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High Voltage Direct Current Transmission
High Voltage Direct Current Transmission
Converters, Systems and DC Grids
Dragan Jovcic
University of Aberdeen
Aberdeen, UK
Second Edition
This edition first published 2019
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for
ISBN: 9781119566540
Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Cover page photograph reproduced with permission of SIEMENS – HVDC Project Brazil
Set in 10/12pt WarnockPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
Preface xvii
Part I HVDC with Current Source Converters 1
1 Introduction to Line Commutated HVDC 3

1.1 HVDC Applications 3
1.2 Line Commutated HVDC Components 4
1.3 DC Cables and Overhead Lines 7
1.3.1 Introduction 7
1.3.2 Mass-impregnated Cables 7
1.3.3 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables 7
1.3.4 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene Cables 8
1.4 LCC HVDC Topologies 8
1.5 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems 10
1.6 Conversion of AC Lines to DC 10
1.7 Ultra High Voltage HVDC 12
2 Thyristors 13
2.1 Operating Characteristics 13
2.2 Switching Characteristics 14
2.3 Losses in HVDC Thyristors 18
2.4 Valve Structure and Thyristor Snubbers 20
2.5 Thyristor Rating Selection and Overload Capability 22
3 Six-pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter 25

3.1 Three-phase Uncontrolled Bridge 25
3.2 Three-phase Thyristor Rectifier 27
3.3 Analysis of Commutation Overlap in a Thyristor Converter 28
3.4 Active and Reactive Power in a Three-phase Thyristor Converter 32
3.5 Inverter Operation 33
vi Contents
4 HVDC Rectifier Station Modelling, Control and Synchronisation with

AC System 37
4.1 HVDC Rectifier Controller 37
4.2 Phase-locked Loop 38
4.3 Master-level HVDC Control 40
5 HVDC Inverter Station Modelling and Control 43

5.1 Inverter Controller 43
5.1.1 Control Structure 43
5.1.2 Extinction Angle Control 43
5.1.3 DC Voltage Control 44
5.1.4 DC Current Control at Inverter 45
5.2 Commutation Failure 45
6 HVDC System V–I Diagrams and Operating Modes 49

6.1 HVDC Equivalent Circuit 49
6.2 HVDC V –I Operating Diagram 49
6.3 HVDC Power Reversal 51
7 HVDC Analytical Modelling and Stability 57

7.1 Introduction to Converter and HVDC Modelling 57
7.1.1 Detailed Switching Transients Modelling 57
7.1.2 Modelling with Switchings 57
7.1.3 Analytical Dynamic Modelling of Converters 58
7.1.4 Phasor Modelling 58
7.2 HVDC Analytical Model 58
7.3 CIGRE HVDC Benchmark Model 60
7.4 Converter Modelling, Linearisation, and Gain Scheduling 60
7.5 AC System Modelling for HVDC Stability Studies 64
7.6 LCC Converter Transformer Model 67
7.7 DC System Including DC Cable 68
7.7.1 DC Cable/Line Modelling as a Single 𝜋 Section 68
7.7.2 Controller Model 69
7.7.3 Complete DC System Model 69
7.8 Accurate DC Cable Modelling 70
7.8.1 Wideband Cable Model 70
7.8.2 Cable Higher-order Analytical Model in State Space 72
7.9 HVDC–HVAC System Model 76
7.10 Analytical Dynamic Model Verification 77
7.11 Basic HVDC Dynamic Analysis 77
7.11.1 Eigenvalue Analysis 77
7.11.2 Eigenvalue Sensitivity Study 77
7.11.3 Influence of PLL Gains 79
7.12 HVDC Second Harmonic Instability 80
7.13 100 Hz Oscillations on the DC Side 82
Contents vii
8 HVDC Phasor Modelling and Interactions with AC System 83

8.1 Converter and DC System Phasor Model 83
8.2 Phasor AC System Model and Interaction with DC System 84
8.3 Inverter AC Voltage and Power Profile as DC Current is Increasing 86
8.4 Influence of Converter Extinction Angle 88
8.5 Influence of Shunt Reactive Power Compensation 88
8.6 Influence of Load at the Converter Terminals 88
8.7 Influence of Operating Mode (DC Voltage Control Mode) 88
8.8 Rectifier Operating Mode 90
9 HVDC Operation with Weak AC Systems 95

9.1 Introduction 95
9.2 Short Circuit Ratio and Equivalent Short Circuit Ratio 95
9.2.1 Definition of SCR and ESCR 95
9.2.2 Operating Difficulties with Low SCR Systems 98
9.3 Background on Power Transfer Between Two AC Systems 99
9.4 Phasor Study of Converter Interactions with Weak AC Systems 101
9.5 System Dynamics (Small Signal Stability) with Low SCR 101
9.6 Control and Main Circuit Solutions for Weak AC Grids 102
9.7 LCC HVDC with SVC 103
9.8 Capacitor Commutated Converters for HVDC 104
9.9 AC System with Low Inertia 106
10 Fault Management and HVDC System Protection 111

10.1 Introduction 111
10.2 DC Line Faults 111
10.3 AC System Faults 113
10.3.1 Rectifier AC Faults 113
10.3.2 Inverter AC Faults 114
10.4 Internal Faults 115
10.5 System Reconfiguration for Permanent Faults 116
10.6 Overvoltage Protection 119
11 LCC HVDC System Harmonics 121

11.1 Harmonic Performance Criteria 121
11.2 Harmonic Limits 122
11.3 Thyristor Converter Harmonics 123
11.4 Harmonic Filters 124
11.4.2 Tuned Filters 126
11.4.3 Damped Filters 128
11.5 Non-characteristic Harmonic Reduction Using HVDC Controls 132
Bibliography Part I: Line Commutated Converter HVDC 133

viii Contents
Part II HVDC with Voltage Source Converters 137
12 VSC HVDC Applications and Topologies, Performance and Cost

Comparison with LCC HVDC 139
12.1 Application of Voltage Source Converters in HVDC 139
12.2 Comparison with LCC HVDC 141
12.3 HVDC Technology Landscape 142
12.4 Overhead and Subsea/Underground VSC HVDC Transmission 143
12.5 DC Cable Types with VSC HVDC 147
12.6 Monopolar and Bipolar VSC HVDC Systems 147
12.7 VSC HVDC Converter Topologies 148
12.7.1 HVDC with Two-level Voltage Source Converter 148
12.7.2 HVDC with Neutral Point Clamped Converter 150
12.7.3 MMC VSC HVDC Transmission Systems 151
12.7.4 MMC HVDC Based on FB Topology 153
12.8 VSC HVDC Station Components 155
12.8.1 AC CB 155
12.8.2 VSC Converter Transformer 155
12.8.3 VSC Converter AC Harmonic Filters 156
12.8.4 DC Capacitors 156
12.8.5 DC Filter 157
12.8.6 Two-level VSC HVDC Valves 158
12.8.7 MMC Valves and Cells 159
12.9 AC Inductors 160
12.10 DC Inductors 161
13 IGBT Switches and VSC Converter Losses 165

13.1 Introduction to IGBT and IGCT 165
13.2 General VSC Converter Switch Requirements 166
13.3 IGBT Technology 166
13.3.1 IGBT Operating Characteristics 167
13.3.2 Fast Recovery Anti-parallel Diode 171
13.4 High Power IGBT Devices 171
13.5 IEGT Technology 172
13.6 Losses Calculation 173
13.6.1 Conduction Loss Modelling 173
13.6.2 Switching Loss Modelling 174
13.7 Balancing Challenges in Two-level IGBT Valves 178
13.8 Snubbers Circuits 179
14 Single-phase and Three-phase Two-level VSC Converters 181

14.2 Single-phase VSC 181
14.3 Three-phase VSC 184
14.4 Square-wave, Six-pulse Operation 185
14.4.1 180∘ Conduction 185
14.4.2 120∘ Conduction 188
Contents ix
15 Two-level PWM VSC Converters 193

15.2 PWM Modulation 193
15.2.1 Multipulse with Constant Pulse Width 193
15.2.2 Modulating Signal 194
15.3 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation 195
15.4 Third Harmonic Injection 197
15.5 Selective Harmonic Elimination Modulation 198
15.6 Converter Losses for Two-level SPWM VSC 198
15.7 Harmonics with PWM 201
15.8 Comparison of PWM Modulation Techniques 203
16 Multilevel VSC Converters in HVDC Applications 205

16.2 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Converters 207
16.3 Neutral Point Clamped Multilevel Converter 208
16.4 Half Bridge MMC 210
16.4.1 Operating Principles of Half-bridge MMC 210
16.4.2 Capacitor Voltage Balancing 212
16.4.3 MMC Cell Capacitance 214
16.4.4 MMC Arm Inductance 215
16.4.5 MMC with Fundamental Frequency Modulation 218
16.4.6 MMC with PWM Modulation 218
16.5 Full Bridge MMC 222
16.5.1 Operating Principles 222
16.6 Comparison of Multilevel Topologies 224
17 Two-level VSC HVDC Modelling, Control, and Dynamics 227

17.1 PWM Two-level Converter Average Model 227
17.1.1 Converter Model in an ABC Frame 227
17.1.2 Converter Model in the ABC Frame Including Blocked State 229
17.2 Two-level PWM Converter Model in DQ Frame 230
17.3 VSC Converter Transformer Model 231
17.4 Two-level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in the ABC Frame 231
17.5 Two-level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in a DQ Rotating Coordinate
Frame 232
17.6 VSC Converter Control Principles 233
17.7 The Inner Current Controller Design 234
17.7.1 Control Strategy 234
17.7.2 Decoupling Control 234
17.7.3 Current Feedback Control 235
17.7.4 Controller Gains 236
17.8 Outer Controller Design 237
17.8.1 AC Voltage Control 237
17.8.2 Power Control 238
17.8.3 DC Voltage Control 239
17.8.4 AC Grid Support 240
x Contents
17.9 Complete Two-level VSC Converter Controller 240

17.10 Small Signal Linearised VSC HVDC Model 242
17.11 Small Signal Dynamic Studies 242
17.11.1 Dynamics of Weak AC Systems 242
17.11.2 Impact of PLL Gains on Robustness 244
18 Two-level VSC HVDC Phasor-domain Interaction with AC Systems and

PQ Operating Diagrams 247
18.1 Power Exchange Between Two AC Voltage Sources 247
18.2 Converter Phasor Model and Power Exchange with an AC System 249
18.3 Phasor Study of VSC Converter Interaction with AC System 252
18.3.1 Test System 252
18.3.2 Assumptions and Converter Limits 252
18.3.3 Case 1: Converter Voltages Are Known 253
18.3.4 Case 2: Converter Currents are Known 254
18.3.5 Case 3: PCC Voltage is Known 254
18.4 Operating Limits 254
18.5 Design Point Selection 255
18.6 Influence of AC System Strength 258
18.7 Influence of AC System Impedance Angle (X s /Rs ) 258
18.8 Influence of Transformer Reactance 258
18.9 Influence of Converter Control Modes 262
18.10 Operation with Very Weak AC Systems 262
19 Half Bridge MMC: Dimensioning, Modelling, Control, and Interaction

with AC System 269
19.1 Basic Equations and Steady-state Control 269
19.2 Steady-state Dimensioning 272
19.3 Half Bridge MMC Non-linear Average Dynamic Model 275
19.4 Non-linear Average Value Model Including Blocked State 276
19.5 HB MMC HVDC Start-up and Charging MMC Cells 278
19.6 HB MMC Dynamic DQ Frame Model and Phasor Model 279
19.6.1 Assumptions 279
19.6.2 Zero Sequence Model 282
19.6.3 Fundamental Frequency Model in DQ Frame 282
19.6.4 Second Harmonic Model in the D2Q2 Coordinate Frame 284
19.7 Second Harmonic of Differential Current 286
19.8 Complete MMC Converter DQ Model in Matrix Form 286
19.9 Second-harmonic Circulating Current Suppression Controller 287
19.10 Simplified DQ Frame Model with Circulating Current Controller 290
19.11 Phasor Model of MMC with Circulating Current Suppression
Controller 295
19.12 Simplified Dynamic MMC Model Using Equivalent Series Capacitor
C MMC 296
19.13 Full Dynamic Analytical HB MMC Model 300
19.14 HB MMC Controller and Arm Voltage Control 301
19.15 MMC Total Series Reactance and Comparison with Two-level VSC 304
19.16 MMC Interaction with AC System and PQ Operating Diagrams 306
Contents xi
20 Full Bridge MMC Converter: Dimensioning, Modelling, and

Control 309
20.1 FB MMC Arm Voltage Range 309
20.2 Full Bridge MMC Converter Non-linear Average Model 309
20.3 FB MMC Non-linear Average Model Including Blocked State 310
20.4 Full Bridge MMC Cell Charging 312
20.5 Hybrid MMC Design 313
20.5.1 Operation Under Low DC Voltage 313
20.5.2 Overmodulation Requirements 314
20.5.3 Cell Voltage Balancing Under Low DC Voltage 315
20.5.4 Optimal Design of Full Bridge MMC 315
20.6 Full Bridge MMC DC Voltage Variation Using a Detailed Model 318
20.7 FB MMC Analytical Dynamic DQ Model 320
20.7.1 Zero Sequence Model 320
20.7.2 Fundamental Frequency Model 321
20.8 Simplified FB MMC Model 321
20.9 FB MMC Converter Controller 322
21 MMC Converter Under Unbalanced Conditions 325

21.2 MMC Balancing Controller Structure 326
21.3 Balancing Between Phases (Horizontal Balancing) 326
21.4 Balancing Between Arms (Vertical Balancing) 328
21.5 Simulation of Balancing Controls 330
21.6 Operation with Unbalanced AC Grid 332
21.6.1 Detecting Positive and Negative Sequence Components 332
21.6.2 Controlling Grid Current Sequence Components with MMC 336
22 VSC HVDC Under AC and DC Fault Conditions 339

