, the reduction in H-bridge cell
capacitor voltages is minimized if large capacitance is used.
 V. CONCLUSION
This paper presented a new generation VSC-HVDC transmission system based on a hybrid
multilevel converter with ac-side cascaded H-bridge cells. The main advantages of the proposed
HVDC system are:
• Potential small footprint and lower semiconductor losses compared to present HVDC systems.
• Low filtering requirements on the ac sides and presents high-quality voltage to the converter
transformer.
• does not compromise the advantages of VSC-HVDC systems such as four-quadrant operation;
voltage support capability; and black-start capability, which is vital for connection of weak ac
networks with no generation and wind farms.
• Modular design and converter fault management (inclusion of redundant cells in each phase
may allow the system to operate normally during failure of a few H-bridge cells; whence a cell
bypass mechanism is required).
• Resilient to ac side faults (symmetrical and asymmetrical).
• inherent dc fault reverse blocking capability that allows converter stations to block the power
paths between the ac and dc sides during dc side faults (active power between ac and dc sides,
and reactive power exchange between a converter station and ac networks), hence eliminating
any grid contribution to the dc fault current.
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