22.2 Faults on the AC System 339
22.3 DC Faults with Two-level VSC 340
22.4 Influence of DC Capacitors 345
22.5 VSC Converter Modelling Under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 345
22.5.1 VSC Diode Bridge Average Model 345
22.5.2 Phasor Model of VSC Diode Bridge Under DC Fault 348
22.5.3 Simple Expression for VSC Diode Bridge Steady-state Fault Current
Magnitude 351
22.6 VSC Converter Mode Transitions as DC Voltage Reduces 352
22.7 DC Faults with Half Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 354
22.8 Full Bridge MMC Under DC Faults 356
23 VSC HVDC Application For AC Grid Support and Operation with

Passive AC Systems 359
23.1 VSC HVDC High Level Controls and AC Grid Support 359
23.2 HVDC Embedded Inside an AC Grid 360
23.3 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grids 361
23.4 HVDC in Parallel with AC 361
xii Contents
23.5 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 362
23.6 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 362
23.7 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW-Size Variable
Speed Motor 365
Bibliography Part II: Voltage Source Converter HVDC 366
Part III DC Transmission Grids 371
24 Introduction to DC Grids373
24.1 DC versus AC Transmission 373
24.2 Terminology 374
24.3 DC Grid Planning, Topology, and Power Transfer Security 375
24.4 Technical Challenges 376
24.5 DC Grid Building by Multiple Manufacturers – Interoperability 376
24.6 Economic Aspects 377
25 DC Grids With Line Commutated Converters 379

25.1 Multiterminal LCC HVDC 379
25.2 Italy–Corsica–Sardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 380
25.3 Connecting the LCC Converter to a DC Grid 381
25.3.1 Power Reversal 381
25.3.2 DC Faults 382
25.3.3 AC Faults 383
25.4 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 383
25.5 Control of LCC DC Grids Through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 384
25.6 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 385
25.7 Reactive Power Issues 387
25.8 Employing LCC Converter Stations in Established DC Grids 387
26 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power Flow Model 389
26.1 Connecting a VSC Converter to a DC Grid 389
26.1.1 Power Reversal and Control 389
26.1.2 DC Faults 389
26.1.3 AC Faults 389
26.2 Multiterminal VSC HVDC Operating in China 390
26.3 DC Grid Power Flow Model 390
26.4 DC Grid Power Flow Under DC Faults 395
27 DC Grid Control 399

27.2 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 399
27.3 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 401
27.4 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary DC Grid Control 402
27.5 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 403
27.6 Three-level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 405
Contents xiii
27.6.1 Three-level Control for VSC Converters 405

27.6.2 Dispatcher Controller 406
27.7 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers are Regulated 406
27.8 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid Test System 411
27.8.1 CIGRE DC Grid Test System 411
27.8.2 Power Flow After Outage of the Largest Terminal 413
28 DC Circuit Breakers 417

28.2 Challenges with DC Circuit Opening 417
28.2.1 DC Current Commutation 417
28.2.2 DC Current Suppression and Dissipation of Energy 418
28.3 DC CB Operating Principles and a Simple Model 418
28.4 DC CB Performance Requirements 420
28.4.1 Opening Speed 420
28.4.2 DC CB Ratings and Series Inductors 420
28.4.3 Bidirectional Current Interruption 421
28.4.4 Multiple Open/close Operations in a Short Time 421
28.4.5 Losses, Size, and Weight 421
28.4.6 Standardisation 421
28.5 Practical HV DC CBs 422
28.6 Mechanical DC CB 422
28.6.1 Operating Principles and Construction 422
28.6.2 Mathematical Model and Design Principles 424
28.6.3 Test Circuit for DC CB Simulation 426
28.6.4 Simulation of DC Fault Clearing 427
28.6.5 Negative Fault Current Interruption 427
28.6.6 Multiple Open/close Operations in a Short Time 428
28.6.7 Mechanical DC CB for High Voltages 429
28.7 Semiconductor-based DC CB 430
28.7.1 Topology and Design 430
28.7.2 Self-protection of Semiconductor Valves 432
28.7.3 Simulation of Fault Current Interruption 432
28.8 Hybrid DC CB 434
28.8.1 Topology and Design 434
28.8.2 Hybrid DC CB for High Voltages 435
28.8.3 Simulation of Fault Current Interruption 436
28.8.4 Bidirectional Operation 437
28.8.5 Fault Current Limiting 438
29 DC Grid Fault Management and Protection System 441

29.2 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 442
29.3 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 444
29.4 DC Grid Protection System Development 445
29.5 DC Grid Protection System Based on Local Measurements 446
29.5.1 Protection Based on DC Current and Current Differential 446
xiv Contents
29.5.2 Rate of Change of Voltage Protection 447

29.6 Blocking MMC Converters Under DC Faults 450
29.7 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 452
29.8 Selective Protection for Star-topology DC Grids 455
29.9 DC Grids with DC Fault-tolerant VSC Converters 456
29.9.1 Grid Topology and Strategy 456
29.9.2 VSC Converter with Increased AC Coupling Reactors 457
29.9.3 LCL VSC Converter 459
29.9.4 VSC Converter with Fault Current Limiter 461
29.10 DC Grids with Full Bridge MMC Converters 461
30 High Power DC/DC Converters and DC Power Flow Controlling

Devices 465
30.2 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 466
30.3 Low-stepping-ratio DC/DC Converters (DC Choppers) 469
30.3.1 Converter Topology 469
30.3.2 Converter Controller 470
30.3.3 DC/DC Chopper Average Value Model 471
30.3.4 H-Bridge DC/DC Chopper 473
30.4 Non-isolated MMC-based DC/DC Converter (M2DC) 473
30.4.2 Modelling and Design 474
30.4.3 Design Example and Comparison with MMC AC/DC 477
30.4.4 Controller Design 479
30.4.5 Simulation Responses 480
30.5 DC/DC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 484
30.6 High-stepping-ratio Isolated DC/DC Converter (Dual Active Bridge
DC/DC) 484
30.6.2 Modelling and Control 486
30.6.3 Simulated Responses 487
30.7 High-stepping-ratio LCL DC/DC Converter 490
30.8 Building DC Grids with DC/DC Converters 492
30.9 DC Hubs 495
30.10 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 496
30.11 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 496
Bibliography Part III: DC Transmission Grids 500
Appendix A Variable Notations 503
Appendix B Analytical Background to Rotating DQ Frame 505

B.1 Transforming AC Variables to a DQ Frame 505
B.2 Derivative of an Oscillating Signal in a DQ Frame 507
B.3 Transforming an AC System Dynamic Equation to a DQ Frame 507
B.4 Transforming an n-Order State Space AC System Model to a DQ Frame 509
Contents xv
B.5 Static (Steady-state) Modeling in a Rotating DQ Coordinate Frame 510

B.6 Representing the Product of Oscillating Signals in a DQ Frame 511
B.7 Representing Power in DQ Frame 512
Appendix C System Modeling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 515
Appendix D Simulink Examples 517

D.1 Chapter 3 Examples 517
Index 535
xvii
Preface
At the time of writing this book there are over 200 high voltage direct current (HVDC)
links installed worldwide. The largest installations operate at ±800 kV DC voltage while
the highest DC current ratings are over 4500 A. Although alternating current was the
predominant method for transmitting electrical energy during the twentieth century,
HVDC has now been demonstrated to be the best solution for many specific application
areas and the number of installations per year is constantly increasing at the begin-
ning of the twenty-first century. Despite significant converter station costs, HVDC is
techno-economically preferred in many general applications:
• long-distance large-scale power transfer;
• subsea and long-distance cable power transmission;
• interconnecting asynchronous AC systems, or systems with different frequencies;
• controllable power transfer between different nodes in an electricity market or mar-
kets;
• AC grid stability support, ancillary service provision, and resilience from blackouts;
• connecting isolated systems like offshore wind farms or oil platforms.
DC transmission technology was used in many instances in the very early power
systems, but the modern HVDC transmission began with the 1954 Sweden–Gotland
installation. This system, and all of the other HVDCs commissioned until the mid
1970s, was based on mercury arc valves. Significant technical advance came with
the introduction of solid-state valves (thyristors) although they only support the line
commutated converter concept. In the first decade of the twenty-first century there
has been very rapid development of fundamentally new technologies and increasing
demand for HVDC technology. The introduction of voltage source converters (VSCs)
requires new valves that utilise insulated gate bipolar transistors and also new pro-
tection and control approaches. The modular multilevel converters have eventually
emerged as the most cost-effective VSC converter concept which practically eliminates
filtering needs with HVDC and removes voltage limits with VSC valves. Modular
multilevel converter HVDC nowadays has low losses which are comparable with those
of thyristor HVDC and new technologies are emerging that open up possibilities for
wider application areas.
In the second decade of the twenty-first century, it has become apparent that DC
transmission grids are both a viable solution to large-scale energy challenges and tech-
nically feasible. The primary application drivers are coming from the initiatives like
the NorthSea DC grid, Medtech, Desertec, European Overlay Supergrid and various
xviii Preface
projects in China, where two multiterminal VSC HVDC systems are already operating.
It is accepted that the DC transmission grids will have similar or better levels of reliability
and technical performance to the AC transmission system. This level of performance,
security and reliability is technically feasible, although in many aspects DC grids will
be substantially different from traditional AC systems. The development of DC grids
brings significant technical advances in HVDC technologies, in particular related to DC
CB (circuit breakers), DC/DC converters and DC protection systems, and substantial
further research and development is anticipated.
Nowadays HVDC and DC grids are associated with green energy, as facilitators of
large-scale renewable energy plants. This helps with the public acceptance and image,
and facilitates further investments in large public projects. Also HVDC is perceived
as a technology that avoids pylons, by using long underground cables, which further
strengthens arguments for future funding decisions.
The timing of this book is, therefore, in step with accelerated interest in HVDC and
projected significant increase and expansion in applications. The book is organised
into three parts in order to study all three major HVDC concepts and current research
developments: line commutated HVDC, VSC HVDC and DC grids including current
research developments. Each part will review theoretical concepts first and analyse
aspects of technology, interaction with AC grids, modelling, control, faults and pro-
tection with particular emphasis on practical implementation aspects and reported
operational issues. The technology described in the first two parts is largely based on
the operating HVDC systems, while the topic of DC grids is grounded in the significant
volume of research at many institutions.
The technical field of HVDC transmission and DC grids straddles three major tradi-
tional electrical engineering disciplines:
Power transmission engineering – the impact of HVDC systems on the connecting AC
transmission systems and the national grids is of primary importance. The influence
of AC systems on HVDC is also of significance in terms of technical performance,
stability, protection and power transfer security in general. The harmonic interaction
will be studied in some depth.
Power electronics – each HVDC link involves at least two AC/DC converters while DC
grids will have many more including semiconductor DC CBs and DC/DC converters.
These converters have similar features to the traditional low-power converters but
many other unique requirements exist to develop valves and converter assemblies
capable of sustaining up to 800 kV and perhaps over 4500 A. The protection of valves
and converters is very important and defining power electronics feature in HVDC.
Control engineering – modelling and simulation of HVDC is essential for design
and operation and several different modelling approaches exist depending on the
model application. In particular, because of high costs of HVDC testing and the
consequences of any design issues, model accuracy and simulation speed play a
crucial role in the system design. The control systems for HVDC have evolved into
very complex technologies which are always multivariable and non-linear with
multiple control layers.
The above three technical disciplines will be employed in this book in order to analyse
all of the essential technical aspects of HVDC and DC grids, aiming to facilitate learning
by researchers and engineers interested in this field.
Preface xix
The material in this book includes contributions from many HVDC researchers and
engineers, and it is developed from research projects funded by several research councils
and private firms. More importantly, the studies are inspired and built on previous work
by numerous HVDC engineers and researchers.
The author would like to express gratitude to Dr Khaled Ahmed for signification con-
tribution to the first edition of this manuscript, which has served as the basis for the
second edition. The author is particularly thankful to ALSTOM Grid, UK, for making
their comprehensive report ‘HVDC Connecting to the future’ available to the authors,
as well as to Siemens, Germany, and ABB, Sweden, for their HVDC photographs. I am
also indebted to all of the researchers at the University of Aberdeen HVDC research
centre and in particular to Dr. Weixing Lin, Dr. Ali Jamshidifar, Dr. Masood Hajian, Dr.
Huibin Zhang, Mr. Stefan Kovacevic, and Dr. Lu Zhang for their contributions.
Special thanks are reserved for SSE, Scotland, and, in particular, to Andrew Robertson,
for their support of the HVDC course at the University of Aberdeen, which provided
substantial material for this book.
The author is further grateful to the following organisations, which have supported
related research studies at the University of Aberdeen:
• EPSRC (Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council) UK;
• ERC (European Research Council), FP 7 Ideas program;
• RTE (Réseau de Transport d’Électricité), France;
• EU Horizon2020.
January 2019 Dragan Jovcic

1
Part I
HVDC with Current Source Converters

3
Introduction to Line Commutated HVDC
1.1 HVDC Applications

Thyristor-based high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission has found application
in more than 150 point-to-point worldwide installations, and in each case has proven to
be technologically and/or economically superior to alternating current (AC) transmis-
sion. Typical HVDC applications can be grouped as follows:
• Submarine power transmission. AC cables have large capacitance and for cables over
40–70 km the reactive power circulation becomes unacceptable. This distance can be
extended somewhat with reactive power compensation. For larger distances HVDC is
more economical. A good example is the 580 km, 700 MW, ±450 kV NorNed HVDC
between Norway and The Netherlands.
• Long-distance overhead lines. Long AC lines require variable reactive power compen-
sation. Typically 600–800 km is breakeven distance, and for longer distances HVDC
is more economical. A good example is the 1360 km, 3.1 GW, ±500 kV Pacific DC
intertie along the west cost of the USA.
• Interconnecting two AC networks of different frequencies. A good example is the
500 MW, ±79 kV back-to-back Melo HVDC between Uruguay and Brazil. The
Uruguay system operates at 50 Hz whereas the Brazil national grid runs at 60 Hz.
• Interconnecting two unsynchronised AC grids. If the phase difference between two AC
systems is large they cannot be directly connected. A typical example is the 150 MW,
±42 kV McNeill back-to-back HVDC link between Alberta and Saskatchewan inter-
connecting asynchronous eastern and western American systems.
• Controllable power exchange between two AC networks (for trading). The AC power
flow is determined by the line impedances, and therefore the AC power flow cannot
be directly controlled in each line. In complex AC networks it is common to observe
loop power flow or even overloading or under-utilisation of some AC lines. Many
HVDC systems participate directly in trading power and one typical example is the
200 MW, ±57 kV Highgate HVDC between Quebec and Vermont.
There are other less common applications of LCC (line commutated converter) HVDC
technology and the 300 MW Levis De-Icer HVDC project will be mentioned. Here, one
standard HVDC converter station (converter from Static Var Compensator) is used to
provide very high DC of up to 7920 A (feeding essentially a DC short circuit) to enable
heating of remote Canadian overhead lines in order to prevent ice build-up.
High Voltage Direct Current Transmission: Converters, Systems and DC Grids,

Second Edition. Dragan Jovcic.
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
4 1 Introduction to Line Commutated HVDC
Cost
DC
HV
Beakeven distance
HVDC station costs C
VA For cables 40–70 km
H
For overhead lines 600–800 km
HVAC station costs
Line length
Figure 1.1 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison.
An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of AC for a new transmission

line is also the contribution to short circuit level. HVDC is able to limit the fault current
and therefore will not require upgrade of substation equipment.
Figure 1.1 shows a comparison of costs for DC and AC transmission lines. In the case
of HVDC the initial capital investment is much higher because of the converter costs.
As the transmission distance increases, the benefits of DC compensate for the capital
investment and at certain distance the total cost of the HVDC system is same as that of
the AC line. The breakeven distance is in the range of 40–70 km for submarine cables
and in the range of 600–800 km for overhead lines.
Figure 1.2 shows an aerial view of terminal station of the 500 MW Moyle HVDC link.
This HVDC enables controllable bidirectional power exchange between Scotland and
Northern Ireland.
1.2 Line Commutated HVDC Components

Figure 1.3 shows a typical line commutated converter HVDC schematic interconnect-
ing AC systems 1 and 2. It consists of two terminals and a DC line between them. Each
terminal (converter station) includes converters, transformers filters, reactive power
equipment, a control station and a range of other components. There are two DC lines
in this figure while one line is at ground potential.
As shown in Figure 1.3, the major components of an HVDC system include:
• Converters. These typically include at least one six-pulse thyristor (Graetz) bridge.
Each bridge consists of six thyristor valves which in turn contain hundreds of
individual thyristors. With large systems, bridges are connected in series in 12- or
24-pulse configuration. These 12-pulse converters can be connected into poles or
bipoles.
• Converter transformers. These are of a special converter transformer type that is
somewhat more expensive than typical AC transformers of the same rating. The
converter transformers are designed to operate with high harmonic currents and to
withstand AC and DC voltage stress. In most cases converter transformers will have
tap changers that enable optimisation of HVDC operation.
1.2 Line Commutated HVDC Components 5
Figure 1.2 Terminal station of Moyle HVDC interconnector (bipole 2 × 250 MW, ±250 kV, with
light-triggered thyristors, commissioned in 2001). Source: Reproduced with permission of Siemens.
• Smoothing reactors on the DC side. The typical inductance for large HVDC systems is
0.1–0.5 H, which is determined considering DC fault responses, commutation failure
and dynamic stability. The reactors are of air-core, natural air-cooling type and costs
are modest.
• Reactive power compensation. The converters typically require reactive power of
around 60% of the converter power rating. A large portion of this reactive power is
supplied by filter banks and the remaining part by capacitor banks. Since reactive
power demand varies with DC power level, the capacitors are arranged in switchable
banks.
• Filters. A typical 12-pulse thyristor terminal will require 11th, 13th, 23rd, and 25th
filters on the AC side. In addition, a high-pass filter is frequently included. In some
cases third harmonic filters are required. Some HVDC systems with overhead lines
further employ DC-side filters.
• Electrodes. Some old HVDC systems normally operate with sea/ground return but
most grid operators no longer allow permanent ground currents for environmen-
tal reasons. Electrodes demand ongoing maintenance costs. Many new bipolar
systems are allowed to operate with ground return at half power for a short time
(10–20 minutes) in case of loss of an HVDC pole. This implies that electrodes are
designed for full current, but carry no current in normal operation.
• Control and communication system. Each terminal will have a control system consist-
ing of several hierarchical layers. A dedicated communication link between terminals
is needed but speed is not critical. An HVDC link can operate in case of a loss of
communication link.
Terminal 1 Smoothing Smoothing Terminal 2
reactor reactor
AC system 1 transformer AC system 2
CB
3 phase V1g, f1 I1dc DC line 3 phase V2g, f2
I2dc
Thyristor ∆ Y
P1g, Q1g Y ∆ Thyristor
bridge bridge transformer P2g, Q2g
CB
V1dcp V2dcp
CB
α1 α2 CB
Y Y Y Y
Thyristor
transformer Thyristor
bridge transformer
bridge
DC line
filters V1g filters V2g
electrodes
Reactive power Reactive power
compensation compensation
Station 1 Communication Station 2
control system control
Figure 1.3 Typical HVDC schematic (12-pulse monopole with metallic return).
1.3 DC Cables and Overhead Lines 7
1.3 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

1.3.1 Introduction
LCC HVDC has been implemented using both overhead lines and underground/subsea
DC cables. Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning strikes, which are essentially DC
faults. Nevertheless DC faults only cause transient disturbances and they are readily
managed by LCC HVDC. Contrary to voltage source converter (VSC) HVDC, as will be
discussed later, DC faults cause much more serious disturbances.
The most common cable technologies that have been developed so far include:
• mass-impregnated cables (MI);

• low-pressure oil-filled cables; and
• extruded cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables.
The above cable types have same conductors and their construction is similar but
the insulation materials are substantially different. The cable voltage rating depends on
the capability of the insulation (dielectric) material, and there are two main types of
dielectrics, namely lapped and extruded.
1.3.2 Mass-impregnated Cables

Since 1895, MI cables have been used in power transmission. In MI cables, the dielec-
tric is lapped paper insulation, which is impregnated with high-viscosity fluid. For bulk
power transmission, MI cables are still the most suitable solution because of their capac-
ity to work up to 500 kV DC. Also these cables tolerate fast DC voltage polarity reversal,
making them suitable for LCC HVDC. The MI cables have a long record of field oper-
ation at a voltage of 500 kV and transmission capacity of over 800 MW (1.6 kA) for
monopole HVDC, but 600 kV and 1000 MW ratings have been announced. Therefore
an HVDC in bipolar connection is able to transmit up to 2000 MW with MI cables.
These cables can be installed at depths of up to 1000 m below sea level and with nearly
unlimited transmission length. The capacity of this system is limited by the conduc-
tor temperature, which can reduce overload capabilities. The 580 km-long, 700 MW,
450 kV cable link between Norway and The Netherlands represents the highest power
and longest length for this cable type. At present most (over 90%) submarine cables are
of the MI type.
1.3.3 Low-pressure Oil-filled Cables

Low-pressure oil-filled cables are similar in construction to MI cables but are insulated
with paper impregnated with low-viscosity oil under an overpressure of few bars. The
available technology today ensures voltages up to 500 kV and powers up to 2800 MW
for underground installation. It can be used for both AC and DC transmission appli-
cations. Since oil flow is required along the cable, the cable length is limited to around
80 km. Additionally, the risk of oil leakage must be taken into account for environmental
reasons.
Table 1.1 DC cables types for underground and submarine applications.
Type Mass-impregnated Oil-filled XLPE
Conductor Cu/Al Cu/Al Cu/Al

Insulation Paper and mass Paper and fluid Cross-linked PE
Voltage 600 kV 500 kV 320 kV (525 kV is available)
Capacity per cable 1000 MW 2800 MW 1000 MW
Converter type LCC or VSC LCC or VSC VSC or unidirectional LCC
Distance Unlimited Limited because of oil Unlimited
1.3.4 Extruded Cross-linked Polyethylene Cables

Extruded cross-linked polyethylene cables cannot withstand rapid polarity reversal and
they are not normally used with LCC HVDC (unless it is a unidirectional system). They
will be discussed further with VSC HVDC.
The above three types of cables are used for both underground and submarine
cables and their basic properties are shown in Table 1.1. The difference between the
underground and submarine cables lies in the conductor material and the armour layer.
Armour strengthening is used in submarine cables to withstand the axial mechanical
tension during laying and operation.
Cables with copper conductors are used for submarine applications while aluminium
conductors are generally preferred for underground. Copper has high electrical conduc-
tivity and good mechanical properties. Also, it can be used to implement strong joints.
However it is heavy and more expensive than aluminium, and for these reasons it is used
when its mechanical properties are mandatory, such as in submarine cables. Aluminium
has low conductivity and poorer mechanical properties. Splicing is more difficult. It is
lighter and less expensive compared with copper.
1.4 LCC HVDC Topologies

HVDC systems are divided into transmission systems and back-to-back HVDC. HVDC
transmission can be bipolar or monopolar. A monopolar HVDC is typically used for
smaller systems and the topology is shown in Figure 1.4. Typically positive DC voltage
is adopted because it carries fewer corona issues. The return current can run through the
ground or a dedicated cable can be employed. If a return cable is used (metallic return),
it will be at ground potential with low insulation level (typically around 10 kV) and costs
are therefore lower than for a positive-pole DC cable. A 12-pulse topology is shown with
two six-pulse converters in series.
Figure 1.5 shows a bipolar HVDC. Bipolar HVDC has two independent poles and it
can operate at half-power if one DC cable or pole is out of service. Normally the poles are
balanced and there is no ground current, but ground return is used if one pole is out of
service. In modern grid codes, ground current is not allowed because of environmental
concerns. In some national standards ground currents are allowed only for short periods
1.4 LCC HVDC Topologies 9
Terminal 1 Terminal 2
AC system 1 AC system 2
3 phase V1g, f1 3 phase V2g, f2
I1dc DC cable (p) I2dc
P1g, Q1g ∆Y P2g, Q2g
Y∆
V1dcp
V2dcp
α1 α2
Y Y Y Y
V1g V2g
Figure 1.4 Twelve-pulse monopolar HVDC with ground return.
Terminal 1 Terminal 2
bridge
bridge I1dc DC cable (p) I2dc
Y∆ ∆Y
Positive
pole Positive
V1dcp
bridge V2dcp bridge pole
AC system 1 α1 α2 AC system 2
3 phase V1g, f1 YY YY 3 phase V2g, f2
P1g, Q1g electrodes electrodes P2g, Q2g
bridge bridge
Y∆ ∆Y
Negative V1dcn V2dcn

pole bridge bridge Negative
α1 α2 pole
YY YY
V1g DC cable (n) V2g
Figure 1.5 Bipolar HVDC (12-pulse) with ground return.
of time in emergency situations (e.g. secondary reserve start-up for 10–20 minutes).
Instead of ground return a third cable or DC cable from the faulted pole can be used
occasionally.
Figure 1.6 shows a back-to-back HVDC, which is frequently monopolar. In this topol-
ogy both converter terminals are located in a single station and DC cables are very
short. The main purpose of back-to-back HVDC is to provide controllable power trans-
fer between two asynchronous AC systems or AC systems with different frequencies.
Since DC cables are very short and therefore transmission losses are low, back-to-back
HVDC is designed at low voltage (with as high a current as possible) in order to reduce
costs (costs are proportional to insulation level). The smoothing reactors are very small
or not required, since there is low probability of DC line faults. Back-to-back HVDC
allows for operation with variable DC voltage, and this facilitates some limited reactive
power control capability.
Terminal 1 Terminal 2 AC system 2

AC system 1
3 phase V1g, f1 3 phase V2g, f2
I1dc
P1g, Q1g ∆Y
Y ∆ P2g, Q2g
V1dcp
α1 α2
Y Y Y Y
V1g V2g
Figure 1.6 Back-to-back HVDC topology.
3%
25%
Auxiliaries
Converter valves
AC harmonic filters
Valve cooling plant
56% DC smoothing reactors
HF filter
8% Converter transformer
2%
5%
1%
Figure 1.7 Breakdown of typical LCC HVDC station losses at 1 p.u. power.
1.5 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems

The losses in HVDC systems will include converter station losses and DC cable losses.
Figure 1.7 shows the main components of typical HVDC station losses. The total LCC
HVDC station losses will depend on the size of the HVDC station, the voltage level and
the configuration, and typically may amount to 0.5–1% of the power transfer.
At partial loading the percentage losses will generally increase. Figure 1.8 shows the
load dependence of major loss components. As an example, magnetising current in
converter transformers will be constant irrespective of loading and at 10% loading the
transformer losses are 20%.
1.6 Conversion of AC Lines to DC

There have been many studies worldwide on converting existing AC lines into DC,
mainly initiated by the desire to increase AC line capacity or to remove stability
1.6 Conversion of AC Lines to DC 11
Converter valves AC harmonic Filters DC smoothing reactor Converter transformer
100
90
80
Loss Component (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DC Power (%)
Figure 1.8 Variation of HVDC station losses with DC power, shown relative to 1 p.u. losses.
constraints. These issues usually require costly line upgrades/reconductoring, series

compensation or installation of a device from the FACTS (flexible AC transmission
systems) family. In such case, conversion to HVDC can usually offer the biggest capacity
increase and a range of other benefits. Typically towers and conductors will not be
changed but insulators may need to be upgraded to operate with DC lines.
The main advantages of converting existing AC line to HVDC are:
• an increase in capacity;
• fewer corona issues, and generally higher operating voltages;
• better control of active and reactive power, and other system-level benefits;
• better stability limits and active stabilisation of the grid; and
• lower transmission losses.
Some of the disadvantages of conversion to HVDC include:
• more pollution being attracted to insulators energised with DC – insulator upgrade
is recommended; and
• converter station costs.
Figure 1.9 shows some common options for converting a single-circuit three-phase
AC transmission into DC:
1. The first option employs all three conductors for a single DC pole while ground is
used for return. This method will significantly increase current carrying capacity but
ground return will not be allowed in many modern systems.
2. The second options adopts a DC bipole with metallic return. The neutral conductor
can be used for monopolar operation.
3. The third option is based on a tri-pole HVDC concept. This method uses the third
conductor alternatively as a positive and negative pole, which exploits the long ther-
mal constants of conductors. A capacity increase of around 37% is achieved (over
R S T Figure 1.9 Options for conversion of three-phase

AC AC lines into DC.
+ + +
DC monopole with ground return
+ 0 –
DC bipole with metalic return
+ +/– –
DC tripole with metalic return
bipole configuration) using lines and the RMS values of current in the conductors
(over 10 minutes) are equal to the conductor rating. An additional bidirectional con-
verter is required.
1.7 Ultra High Voltage HVDC

The standard DC voltage for HVDC is 500 kV and the Itaipu 3150 MW, ±600 kV HVDC
has used the highest DC voltage for a long period. However with emerging requirements
for bulk power transmission of 5–10 GW over long distances in Asia, Africa and South
America in the late 1990s resulted in the progressive development of UHVDC (ultra
high voltage DC).
Xiangjiaba–Shanghai 6400 MW, ±800 kV UHVDC, implemented in 2010, was the first
commercial UHVDC, and four other ±800 kV systems were implemented in 2011–2013,
while studies are underway for 1100 kV DC voltages. The progress towards UHVDC has
demanded much research and development effort, and the main challenges are sum-
marised below:
• improvements in insulation, in particular in polluted areas;
• transformer development, including bushings;
• development of ultra high voltage (UHV) test centres.
It is important to appreciate that all of the equipment, including auxiliaries that
connect to DC lines, must be uprated to UHV voltages. In practice this translates to
longer units (bushings, arresters, voltage transducers, current transducers, etc.) with
more series-connected basic elements. Frequently, the main challenge becomes the
mechanical strength in the face of increased forces from seismic requirements, wind
and other factors.
The use of new insulating materials and corona shields becomes standard to increase
insulation levels, although the development of UHV insulators and bushings remains
challenging. The UHV valve design is not considered a significant obstacle.
13
Thyristors
2.1 Operating Characteristics

The thyristor is an essential component in high voltage direct current (HVDC) valves
and it is still one of the most common devices used in power-switching applications in
all industries. This is attributed to their high power ratings and high efficiency. Single
devices have up to 8500 V, 4500 A capability, they are built on single wafers of up to
150 mm diameter, and have been in existence for over 60 years.
The thyristor is a four-layer, three-terminal device, as shown in Figure 2.1. The three
connections are A-anode, K-cathode and G-gate. When gate current is applied, the layer
between J2 and J3 becomes N (negative) and the thyristor becomes a PN device similar
to a diode, also shown in Figure 2.1. Functionally, it is similar to a diode but the start of
conduction can be delayed using the gate circuit.
A thyristor can be considered as a controllable diode, as shown in the operating curves
in Figure 2.2. With no gate current, ig = 0, it behaves like an open circuit (OFF state) in
both forward and reverse directions. A forward voltage across the device (A positive
w.r.t. K) results in junctions J1 and J3 being forward biased, whereas J2 is reverse biased,
and therefore only a small leakage current flows. If V AK is increased to a critical limit,
the device suddenly switches to a conducting state as the result of the breakdown or
breakover of J2. If a gate current ig is applied then the magnitude of V AK needed for
breakover is dramatically reduced and the device behaves like a diode. The level of ig
required is small compared with the main power current. The current I l is the latching
current, which is the anode current required to ensure that the thyristor switches to
the ON state. Once anode current reaches I l the gate current can be removed. The gate
current is therefore a short pulse of 10–50 μs. Theoretically, a gate pulse is required once
per half-cycle, but in practice gate pulses are sent multiple times per half-cycle to ensure
firing under all operating conditions.
Once the device is conducting, ig can be reduced and the device remains in the ON
state. When the device is in conduction, its state is determined solely by the anode
current. If the anode current I A falls below some critical value, the holding current I h
(typically few a milliamps), the device switches off, reverting to the blocking OFF state.
If a reverse voltage is applied across the device (negative V AK ), J1 and J3 become
reverse biased, only J2 is forward biased and therefore only a small leakage current flows.
If negative V AK is increased sufficiently, then eventually avalanche breakdown occurs
across J1 and J3, resulting in damage to the device unless steps are taken to limit the

14 2 Thyristors
A (Anode) A (Anode) A Figure 2.1 Structure and symbol for thyristor

A and diode.
P
P J1 G
N
N J2
G (Gate)
P K
J3
K
N
K (Cathode)
K (Cathode)
(a) Diode (b) Thyristor
I (A) I (A) Forward

Forward voltage drop
breakdown voltage
Forward
conduction
Reverse Values of Vak when
Reverse
breakdown voltage Ih Ig switched in
breakdown voltage Forward
Reverse Reverse
blocking Il
leakage current leakage current
0 Vak (V) 0 Ig1 Ig2 Ig3 Vak (V)

Reverse
blocking Ig1<Ig2<Ig3
Reverse
blocking
Thyristor in off state Thyristor in on state
Figure 2.2 Thyristor operating curves.
current. The reverse breakdown may not be destructive. The forward and reverse block-
ing capabilities are similar for a given thyristor and they have good temperature stability
for typical operating temperatures below 125 ∘ C. However forward blocking capabil-
ity deteriorates very rapidly with temperatures above 125 ∘ C. Figure 2.3 illustrates the
design of high-power press-pack thyristors.
2.2 Switching Characteristics

A typical switching characteristic for an operating cycle of a thyristor is shown in
Figure 2.4. The top graph shows the gating circuit current and the bottom graph shows
the anode current and V AK voltage. If a device is forward biased (V AK positive) and a
gate current pulse is applied, the device switches on. Once the thyristor is in conduction,
the gate has no control over the device. The device conducts even if the gate pulse is
now turned off. There is a delay whilst the device switches on, which is termed the on
time, t on . During the time t on , which is on the order of few microseconds, the voltage
across the thyristor reduces and the current increases. The rate of the current rise at the
turn on should be limited (to around 100 A μs−1 ), in order to allow current spreading
across the entire PN junction surface. If the current rise is too fast, the thyristor can
be destroyed because of local thermal melting. For a large thyristor it may take around
Figure 2.3 High-power thyristors of press-pack design. Source: Printed with permisison from ABB.
Gate current
20–200 mA
10–50 µs
IAK
Anode-Cathode
Current/Voltage
dIAK/dt Thyristor conduction dVAK/dt

(<100 A/µs) (<1000 V/µs)
Thyristor turn on Thyristor turn off

Tq (>10–1000 µs)
VAK 0.5–2.5 V
Ton (<10 µs) IRM<500 A
VAK
Figure 2.4 Thyristor switching characteristic.
1 ms for the current to spread across the whole surface area, during which interval the
conduction loss is high.
In the conduction state, typical voltage drop across a large thyristor is 1.5–2.5 V. The
device turns off when the anode current reduces to zero, which is driven by the external
circuit in which the thyristor is connected. There are two possible turn-off conditions:
• The current can fall to zero naturally, as would be the case in some resonant con-
verters or with pulse power applications. The current can also naturally fall to zero
16 2 Thyristors
in discontinuous converter mode, as for example in the case of HVDC converter

operation with very low DC. Thyristor turn-off during a normal conduction interval
is undesirable and this is prevented by sending repeated gate pulses.
• The thyristor current can fall to zero if another thyristor in the converter is fired and
consequently the load current commutates to the other thyristor. This is common
commutation with HVDC converters.
On turning off, a thyristor is reverse biased in the converter circuit and it can immedi-
ately withstand full reverse blocking voltage. However, the thyristor cannot immediately
withstand forward blocking voltage. After the current falls to zero it is necessary to keep
the device reverse biased for a short period of time in order to allow full recombination
of charge carriers on the PN junction. After this period, the thyristor is able to gain for-
ward blocking capability, as required in the next cycle. The minimum reverse bias time
after the current falls to zero is called the extinction time, t q . The extinction time is typi-
cally 10–50 μs for small thyristors but for those used with HVDC it is 300–1000 μs. If this
condition is violated (a forward voltage is re-applied immediately after I A goes to zero),
the device will switch to the ON state even without a gate pulse. This unwanted turn-on
can be destructive for a thyristor. A special firing logic will normally intentionally fire
thyristors if such conditions are detected.
The rate of forward blocking voltage increase should also be limited (typically
to around 1000 V μs−1 ) to prevent unwanted triggering. The PN junction behaves
as a capacitor and therefore a sufficiently large dv/dt will generate anode current
(i = C[dv/dt]), which can cause latching.
Figure 2.5 illustrates thyristor operation in the simplest AC/DC converter with an
inductive-resistive load. In this single phase, a half-wave converter thyristor can be fired
only in positive half-cycles, giving a crude DC voltage consisting of positive and nega-
tive segments. The operation with a firing angle of around 40∘ is shown in this figure. It
should be observed that current lags voltage and therefore thyristor conducts for peri-
ods while it is forward biased but also for some interval while it is reverse biased. The
thyristor is turned off when anode current naturally falls to zero.
200
Vs
0
IL –200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
1
L
load gate 0.5
gate
R 0
AC VL 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Vs 1
IL 0
–1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
200
VL 0
–200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
Figure 2.5 Thyristor in a single-phase half-wave converter. Firing angle is 40∘ .

200
Vs 0
–200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
IL 1
0.5
load gate
gate 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
R 5
AC Vs VL IL 0
–5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
200
VL 0
–200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time [s]
Figure 2.6 Thyristor in a single-phase half-wave converter with resistive load in Example 2.1.
Example 2.1 Study a single-phase half-wave rectifier, with circuit as in Figure 2.5, and
with same V s = 120 V, f s = 50 Hz, but assume purely resistive load R = 50 Ω. Assume that
the firing angle is 80∘ . Sketch the load voltage and compare it with Figure 2.5. Explain if
such circuit would be feasible in practice. Calculate the value of required snubber Ls .
Solution
Figure 2.6 shows the circuit and the waveforms. It is seen that the load current is in phase
with the voltage and the load voltage has no negative segments.
The problem with this circuit is that the current derivative at turn-on is very high,
particularly at high firing angles. This high di/dt might destroy the thyristor. Therefore
a di/dt protective snubber would be needed.
In order to calculate Ls the current equation is studied:
Vs
iL (t) = (1 − eR∕Ls t )
R
Assuming that the supply voltage is constant for the duration of switching transient,
and considering the worst case peak voltage, and therefore V s = 169 V, the current
derivative is
Vs R R∕L t
diL ∕dt = e s,
R Ls
and the initial current derivative for t = 0 is

Vs
diL ∕dt(t = 0) =
Ls
Therefore to limit the current derivative to diL /dt = 100 A μs−1 , an inductor of at least
Ls > 1.69 μH is needed.
18 2 Thyristors
Figure 2.7 Typical on-state characteristic for a

high-power thyristor.
iT (A) T = 25°C
T = 125°C
vT = VT0 + RoniT
VT0 = (1.0–1.5)V
Ron = (0.5–2) mΩ
0 VT0 VT (V)
2.3 Losses in HVDC Thyristors

The losses in a semiconductor component occur as a product of the current through the
device and the voltage across device. The losses are dissipated as heat and in the case
of large HVDC converters the total requirement for heat removal can be significant,
approaching several MW. HVDC converters typically use special liquid cooling systems
which have an impact on losses, costs and system reliability.
The main losses in an HVDC converter thyristors include:
• conduction losses;
• turn-off losses;
• snubber losses;
• reverse leakage current loss;
• forward leakage current loss; and
• gate driver loss.
The principal loss components in HVDC converters include conduction and turn-off
losses. Figure 2.7 shows the shape of ON-state curves for a thyristor. The voltage across
the thyristor can be expressed as:
vT = VT0 + Ron iT (2.1)
where V T0 is the threshold voltage (at zero current), which is typically 1 < V T0 < 1.5 V
depending on thyristor voltage rating, Ron is the ON-state resistance, which is typically
0.5 < Ron < 2 mΩ, depending on current rating and iT is the anode instantaneous current.
The ON-state loss power can be determined by integrating the product of current and
voltage:
T T
1 1
Pcon = v i = (VT0 iT dt + Ron i2T dt) = VT0 ITM + Ron I2T (2.2)
T ∫0 T T T ∫0
where T is the period, I TM is the average thyristor current which can be determined
integrating instantaneous current or using the duty ratio 𝛿 (i.e. conducting period as
percentage of full cycle) and IT is the RMS value of thyristor current. In a six-pulse
bridge each thyristor conducts for 120∘ and therefore 𝛿 = 0.33.
A typical turning-off curve of a thyristor is shown in Figure 2.8. The current ‘over-
shoots’ to a small negative value to recover charge in the PN junctions, and the element
switches off after a short period of time. The peak reverse current I RM depends on
the current falling derivative (diT /dt) and the peak conducting current I TRM . There are
2.3 Losses in HVDC Thyristors 19
Figure 2.8 Thyristor turning OFF.

ITRM (peak current
before turn off)
diT/dt
Reverse recovery
charge
0 QRR t (s)
IRM vT
detailed methods to calculate the reverse recovery loss, but simplest method is to use
the reverse recovery charge QRR or turn-off energy loss Eoff , which are supplied in the
thyristor manufacturer data sheets. The reverse recovery loss power is:
toff
Poff = iT vt dt
∫0
Poff = Eoff fs (2.3)
where f s is the thyristor switching frequency.
Example 2.2 A six-pulse, 2000 A, 500 kV HVDC converter employs thyristors with
the characteristics shown in Figure 2.9. These thyristors have 6500 V and 2800 A rating
and 170 devices are used in each valve. The blocking voltage across each thyristor is
therefore 2941 V. Assume that the series inductor is designed to limit di/dt to 10 A μs−1 .
The converter operates in a typical six-pulse pattern with 120∘ conducting intervals.
Calculate the total losses in this converter.
Solution
From Figure 2.9, V T0 = 1 V, Ron = (1.7 − 1)/2000 = 0.00035 Ω, Eon = 2.2 W s/pulse,
Eoff = 43 W s/pulse.
The total ON-state loss is:
Pcon = 2n3(VT0 ITM + Ron I2T ) =
( )2
⎛ ⎞
2000 2000
Pcon = 2 × 170 × 3 ⎜1 × + 0.00035 × √ ⎟ = 1.144 MW
⎜ 3 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The turn ON loss is:
Pon = Eon fs = 6 × 170 × 2.2 × 50 = 0.112 MW
The turn OFF loss is:
Poff = Eoff fs = 6 × 170 × 43 × 50 = 2.19 MW
The total percentage loss is
Pcon + Pon + Poff (1.144 + 0.112 + 2.19) × 106
Ploss% = = × 100 = 0.34%
Idc × Vdc 2000 × 500,000
20 2 Thyristors
5
dl/dt = 10 A/μs
Tj = 125°
Idc Ldc 4
dl/dt = 5 A/μs
Eon (Ws/pulse)
T1 T3 T5
3
Ia
Ib Vdc
Va Ic 2
Vb dl/dt = 2 A/μs
Vc T4 T6 T2 dl/dt = 1 A/μs
1
0
5000 1 2 4 6 8 10
ITRM (kA)
Tc = 25° — Tc =1 25°
4000 50
μs
Tj = 125° A/
10
t=
current (A)
3000 40
/d
dl
Eoff (Ws/pulse)
/μs
2000 30
= 5A
dt
dl/
1000 20
/μs
=2A
0 dl/dt
10 /μs
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 =1A
dl/dt
Anode cathode voltage (V)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
V0 (kV)
Figure 2.9 Test thyristor ON-state and turn ON/OFF energy curves.
2.4 Valve Structure and Thyristor Snubbers

Figure 2.10 shows the converter valve structure, which may include hundreds of indi-
vidual thyristor assemblies, grouped in a number of valve racks. Figure 2.11 illustrates
design of a thyristor valve rack, while Figure 2.12 shows valve racks forming six valves
that are suspended from ceiling in a valve hall. The thyristor assembly includes a thyris-
tor, driver, passive protection circuits and monitoring electronics. Three protections are
shown in the figure: Ls for di/dt protection; RC for dv/dt and overvoltage protection;
and Rdc grading resistor for balancing voltages across switches in a valve.
When a gate pulse is sent the thyristor starts conducting initially in the PN region
around the gate connection and the conducting area gradually spreads. If the current
gradient is too large, the initial area around the gate will be overheated before current
spreads across the full thyristor surface, and the thyristor may be destroyed. In order to
limit di/dt, a small inductor is used in series with thyristor, as shown by Ls .
The device is also susceptible to large rates of change of voltage. Too great a dv/dt can
result in the device turning on without a gate pulse, which can be destructive. The dv/dt
2.4 Valve Structure and Thyristor Snubbers 21
Valve level
Thyristor
driver
Thyristor level
Ls for dl/dt protection
Rdc grading
Cs resistor
Thyristor
driver Rs Rdc
Cs, Rs for dV/dt and

overvoltage protection
Valve
Thyristor
driver
Figure 2.10 Thyristor valve structure and protection for dv/dt and di/dt.
Figure 2.11 Thyristor valve rack assembly. Source: Reproduced with permission of Siemens.
22 2 Thyristors
Figure 2.12 Thyristor valve hall at Yunnan–Guangdong HVDC station. Source: Reproduced with
permission of Siemens.
applied to the device can be limited using a parallel snubber circuit comprising an RC
combination in series. The same snubber also limits the magnitude of reverse voltage at
the turn-off instant. A capacitor is sufficient to limit the voltage but this capacitor dis-
charges through thyristor at the next turn-on. A series resistor Rs is therefore employed
to limit the capacitor discharge current at the next turn-on. This resistor causes losses,
but overall the RC snubber reduces losses in the switch, and therefore transfers losses
from the switch to the snubber resistor.
An HVDC valve may consist of hundreds of individual thyristors connected in series,
which should ideally be all stressed to the same voltage during all operating condi-
tions. A small difference in thyristor on-state resistance or switching speed will cause
voltage unbalance across the string of series switches. The thyristor with the slowest
switching-on speed will be subjected to overvoltage and may be destroyed. The grading
resistors are used to help equalise voltage sharing between the thyristors in a valve.
2.5 Thyristor Rating Selection and Overload Capability

The thyristor current rating is commonly specified as the average ON-state current I TM .
The current rating is influenced by the junction temperature and therefore it is depen-
dent on the thermal management. Normally the rating is optimised and there will be no
overload capability unless this is considered in the design stage. If the thyristor temper-
ature exceeds rated values, the forward blocking capability reduces rapidly, which can
lead to unwanted triggering, excessive currents and thermal runaway.
Thyristor manufacturers also specify in their datasheets the peak non-repetitive surge
current I TSM , which is typically around 10 times the rated current. This current peak is
specified on a 10 ms half-sine pulse at a rated temperature; however it is non-repetitive.
The temperature of the junction will significantly rise during such a high pulse and
2.5 Thyristor Rating Selection and Overload Capability 23
the thyristor will not be able to withstand further blocking voltage. On detection of
overcurrent, the protection system will block the thyristor driver for a period of time
until the temperature is sufficiently reduced to resume normal operation. The manu-
facturers also specify limits to the load integral I 2 t, which can be used to calculate a
non-repetitive peak pulse for a different duration.
The thyristor voltage rating is specified as the maximum repetitive peak forward volt-
age VDRM and the maximum repetitive peak reverse voltage VRRM. Large thyristors
are typically manufactured as symmetrical components and therefore these two val-
ues are identical. Note that the thyristor will be destroyed if the VDRM or VRRM are
exceeded even for a short time. Because of voltage variations during normal operation
and the presence of harmonics, a typical operating voltage stress for a thyristor will be
selected at around 50% of the maximum repetitive forward/reverse voltage.
25
Six-pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter
3.1 Three-phase Uncontrolled Bridge

A three-phase full bridge (Graetz bridge) diode converter is shown in Figure 3.1. This
is the simplest three-phase topology illustrating three-phase AC/DC conversion. This
converter operates in the same way as a thyristor converter with zero delay angle.
The AC system is assumed to be symmetrical and balanced and the voltages are
defined as:
va = V cos(𝜔t)
( )
2
vb = V cos 𝜔t − 𝜋
( 3 )
2
vc = V cos 𝜔t + 𝜋 (3.1)
3
where V is the line-neutral peak magnitude voltage. Note that the three switches are
connected to the positive DC pole and the remaining three switches to the negative
pole where the label numbers correspond to the sequence of conduction. The diodes will
start conducting when the anode voltage is higher than the cathode voltage. Therefore,
diodes conduct when the respective phase voltages are at their highest value, as shown
in Figure 3.2, for a test system consisting of a diode converter between an AC system
V LL = 410 kV and a DC source of 500 kV. Each diode conducts for one-third of a cycle
(120∘ ). At any time one diode on the positive and one on the negative rail conducts.
The DC side inductor ensures that the DC current stays approximately constant for
one pulse, and therefore the DC current commutates from one switch to another every
60 electrical degrees. The commutation occurs every 120∘ on the positive and negative
rails; however, current commutation instants on the negative rail are lagging by 60∘ .
The diode bridge average DC voltage can be calculated by averaging the surface below
the V dc curve:
−𝜋∕2+𝜋∕6+2𝜋∕3
3
Vdc0 = 2 V cos 𝜔t d(𝜔t) (3.2)
2𝜋 ∫−𝜋∕2+𝜋∕6
√ √ √
3 3 3 6 3 2
Vdc0 = V = V= VLL (3.3)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
26 3 Six-pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter
ldc Ldc Figure 3.1 Diode six-pulse AC/DC

converter.
D1 D3 D5
ia
ib Vdc
Va ic
Vb
Vc
D4 D6 D2
× 105
5 Va Vb Vc
Va, Vb, Vc 0
–5
1000
D1 ia D3 ib D5 ic
ia, ib, ic 0
D2 D4 D6
–1000
1000
ia 120° ia ldc
0
ldc
–1000
1000
ib ldc ib
0
ldc
–1000
1000
ldc ic
ic 0
ldc
–1000
× 105 60°
Vdc 5.5
5 Vdc0
4.5
1100
ldc ldc
1050
1000
0.14 0.145 0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18
Time [s]
Figure 3.2 Three-phase diode bridge plots.
where V is the line-neutral RMS voltage and V LL is the line–line RMS voltage. The
above DC voltage V dc0 is called the ideal no-load voltage. It corresponds to the volt-
age of a thyristor rectifier with zero firing angle. This is also maximum DC voltage that
a six-pulse thyristor converter can achieve.
The AC current in each phase consists of 120∘ long squares per each half-cycle. The
peak magnitude of the fundamental component of AC current is obtained using a
3.2 Three-phase Thyristor Rectifier 27
Fourier series:
−𝜋∕2+𝜋∕6+2𝜋∕3
1
I=2 Idc cos(𝜔t)d(𝜔t)
𝜋 ∫−𝜋∕2+𝜋∕6
√
3
I=2 I (3.4)
𝜋 dc
The RMS value of the fundamental component of AC current is from (3.4):
√
6
I= I (3.5)
𝜋 dc
3.2 Three-phase Thyristor Rectifier

This section studies three-phase bridge topology as in the previous section, but the
thyristor delay angle is considered and a commutation overlap (resulting from trans-
former inductance) is included. Figure 3.3 shows the converter topology.
Figure 3.4 shows the voltage and current waveforms, assuming similar parameters as
in Figure 3.2 but thyristors are employed and the converter is interfaced using Lt = 0.1 H.
The operation is similar to that in Figure 3.2; however, a firing delay angle 𝛼 is introduced.
The delay angle is measured from the instant of positive thyristor forward voltage (inter-
section of two phase voltages), which corresponds to 30∘ on phase a voltage.
The figure also shows the commutation overlap 𝜇, resulting in a DC voltage dip each
time the commutation occurs. Initially neglecting the commutation overlap, the average
DC voltage can be obtained considering the surface below the DC voltage curve:
−𝜋∕2+𝜋∕6+𝛼+2𝜋∕3
3
Vdc = 2 V cos 𝜔t d(𝜔t) (3.6)
2𝜋 ∫−𝜋∕2+𝜋∕6+𝛼
√ √ √
3 3 3 6 3 2
Vdc = V cos 𝛼 = V cos 𝛼 = VLL cos 𝛼 (3.7)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The above DC voltage is also expressed as:
Vdc = Vdc0 cos 𝛼 (3.8)
where V dc0 is the diode bridge ideal DC voltage defined in (3.3). This formula illustrates
that the converter DC voltage is controllable through the firing delay angle, but the con-
trol gain is non-linear.
Figure 3.3 Thyristor six-pulse AC/DC ldc

converter with a transformer.
T1 T3 T5
ia
ib
Vdc
Va ic
Vb
Lt
Vc T4 T6 T2
28 3 Six-pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter
× 105
5 Vb Vc
Va, Vb, Vc Va
0
–5 δ Ia Ib Ic
1000
ia, ib, ic 0 α T1 T3 T5
μ T2 T4 T6
–1000
1000 ia
120° ldc
ia 0 ldc
–1000
1000 ib
ldc
ib 0 ldc
–1000
1000
ldc ic
ic 0
ldc
–1000
× 105 60°
μ Vdc
5
Vdc 4
3
900 ldc
ldc
800
0.14 0.145 0.15 0.155 0.16 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18
Time [s]
Figure 3.4 Thyristor six-pulse AC/DC converter with transformer (Lt = 0.1 H) and ignition delay
(𝛼 = 30).
3.3 Analysis of Commutation Overlap in a Thyristor

Converter
The commutation overlap occurs in the presence of an inductance on the AC side of
the thyristor converters. Typically transformer inductance is present with high voltage
direct current (HVDC) converters and the value of this inductance can be quite large,
commonly on the order of 0.1–0.2 p.u. This inductance prevents instantaneous DC cur-
rent commutation from one switch to another. The result is a commutating overlap,
causing DC voltage dip, as seen in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.5 shows the electrical circuit for commutation from valve T 1 to T 3 , assuming
that T 3 has received a gate signal while T 1 is conducting. During the commutation over-
lap, which lasts for the period 𝛼 < 𝜔t < 𝛿, three valves conduct simultaneously. The DC
current is assumed to be constant. The outgoing current in phase a (and valve T 1 ) gradu-
ally reduces, whereas the current in phase B (and valve T 3 ) gradually increases, as shown
in the time-domain converter variables during the commutation process in Figure 3.6.
Table 3.1 shows how the main variables evolve during the commutation process. Note
that the converter voltage (V g_LL ) is measured on the grid side of the transformer and it
is appropriately scaled for the transformer ratio.
The commutation can only happen between points A and B, while V b > V a . In rectifi-
cation mode, commutation happens close to point A, whereas in inversion the converter
3.3 Analysis of Commutation Overlap in a Thyristor Converter 29
Figure 3.5 Converter equivalent circuit ldc

during commutation.
T1 T3
Vdcp
Lt ia
Lt ib Vdc
Va Vdcn
Lt ic
Vb
Vc T2
× 105
5
Vb Vdcp
Va, Vb, Vc A ΔVdc
Vc
0 (Va + Vb)/2
Va B
Commutation from T1 to T3 Vdcn Commutation from T3 to T5

–5
1000 lb
Idc
500
T1 T3 T5
la, lb, lc la
0
α μ
Idc
–500 δ
T2 lc T4
–1000
× 105
5.5
5 ΔVdc
Vdc 4.5
4
3.5
3
0.148 0.15 0.152 0.154 0.156 0.158
Time [s]
α - Firing delay angle (start of commutation)
δ - Extinction angle (end of commutation)
μ - Commutation overlap angle
ΔVdc - DC Voltage drop because of commutation overlap
Figure 3.6 Commutation from valve T 1 to T 3 (phase A to phase B) in rectification mode.
is operated with large firing angles, close to point B. This section considers rectifica-
tion only.
With reference to the circuit in Figure 3.5, the Kirchhoff voltage equation along the
commutation loop (𝛼 < 𝜔t < 𝛿) is:
dia di
va − vb = Lt − Lt b (3.9)
dt dt
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or there, or that when a man dies he is born again in another body,
either in heaven or in another world, or somewhere. These are all
hallucinations. Nobody is ever born or dies, really speaking. There is
neither heaven nor hell, nor this world; all three never really existed.
Tell a child a lot of ghost stories, and let him go out into the street in
the evening. There is a little stump of a tree. What does the child
see? A ghost, with hands stretched out, ready to grab him. Suppose
a man comes from the corner of the street, wanting to meet his
sweetheart; he sees that stump of the tree as the girl. A police-man
coming from the street corner sees the stump as a thief. The thief
sees it as a police-man. It is the same stump of a tree that was seen
in various ways. The stump is the reality, and the visions of the
stump are the projections of the various minds. There is one Being,
this Self; It neither comes nor goes. When a man is ignorant, he
wants to go to heaven or some place, and all his life he has been
thinking and thinking of this, and when this earth dream vanishes he
sees this world as a heaven, with devas and angels flying about, and
all such things. If a man all his life desires to meet his forefathers he
gets them all, from Adam downwards, because he creates them. If a
man is still more ignorant and has always been frightened by
fanatics with ideas of hell, when he dies he will see this very world as
hell, with all sorts of punishments. All that is meant by dying or being
born is simply changes in the plane of vision. Neither do you move,
nor does that move upon which you project your vision. You are the
permanent, the unchangeable. How can you go and come? It is
impossible; you are omnipresent. The sky never moves, but the
clouds move over the surface of the sky, and we may think that the
sky itself moves. Just as you go into a railway train, and you think
the land is moving. It is not so, but it is the train which is moving. You
are where you are; this dream, these various clouds move. One
dream follows another without connection. There is no such thing as
law or connection in this world, but we are thinking that there is a
great deal of connection. All of you have probably read “Alice in
Wonderland.” It is the most wonderful book for children written in this
century. When I read it I was delighted, it was always in my head to
write that sort of a book for children. What pleased me most in it was
what you think most incongruous, that there is no connection there.
One idea comes and jumps into another, without any connection.
When you were children you thought that the most wonderful
connection. So this man brought back his thoughts of childhood,
perfectly connected to him as a child, and composed this book for
children. And all these books which men write, trying to make
children swallow their own ideas as men are nonsense. We too are
grown up children, that is all. The world is the same unconnected
thing,—“Alice in Wonderland,”—with no connection whatever. When
we see things happen a number of times in a certain sequence, we
call it cause and effect, and say that the thing will happen again.
When this dream changes another dream will seem quite as
connected as this. When we dream, the things we see all seem to be
connected; during the dream we never think they are incongruous; it
is only when we wake that we see the want of connection. When we
wake from this dream of the world and compare it with the Reality, it
will be found all incongruous nonsense, a mass of incongruity
passing before us, we do not know whence or whither, but we know
it will end; and this is called Mâyâ, and is like masses of fleeting,
fleecy clouds. They represent all this changing existence, and the
sun itself, the unchanging, is you. When you look at that unchanging
Existence from the outside, you call it God, and when you look at it
from the inside you call it yourself. It is but one. There is no God
separate from you, no God higher than you, the real “you.” All the
gods are little beings to you, all the ideas of God and Father in
heaven are but your reflection. God Himself is your image. “God
created man after His own image.” That is wrong. Man creates God
after his own image. That is right. Throughout the universe we are
creating gods after our own image. We create the god, and fall down
at his feet and worship; and when this dream comes, we love it!
This is a good point to understand,—that the sum and substance of
this morning’s lecture is that there is but One Existence, and that
One Existence seen through different constitutions appears either as
the earth, or heaven, or hell, or God, or ghosts, or men or demons,
or world, or all these things. But among these many “He who sees
that One in this ocean of death, he who sees that One Life in this
floating universe, who realizes that One who never changes, unto
him belongs eternal peace; unto none else, unto none else.” This
One Existence has to be realized. How, is the next question. How is
it to be realized? How is this dream to be broken, how shall we wake
up from this dream that we are little men and women, and all such
things? We are the Infinite Being of the universe, and have become
materialized into these little beings, men and women, depending
upon the sweet word of one man, or the angry word of another man
and so forth. What a terrible dependence, what a terrible slavery! I
who am beyond all pleasure and pain, whose reflection is the whole
universe, little bits of whose life are the suns and moons and stars,—
I am held down as a terrible slave. If you pinch my body I feel pain. If
one says a kind word I begin to rejoice. See my condition,—slave of
the body, slave of the mind, slave of the world, slave of a good word,
slave of a bad word, slave of passion, slave of happiness, slave of
life, slave of death, slave of everything. This slavery has to be
broken. How? “This Âtman has first to be heard, then reasoned upon
and then meditated upon.” This is the method of the Advaita Jnâni.
The truth has to be heard, then reflected upon and then to be
constantly asserted. Think always—“I am Brahman”; every other
thought must be cast aside as weakening. Cast aside every thought
that says that you are men or women. Let body go, and mind go, and
gods go, and ghosts go. Let everything go but that One Existence.
“Where one hears another, where one sees another, that is but
small; where one does not hear another, where one does not see
another, that is infinite.” That is the highest, when the subject and the
object become one. When I am the listener and I am the speaker,
when I am the teacher and I am the taught, when I am the creator
and I am the created,—then alone fear ceases; there is not another
to make us afraid. There is nothing but myself, what can frighten
me? This is to be heard day after day. Get rid of all other thoughts.
Everything else must be thrown aside, and this is to be repeated
continually, poured through the ears until it reaches the heart, until
every nerve and muscle, every drop of blood tingles with the idea
that I am He, I am He. Even at the gate of death say “I am He.”
There was a man in India, a Sannyâsin, who used to repeat
“Shivoham” (“I am Bliss Eternal”), and a tiger jumped on him one day
and dragged him away and killed him, and as long as he was living
the sound came “Shivoham, Shivoham.” Even at the gate of death,
in the greatest danger, in the thick of the battle-field, at the bottom of
the ocean, on the tops of the highest mountains, in the thickest of the
forest, tell yourself “I am He, I am He.” Day and night say “I am He.”
It is the greatest strength; it is religion. “The weak will never reach
the Âtman.” Never say: “O Lord, I am a miserable sinner.” Who shall
help you? You are the help of the universe. What in this universe can
help you? Where is the man, or the god, or the demon to help you?
What can prevail over you? You are the god of the universe; where
can you seek for help? Never help came from anywhere but from
yourself. In your ignorance, every prayer that you made and that was
answered, you thought was answered by some Being, but you
answered the prayer yourself, unknowingly. The help came from
yourself, and you fondly imagined that some one was sending help
to you. There is no help for you outside of yourself; you are the
creator of the universe. Like the silkworm you have built a cocoon
around yourself. Who will save you? Cut your own cocoon and come
out as the beautiful butterfly, as the free soul. Then alone you will
see Truth. Ever tell yourself “I am He.” These are words that will burn
up the dross that is in the mind, words that will bring out the
tremendous energy which is within you already, the infinite power
which is sleeping in your heart. This is to be brought out by
constantly hearing the truth and nothing else. Wherever there is
thought of weakness, approach not the place. Avoid all weakness if
you want to be Jnâni.
Before you begin to practise, clear your mind of all doubts. Fight and
reason and argue, and when you have established it in your mind
that this and this alone can be the truth and nothing else, do not
argue any more; close your mouth. Hear not argumentation, neither
argue yourself. What is the use of any more arguments? You have
satisfied yourself, you have decided the question. What remains?
The truth has now to be realized, therefore why waste valuable time
in vain arguments? The truth has now to be meditated upon and
every idea that strengthens you must be taken up and every thought
that weakens you must be rejected. The Bhakta meditates upon
forms and images and all such things and upon God. This is the
natural process, but a slower one. The Yogi meditates upon various
centres in his body and manipulates powers in his mind. The Jnâni
says the mind does not exist, neither the body. This idea of the body
and of the mind must go, must be driven off; therefore it is foolish to
think of them. It would be like trying to cure one ailment by bringing
in another. His meditation therefore is the most difficult one, the
negative; he denies everything, and what is left is the Self. This is
the most analytical way. The Jnâni wants to tear away the universe
from the Self by the sheer force of analysis. It is very easy to say, “I
am a Jnâni,” but very hard to really be one. “The way is long; it is, as
it were, walking on the sharp edge of a razor, yet despair not. Awake,
arise, and stop not until the goal is reached,” say the Vedas.
So what is the meditation of the Jnâni? He wants to rise above every
idea of body or mind, to drive away the idea that he is the body. For
instance, when I say “I, Swâmi,” immediately the idea of the body
comes. What must I do then? I must give the mind a hard blow and
say, “No, I am not the body, I am the Self.” Who cares if disease
comes or death in the most horrible form? I am not the body. Why
make the body nice? To enjoy the illusion once more? To continue
the slavery? Let it go, I am not the body. That is the way of the Jnâni.
The Bhakta says: “The Lord has given me this body that I may safely
cross the ocean of life and I must cherish it until the journey is
accomplished.” The Yogi says: “I must be careful of the body so that
I may go on steadily and finally attain liberation.” The Jnâni feels that
he cannot wait, he must reach the goal this very moment. He says: “I
am free through eternity, I am never bound; I am the God of the
universe through all eternity. Who shall make me perfect? I am
perfect already.” When a man is perfect he sees perfection in others.
When he sees imperfection, it is his own mind projecting itself. How
can he see imperfection if he has not got it in himself? So the Jnâni
does not care for perfection or imperfection. None exists for him. As
soon as he is free, he does not see good and evil. Who sees evil and
good? He who has it in himself. Who sees the body? He who thinks
he is the body. The moment you get rid of the idea that you are the
body, you do not see the world at all. It vanishes forever. The Jnâni
seeks to tear himself away from this bondage of matter by the force
of intellectual conviction. This is the negative way,—the “neti, neti”
(“not this, not this”).
VI
UNITY OF THE SELF
To illustrate the conclusion arrived at in our last lesson, I will read to
you from one of the Upanishads, showing how these ideas were
taught in India from the most ancient times.
Yajnavalkya was a great sage. You know the rule in India was that
every man must give up the world when he became old. So
Yajnavalkya said to his wife: “My beloved, here is all my money and
my possessions, and I am going away.” She replied: “Sir, if I had this
whole earth full of wealth would that give me immortality?”
Yajnavalkya said: “No, that cannot be. Your life will be that of the
rich, and that will be all, but wealth cannot give you immortality.” She
replied: “That through which I shall become immortal, what shall I do
to gain that? If you know that, tell me.” Yajnavalkya replied: “You
have always been my beloved; you are more beloved now by this
question. Come, take your seat, and I will tell you, and when you
have heard, meditate upon it.” He continued: “It is not for the sake of
the husband that the wife loves the husband, but for the sake of the
Âtman (the Self) that she loves the husband, because she loves the
Self. None loves the wife for the sake of the wife, but it is because he
loves the Self that he loves the wife. None loves the children for the
sake of the children, but because he loves the Self, therefore he
loves the children. None loves wealth on account of the wealth, but
because he loves the Self, therefore he loves wealth. None loves the
Brahmin for the sake of the Brahmin, but because he loves the Self,
he loves the Brahmin. So none loves the Kshatriya for the sake of
the Kshatriya, but because he loves the Self. Neither does anyone
love the world on account of the world, but because he loves the
Self. None similarly loves the gods on account of the gods, but
because he loves the Self. None loves anything for that thing’s sake,
but it is for the Self of that thing that he loves it. This Self therefore, is
to be heard, is to be reasoned, and is to be meditated upon. Oh my
Maitreyi, when that Self has been heard, when that Self has been
seen, when that Self has been realized, then all these things become
known.”
What does this mean? Before us we find a curious philosophy. That
the Self shines through all these various things which we call the
world. The statement has been made that every love is selfishness
in the lowest sense of the word; because I love myself, therefore I
love another; it cannot be. There have been philosophers in modern
times who have said that self is the only motive power in the world.
That is true, and yet it is wrong. This self is but the shadow of that
real Self which is behind. It appears wrong and evil because it is
limited. That very love we have for the Self, which is the universe,
appears to be evil, because it is seen through limitation. Even when
a wife loves a husband, whether she knows it or not, she loves the
husband for that Self. It is selfishness as it is manifested in the world,
but that selfishness is really but a small part of that “Self-ness.”
Whenever one loves, one has to love in and through the Self.
This Self has to be known. Those that love the Self without knowing
what It is, their love is selfishness. Those that love knowing what that
Self is, their love is free, they are sages. None loves the Brahmin for
the Brahmin, but because he loves the Self, which is appearing
through the Brahmin. “Him the Brahmin gives up who sees the
Brahmin as separate from the Self. Him the Kshatriya gives up who
sees the Kshatriya as separate from the Self. The world gives him up
who sees this world as separate from the Self. The gods give him up
who believes the gods to be separate from the Self. All things give
him up who knows them as separate from the Self. These Brahmins,
these Kshatriyas, this world, these gods, whatever exists, everything
is that Self.” Thus Yajnavalkya explains what he means by that love.
The difficulty comes when we particularize this love. Suppose I love
a woman; as soon as that woman is particularized, is separated,
from that Âtman (the Self), my love will not be eternal; it has become
selfish and is likely to end in grief, but as soon as I see that woman
as the Âtman, that Love becomes perfect, and will never suffer. So,
as soon as you are attached to anything in the universe detaching it
from the universe as a whole—from the Âtman—then comes a
reaction. With everything that we love outside the Self, grief and
misery will be the result. If we enjoy everything in the Self, and as
the Self, no misery or reaction will come. This is perfect bliss.
How to come to this ideal? Yajnavalkya goes on to tell us the
process by which to reach that state. The universe is infinite; how
can we take every particular thing and look at it as the Âtman,
without knowing the Âtman? “With a drum, when we are at a
distance, we cannot conquer the sound by trying to control the sound
waves, but as soon as we come to the drum, and put our hand on it,
the sound is conquered. When the conch shell is being blown, we
cannot conquer the sound, until we come near and get hold of the
shell, and then it is conquered. When the vina is being played, as
soon as we come to the vina, we can control the centre of the sound,
whence the sound is proceeding. As when some one is burning
damp fuel, all sorts of smoke and sparks of various kinds rise, even
so from this great One has been breathed out history and
knowledge; everything has come out of Him. He breathed out, as it
were, all knowledge. As to all water the one goal is the ocean, as to
all touch the hand is the one centre, as to all smell the nose is the
one centre, as of all taste the tongue is the one centre, as of all form
the eyes are the one centre, as of all sounds the ears are the one
centre, as of all thought the mind is the one centre, as of all
knowledge the heart is the one centre, as of all work the hands are
the one centre, as of all speech the organ of speech is the one
centre, as the concentrated salt is through and through the waters of
the sea, yet not to be seen by the eyes; even so, oh Maitreyi, is this
Âtman not to be seen by the eyes, yet He permeates this universe.
He is everything. He is concentrated knowledge. The whole universe
rises from Him, and again goes down unto Him. Reaching Him, we
go beyond knowledge.” We here get the idea that we have all come
just like sparks from Him, and that when we know Him then we go
back, and become one with Him again.
Maitreyi became frightened, just as everywhere people become
frightened. She said: “Sir, here is exactly where you have thrown a
confusion over me. You have frightened me by saying there will be
no more gods; all individuality will be lost. When I reach that stage
shall I know that Âtman, shall I reach the unconscious state and lose
my individuality, or will the knowledge remain with me that I know
Him? Will there be no one to recognize, no one to feel, no one to
love, no one to hate? What will become of me?” “O Maitreyi!” replied
her husband, “think not that I am speaking of an unconscious state,
neither be frightened. This Âtman is indestructible, eternal in His
essence; the stage where there are two is a lower one. Where there
are two there one smells another, one sees another, one hears
another, one welcomes another, one thinks of another, one knows
another. But when the whole has become that Âtman, who is to be
smelled by whom, who is to be seen by whom, who is to be heard by
whom, who is to be welcomed by whom, who is to be known by
whom? Who can know Him by whom everything is known? This
Âtman can only be described as “neti, neti” (not this, not this).
Incomprehensible, He cannot be comprehended by the intellect.
Unchangeable, He never fades. Unattached, He never gets mixed
up with Nature. Perfect, He is beyond all pleasure and pain. Who
can know the Knower? By what means can we know Him? By no
means; this is the conclusion of the sages, O Maitreyi! Going beyond
all knowledge, is to attain Him and to attain immortality.”
So far the idea is, that it is all One Infinite Being, that is the Real
Individuality, when there is no more division, no more parts and
parcels, no more such low and illusory ideas. And yet, in and through
every part of this little individuality is shining that Infinite, the Real
Individuality. Everything is a manifestation of the Âtman. How to
reach to that? Yajnavalkya told us in the beginning that—“This
Âtman is first to be heard, then to be reasoned, then to be meditated
upon.” Thus far he has spoken about the Self, the Âtman, as being
the essence of everything in this universe. Then reasoning on the
Infinite nature of that Self and the finite nature of the human mind he
comes to the conclusion that it is impossible for the finite mind to
know the Knower of all—the Self. What is to be done then if we
cannot know the Self? Yajnavalkya tells Maitreyi that It can be
realized, although It cannot be known, and he enters upon a
discourse as to how It is to be meditated upon. This universe is
helpful to every being and every being is also helping this universe,
for they are both part and parcel of each other, the development of
the one helps the development of the other; but to the Âtman, the
self-effulgent One, nothing can be helpful because It is perfect and
infinite. All that is bliss, even in the lowest sense, is but the reflection
of It. All that is good is the reflection of that Âtman, and when that
reflection is less clear it is called evil. When the Âtman is less
manifested it is called darkness—evil, and when it is more
manifested it is called light—goodness. That is all. This good and evil
are only a question of degree, the Âtman more manifested or less
manifested. Just take the example of our own lives. How many
things we see in our childhood which we think to be good, but which
really are evil, and how many things seem to be evil which are good?
How our ideas change! How an idea becomes higher and higher!
What we thought very good at one time, we do not think so good
now. Thus good and evil depend on the development of our minds,
and do not exist objectively. The difference is only in the degree. All
is a manifestation of that Âtman; It is being manifested in everything,
only when the manifestation is very poor we call it evil, and when it is
clearer we call it good. That Âtman Itself is beyond both good and
evil. So everything that is in the universe is first to be meditated upon
as all good, because it is a manifestation of that perfect One. He is
neither evil nor good; He is perfect and the perfect can be only one.
The good can be many, and the evil many, there will be degrees of
variation between the good and the evil; but the perfect is only one,
and that perfect One when seen through certain covering we call
different degrees of good, and when seen through other covering we
call evil. Our ideas of good and evil as two distinct things are mere
superstition. There is only more good and less good and the less
good we call evil. These mistaken ideas of good and evil have
produced all sorts of dualistic delusions. They have gone deep into
the hearts of human beings, terrorizing men and women in all ages.
All the hatred with which we hate others is caused by these foolish
ideas which we have imbibed since our childhood. Our judgment of
humanity becomes entirely false; we make this beautiful earth a hell,
but as soon as we can give up these false ideas of good and evil, it
will become a heaven.
“This earth is blissful (‘sweet’ is the literal translation) to all beings,
and all beings are sweet to this earth; they all help each other. And
all this sweetness is the Âtman, that effulgent, immortal One.” That
one sweetness is manifesting itself in various ways. Wherever there
is any love, any sweetness in any human being, either in a saint or a
sinner, either in an angel or a murderer, either in the body or the
mind or the senses, it is all He. How can there be anything but the
One? Whatever is the lowest physical enjoyment is He, and the
highest spiritual enjoyment is also He. There is no sweetness but
He. Thus says Yajnavalkya. When you come to that state, and look
upon all things with the same eyes; when you see in the drunkard’s
pleasure in drink only that sweetness, or in the saints’ meditation
only that sweetness, then you have got the truth, and then alone you
will know what happiness means, what peace means, what love
means. But as long as you make these vain distinctions, silly,
childish, foolish superstitions, all sorts of misery will come. But that
immortal One, the effulgent One, He is the background of the whole
universe, it is all His sweetness. This body is a miniature universe,
as it were; and through all the powers of the body, all the enjoyments
of the mind, shines that effulgent One. That self-effulgent One who is
in the body, He is the Âtman. “This world is so sweet to all beings,
and every being is so sweet to it!” But the self-effulgent One, the
Immortal is the bliss in this world. In us also, He is that bliss. He is
the Brahman. “This air is so sweet to all beings, and all beings are so
sweet to this air.” But He who is that self-effulgent immortal Being in
the air, He is also in this body. He is expressing Himself as the life of
all beings. “This sun is so sweet to all beings, and all beings are so
sweet to this sun.” He who is the self-effulgent Being in the sun, Him
we reflect as smaller lights. What can there be but His reflection? He
is in the body, and it is His reflection which makes us see the light.
“This moon is so sweet to all beings, and all beings are so sweet to
this moon.” But that self-effulgent and immortal One who is the soul
of that moon, He is in us expressing himself as mind. “This lightning
is so sweet to all beings and all beings are sweet to this lightning,”
but the self-effulgent and immortal One is the soul of this lightning,
and is also in us, because all is that Brahman. This Brahman, this
Âtman, this Self, is the King of all beings. These ideas are very
helpful to men; they are for meditation. For instance, meditate on the
earth, think of the earth, at the same time knowing that we have in us
that which is in the earth, that both are the same. Identify the body
with the earth, and identify the soul with the Soul behind. Identify the
air with the soul that is in the air and that is in you and so on. All
these are one, manifested in different forms. To realize this unity is
the end and aim of all meditation, and this is what Yajnavalkya was
trying to explain to Maitreyi.
VII
THE HIGHEST IDEAL OF JNÂNA YOGA
As this is the last of these classes it is better that I give a brief
resumé of all that I have been trying to tell you. In the Vedas and
Upanishads we find records of some of the very earliest religious
ideas of the Hindus, ideas that long antedated the time of Kapila,
ancient as this great sage is. He did not propound the Sânkhya
philosophy as a new theory of his own. His task was to throw the
light of his genius on the vast mass of religious theories that were
existing in his time and bring out a rational and coherent system. He
succeeded in giving India a psychology that is accepted to the
present day by all the diverse and seemingly opposing philosophical
systems to be found among the Hindus. His masterly analysis and
his comprehensive statement of the processes of the human mind
have not yet been surpassed by any later philosopher and he
undoubtedly laid the foundation for the Advaita philosophy, which
accepted his conclusions as far as they went and then pushed them
a step farther, thus reaching a final unity beyond the duality that was
the last word of the Sânkhyas.
Among the religious ideas that preceded the time of Kapila the first
groups that we see coming up,—I mean among recognized religious
ideas, and not the very low ones, which do not deserve the name of
religion,—all include the idea of inspiration, and revealed book and
so forth. In the earliest step, the idea of creation is very peculiar; it is
that the whole universe is created out of zero, at the will of God; that
all this universe did not exist, and out of nothingness all this has
come. In the next stage we find this conclusion is questioned. The
first step in Vedânta asks this question: How can existence be
produced out of non-existence? If this universe is existent it must
have come out of something, because it was easy for them to see
that there is nothing coming out of nothing anywhere. All work that is
going on by human hands requires materials. Naturally, therefore,
the ancient Hindus rejected the first idea that this world was created
out of nothing, and sought some material out of which this world was
created. The whole history of religion, in fact, is this search for
material. Out of what has all this been produced? Apart from the
question of the efficient cause, or God, apart from the question
whether God created the universe, the great question of all
questions has been, out of what did God create it? All the
philosophies are turning, as it were, on this question.
One solution is that nature and God and soul are eternal existences,
as if three parallel lines are running eternally, of which nature and
soul comprise what they call the dependent, and God the
independent Being. Every soul, like every particle of matter, is
perfectly dependent on the will of God. These and many other ideas
we find already existing when the Sânkhya psychology was brought
forward by Kapila. According to it, perception comes by the
transmission of the suggestion, which causes perception first to the
eyes, from the eyes to the organs, from the organs to the mind, the
mind to the buddhi and from the buddhi to something which is a unit,
which they call the Âtman. Coming to modern physiology we know
that they have found centres for all the different sensations. First are
found the lower centres, then a higher grade of centres, and these
two will exactly correspond with the actions of the buddhi and the
manas (mind), but not one centre has been found which controls all
the other centres, so philosophy cannot answer what unifies all these
centres. Where and how do the centres get unified? The centres in
the brain are all different, and there is not one centre which controls
all the others; therefore, so far as it goes, the Sânkhya psychology
stands unchallenged upon this point. We must have this unification,
something upon which the sensations will be reflected to form a
complete whole. Until there is that something I cannot have any idea
of you, or the picture, or anything else. If we had not that unifying
something we would only see, then after a while hear, and then feel,
and while we heard a man talking we should not see him at all,
because all the centres are different.
This body is made of particles which we call matter, and it is dull and
insentient. So is what is called the fine body. The fine body,
according to the Sânkhyas is a little body, made of very fine
particles, so fine that no microscope can see them. What is the use
of it? It is the receptacle of what we call mind. Just as this gross
body is the receptacle of the grosser forces, so the fine body is the
receptacle of the finer forces, that which we call thought, in its
various modifications. First is the body, which is gross matter, with
gross force. Force cannot exist without matter. It can only manifest
itself through matter, so the grosser forces work through the body
and those very forces become finer; the very force which is working
in a gross form works in a fine form and becomes thought. There is
no real difference between them, simply one is the gross and the
other the fine manifestation of the same thing. Neither is there any
difference in substance between the fine body and the gross body.
The fine body is also material, only very fine material.
Whence do all these forces come? According to the Vedânta
philosophy there are two things in Nature, one of which they call
Âkâsa, which is substance, or matter, infinitely fine, and the other
they call Prâna. Whatever you see, or feel, or hear, as air or earth, or
anything, is material. And everything is a form of this âkâsa. It
becomes finer and finer, or grosser and grosser, and it changes
under the action of Prâna (universal Energy). Like âkâsa, prâna is
omnipresent, interpenetrating everything. Âkâsa is like the water,
and everything else in the universe like blocks of ice, made out of
that water and floating in it, and prâna is the power that changes the
âkâsa into all these various forms. This body is the instrument made
out of âkâsa for the manifestation of prâna in gross forms, as
muscular motion, or walking, sitting, talking, and so on. The fine
body also is made of âkâsa, a much finer form of âkâsa, for the
manifestation of the same prâna in the finer form of thought. So, first
there is this gross body, beyond that is the fine body, and beyond
that is the jiva (soul), the real man. Just as these finger nails can be
pared off a hundred times a year, and yet are still a part of our
bodies, not different, so we have not two bodies. It is not that man
has a fine and also a gross body; it is the one body, only it remains
longer when it is a fine body, and the grosser it is the sooner it
dissolves. Just as I can cut this nail a hundred times a year, so
millions of times I can shed this body in one æon, but the fine body
will remain. According to the dualists this jiva, or the real man, is very
fine, minute.
So far we have seen that man is a being who has first a gross body
which dissolves very quickly, then a fine body which remains through
æons, and lastly a jiva. This jiva, according to the Vedânta
philosophy, is eternal, just as God is eternal, and Nature is also
eternal, but changefully eternal. The material of Nature, the prâna
and the âkâsa, are eternal, but are changing into different forms
eternally. Matter and force are eternal, but their combinations vary
continually. The jiva is not manufactured, either of âkâsa, or of
prâna; it is immaterial, and therefore will remain for ever. It is not the
result of any combination of prâna and âkâsa, and whatever is not
the result of combination will never be destroyed, because
destruction is decomposition. That which is not a compound cannot
be destroyed. The gross body is a compound of âkâsa and prâna in
various forms and will be decomposed. The fine body will also be
decomposed after a long time, but the jiva is a simple, and will never
be destroyed. For the same reason, we cannot say it ever was born.
Nothing simple can be born; the same argument applies. Only that
which is a compound can be born. The whole of this nature
combined in these millions of forms is under the will of God. God is
all pervading, omniscient, formless, everywhere, and He is directing
this nature day and night. The whole of it is under His control. There
is no independence of any being. It cannot be. He is the Ruler. This
is the teaching of dualistic Vedânta.
Then the question comes, if God be the Ruler of this universe, why
did He create such a wicked universe, why must we suffer so much?
The answer is made that it is not God’s fault. It is our own fault that
we suffer. Whatever we sow that we reap. God does not do anything
to punish us. If a man is born poor, or blind, or lame, he did
something before he was born in that way, something that produced
these results. The jiva has been existing for all time, was never
created. It has been doing all sorts of things all the time. Whatever
we do we suffer for. If we do good we shall have happiness, and if
bad, unhappiness. This jiva is by its own nature pure, but ignorance
covers its nature, says the dualist. As by evil deeds it has covered
itself with ignorance, so by good deeds it can become conscious of
its own nature again. Just as it is eternal, so its nature is pure. The
nature of every being is pure. When through good deeds all its sins
and misdeeds have been washed away, then the jiva becomes pure
again, and when he becomes pure he goes after death by what is
called Devayana (the path of the gods), to heaven, or the abode of
the gods. If he has been only an ordinarily good man he goes to
what is called the “Abode of the Fathers.”
When the gross body falls, the organs of speech enter the mind. You
cannot think without words; wherever there are words there must be
thought. The mind is resolved into the prâna, and the prâna resolves
into the jiva. Then the jiva leaves the body and goes to that condition
of reward or punishment which he has earned by his past life.
Devaloka is the “place (or abode) of the gods.” The word deva (god)
means bright or shining one, and corresponds to what the Christians
and Mohammedans call “angels.” According to this teaching there
are various heavenly spheres somewhat analogous to the various
heavens described by Dante in the Divine Comedy. There are the
heaven of the fathers (or pitris), devaloka, the lunar sphere, the
electric sphere and highest of all the Brahmaloka, the heaven of
Brahma. From all the lower heavens the jiva returns again to human
birth, but he who attains to Brahmaloka lives there through all
eternity. These are the highest men who have become perfectly
unselfish, perfectly purified, who have given up all desires, do not
want to do anything except to worship and love God. There is a
second class, who do good works, but want some reward, want to go
to heaven in return. When they die the jiva goes to the lunar sphere,
where it enjoys and becomes a deva (god or angel). The gods, the
devas, are not eternal, they have to die. In heaven they will all die.
The only deathless place is Brahmaloka, where alone there is no
birth and no death. In our mythology it is said there are also the
demons, who sometimes give the gods chase. In all mythologies you
read of these fights between the demons, or wicked angels, and the
gods and sometimes the demons conquer the gods. In all
mythologies also, you find that the devas were fond of the beautiful
daughters of men. As a deva, the jiva only reaps results of past
actions, but makes no new Karma. Only man makes Karma. Karma
means actions that will produce effects, also those effects, or results
of action. When a man dies and becomes a deva he has a period of
pleasure, and during that time makes no fresh Karma; he simply
enjoys the reward of his past good works. But when the good Karma
is worked out then the other Karma begins to take effect.
In the Vedas there is no mention of hell. But afterwards the Purânas,
the later books in our Scriptures, thought that no religion could
become complete without a proper attachment of hells, and so they
invented all sorts of hells, with as many, if not more, varieties of
punishment than Dante saw in his Inferno, but our books are merciful
enough to say that it is only for a period. Bad Karma is worked out in
that state and then the souls come back to earth and get another
chance. This human form is the great chance. It is called the karmic
body, in which we decide our fate. We are running in a huge circle,
and this is the point in the circle which determines the future. So a
human body is considered the greatest body there is; man is greater
than the gods. Even they return to human birth. So far with dualistic
Vedânta.
Next comes a higher conception of Vedânta philosophy, which says
that these ideas are crude. If you say there is a God who is an
infinite Being, and a soul which is also infinite, and Nature which is
also infinite, you can go on multiplying infinites indefinitely, but that is
illogical, because each would limit the other and there would be no
real infinite. God is both the material and the efficient cause of the
universe; He projects this universe out of Himself. Does that mean
that God has become these walls, and this table, that God has
become the animal, the murderer and all the evils in the world? God
is pure, how can He become all these degenerate things? He has
not. God is unchangeable, all these changes are in Nature; just as I
am a soul and have a body, this body is not different from me in a
sense, yet I, the real “I,” in fact am not this body. For instance, I am a
child, I become a young man, an old man, but my soul has not
changed. It remains the same soul. Similarly the whole universe
comprises all Nature, and an infinite number of souls, or, as it were,
the infinite body of God. He is interpenetrating the whole of it. He
alone is unchangeable, but Nature changes and soul changes. In
what way does Nature change? In its forms; it takes fresh forms. But
the soul cannot change that way. The soul contracts and expands in
knowledge. It contracts by evil deeds; those deeds which contract
the natural knowledge and purity of the soul are called evil deeds.
Those deeds, again, which bring out the natural glory of the soul, are
called good deeds. All these souls were pure, but they have become
contracted by their own acts. Still, through the mercy of God, and by
doing good deeds, they will expand and become pure again. Every
soul has the same chance, and, in the long run, must become pure
and free itself from Nature. But this universe will not cease, because
it is infinite. This is the second theory. The first is called dualistic
Vedânta; the second teaches that there is God, soul, and Nature,
that soul and Nature form the body of God, and that these three form
one unit. Believers in this second theory are called qualified non-
dualists (Visishtadvaitins).
The last and highest theory is pure monism, or as it is known in
India, Advaita. It also teaches that God must be both the material
and the efficient cause of this universe. As such, God has become
the whole of this universe. This theory denies that God is the soul,
and the universe is the body, and the body is changing. In that case
what is the use of calling God the material cause of this universe?
The material cause is the cause become effect; the effect is nothing
but the cause in another form. Wherever you see effect, it is the
cause reproduced. If the universe is the effect, and God the cause,
this must be the reproduction of God. If it be claimed that the
universe is the body of God and that that body becomes contracted
and fine and becomes the cause, and out of that the universe is
evolved, then the advaitist says it is God Himself who has become
this universe. Now comes a very fine question. If God has become
this universe, then everything is God. Certainly; everything is God.
My body is God, and my mind is God, and my soul is God. Then why
are there so many jivas? Has God become divided into millions and
millions of jivas? How can that infinite power and substance, the one
Being of the universe become divided? It is impossible to divide
infinity. How can the pure Being become this universe? If He has
become the universe, He is changeful, and if He is changeful, He is
in Nature, and whatever is in Nature is born and dies. If God is
changeful, He must die some day. Remember that. Again, how much
of God has become this universe? If you say “X,” the algebraical
unknown quantity, then God is God minus “X” now, and therefore not
the same God as before this creation, because so much of Him has
become this universe. The answer of the non-dualist is that this
universe has no real existence, it exists in appearance only. These
devas and gods and angels and being born and dying, and all this
infinite number of souls coming up and going down, all these things
are mere dreams. All is the one Infinite. The one sun reflected on
various drops of water appears to be many, millions of globules of
water reflect so many millions of suns and in each globule will be a
perfect image of the sun, yet there is only one sun, and so it is with
all these jivas, they are but reflections of the one infinite Being. A
dream cannot be without a reality, and that reality is the one infinite
Existence. You, as body, mind, or soul, are a dream, but what you
really are is Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute. Thus says the
Advaitist. All these births and rebirths, this coming and going are but
parts of the dream. You are infinite. Where can you go? The sun,
moon, and the whole universe are but a drop in your nature. How
can you be born or die? The Self was never born, never will be born,
never had father or mother, friends or foes, for it is Existence-
Knowledge-Bliss Absolute.
What is the goal, according to this philosophy? That those who
receive this knowledge are one with the universe; for them all
heavens, even Brahmaloka, are destroyed, the whole dream
vanishes, and they find themselves the eternal God of the universe.
They attain their real individuality, infinitely beyond these little selves
which we now think of so much importance. No individuality will be
lost; an infinite and eternal Individuality will be realized. Pleasures in
little things will cease. We are finding pleasure in this little body, in
this little individuality. How much greater the pleasure when this
whole universe is in our one body? If there be pleasure in these
separate bodies, how much more when all bodies are one? The man
who has realized this has attained to freedom, has gone beyond the

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High voltage direct current

transmission : converters, systems and

Converters, Systems and DC Grids

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 10/12pt WarnockPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India

Part I HVDC with Current Source Converters 1

1 Introduction to Line Commutated HVDC 3

3 Six-pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter 25

4 HVDC Rectiﬁer Station Modelling, Control and Synchronisation with

5 HVDC Inverter Station Modelling and Control 43

6 HVDC System V–I Diagrams and Operating Modes 49

7 HVDC Analytical Modelling and Stability 57

8 HVDC Phasor Modelling and Interactions with AC System 83

9 HVDC Operation with Weak AC Systems 95

10 Fault Management and HVDC System Protection 111

11 LCC HVDC System Harmonics 121

Bibliography Part I: Line Commutated Converter HVDC 133

Part II HVDC with Voltage Source Converters 137

12 VSC HVDC Applications and Topologies, Performance and Cost

13 IGBT Switches and VSC Converter Losses 165

14 Single-phase and Three-phase Two-level VSC Converters 181

15 Two-level PWM VSC Converters 193

16 Multilevel VSC Converters in HVDC Applications 205

17 Two-level VSC HVDC Modelling, Control, and Dynamics 227

17.9 Complete Two-level VSC Converter Controller 240

18 Two-level VSC HVDC Phasor-domain Interaction with AC Systems and

19 Half Bridge MMC: Dimensioning, Modelling, Control, and Interaction

20 Full Bridge MMC Converter: Dimensioning, Modelling, and

21 MMC Converter Under Unbalanced Conditions 325

22 VSC HVDC Under AC and DC Fault Conditions 339

23 VSC HVDC Application For AC Grid Support and Operation with

Bibliography Part II: Voltage Source Converter HVDC 366

Part III DC Transmission Grids 371

25 DC Grids With Line Commutated Converters 379

27 DC Grid Control 399

27.6.1 Three-level Control for VSC Converters 405

28 DC Circuit Breakers 417

29 DC Grid Fault Management and Protection System 441

29.5.2 Rate of Change of Voltage Protection 447

30 High Power DC/DC Converters and DC Power Flow Controlling

Bibliography Part III: DC Transmission Grids 500

Appendix A Variable Notations 503

Appendix B Analytical Background to Rotating DQ Frame 505

B.5 Static (Steady-state) Modeling in a Rotating DQ Coordinate Frame 510

Appendix C System Modeling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 515

Appendix D Simulink Examples 517

January 2019 Dragan Jovcic

HVDC with Current Source Converters

Introduction to Line Commutated HVDC

1.1 HVDC Applications

High Voltage Direct Current Transmission: Converters, Systems and DC Grids,

Figure 1.1 HVDC and HVAC transmission cost comparison.

An important argument for selecting HVDC instead of AC for a new transmission

1.2 Line Commutated HVDC Components

1.3 DC Cables and Overhead Lines

• mass-impregnated cables (MI);

1.3.2 Mass-impregnated Cables

1.3.3 Low-pressure Oil-ﬁlled Cables

Table 1.1 DC cables types for underground and submarine applications.

Type Mass-impregnated Oil-ﬁlled XLPE

Conductor Cu/Al Cu/Al Cu/Al