G36a Ev

ELECTRONICS
SPEED & POSITION TRANSDUCER

AND CONTROL
mod. G36A/EV
THEORY AND EXERCISES
TEACHER/STUDENT handbook
© COPYRIGHT BY ELETTRONICA VENETA SPA

G36A$$$101E0
INDEX
* SAFETY RULES Page 1

* START UP 2
* DESCRIPTION OF THE MODULE 3
1 TRANSDUCERS: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 5

1.1 Transducer General Concept 5
1.2 Linearity of a Transducer 6
1.3 Signal Conditioner 7
2 ANGULAR POSITION AND SPEED TRANSDUCERS 8
2.1 Speed Transducers 8

2.1.1 Tacho-generator 8
2.1.2 Signal Conditioner f or Tacho-generator 10
2.1.3 Armature Feedback 11
2.1.4 Signal Conditioner for Armature Reaction 11
2.1.5 Digital Speed Transducers 12
2.1.6 Signal Conditioner for Photoelectric Speed Transducer 14
2.2 Position Transducers 15
2.2.1 Potentiometric Transducer 15
2.2.2 Signal Conditioner for Potentiometric Transducer 15
2.3 Exercises 16
2.3.1 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the Tachogenerator 16
2.3.2 Plotting of the Best Fitting Straight Line and Determination
of the Tacho-generator Linearity 17
2.3.3 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the DC Motor Armature Feedback. 17
2.3.4 Plotting of the Best Fitting Straight Line and Determination of the Armature
Feedback Linearity 18
2.3.5 Analysis of the Photoelectric Transducer 18
2.3.6 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the Potentiometric Transducer 19
2.3.7 Plotting of the Best Fitting Straight Line and Determination
of the Potentiometric Transducer Linearity 20
3 PROCESS CONTROL 22
3.1. General Features 21
3.1.1 Block Diagram 22
3.1.2 Control Systems Classification 23
3.1.3 Canonical Form of Feedback Systems 24
3.1.4 Linear Systems - Differential Equations 24
3.1.5 The Laplace Transform 25
3.1.6 Canonical Functions 25
3.1.7 Sensibility to a control system 26
3.1.8 Accuracy of a Control System 26
3.1.9 Speed of Response - Time of Response 26
3.1.10 Stability of a Control System 27
3.1.11 Control System Analysis 28
3.2 Control System Design 28
3.2.1 Proportional Action (P) 30
3.2.2 Integrative Action (I) 30
3.2.3 Derivative Action (D) 31
3.2.4 Combined PID Action 31
3.3 Controller Prearrangement 33
3.4 Exercises 35
3.4.1 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a Proportional Controller
and Measure the Proportional Constant 35
3.4.2 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a Integrative Controller and
Measure the Time Constant 36
3.4.3 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a Derivative Controller and
Measure the Time Constant 37
3.4.4 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a PID Controller 38
3.4.5 Check the Waveform of the Output Voltage of a PID
(proportional-integrative--derivative) Controller 38
4 ANGULAR POSITION AND SPEED PROCESS 40

4.1 Speed process control 41
4.1.1 PWM & Power Amplifier 42
4.1.2 Set-Point 43
4.1.3 "Error Amplifier 1" 43
4.1.4 "Current Limit" 44
4.2 Control with P Controller 45
4.3 Control with PI and PID Controller 46
4.4 Control of the Position Process 46
4.5 Exercises 47
4.5.1 Automatic Open-loop Speed Control 47
4.5.2 Automatic Closed-loop Speed Control 49
4.5.3 Closed-loop Automatic Speed Control: Effect of the Different
Components of the PID Controller 50
4.5.4 System Step Stress: Variations on the PID CONTROLLER Constants 50
4.5.5 Automatic Position Control 51
4.5.6 Angular Position Automatic Control: Effect of the Different
Components of the PID Controller 53
4.5.7 System Step Stress: Variations of the PID CONTROLLER Constants 54
5 CALIBRATIONS 55
* APPENDIX 58
SAFETY RULES
Keep this handbook at hand for any further help.
After the packaging has been removed, set all accessories in order so that
they are not lost and check the equipment integrity. In particular, check
that it shows no visible damage.
Before connecting the equipment to the +/- 12V power supply, be sure
that the rating corresponds to the one of the power mains.
This equipment must be employed only for the use it has been conceived,
i.e. as educational equipment, and must be used under the direct
supervision of expert personnel.
Any other use is not proper and therefore dangerous. The manufacturer
cannot be held responsible for eventual damages due to inappropriate,
wrong or unreasonable use.
These apparatuses and all their parts will be disposed of separately from
the other wastes. At the end of their lifetime, these apparatuses will be
conveyed to the proper centres of separate collection of waste.
A proper separate collection ensures that the eliminated apparatuses will
undergo the necessary treatment and recycling for preventing any
negative effect on the environment and on men’s health.
1
START UP
The procedure described hereafter enables a quick checking of module

G36A operation.
Necessary material
Module G36A
Unit TY36A
Power supply: ±l2Vdc
Power supply: 24Vdc/lA
Module set up
Connect the module G36A to unit TY36A inserting the DIN cable
and the two cables for the motor power supply
Connect terminals 3 and 5 together
Turn the PROPORTIONAL potentiometer completely clockwise
Turn the potentiometer RV1, set to TACHO GEN.
CONDITIONER, to 1/3 of its run
Checking the operation: Double-loop position control
Power the module

Turn P1 (SET POINT) completely clockwise
Check the index of unit TY36A sets on 0°±1,5°. Adjust RV1 to
remove any index oscillation.
Turn P1 (SET POINT) completely clockwise
Check the index of unit TY36A sets to 360°±1,5°
Disconnect terminal 5 from terminal 3
Connect terminal 5 to ground
Check the index of unit TY36A sets to 180° ±2,5°
2
DESCRIPTION OF THE MODULE
Module G36A/EV is designed for the study of angular speed and

position transducers and of their automatic controls.
It consists of a front panel with test-points and silk screen printed

electrical circuit diagram, divided into blocks forming the control chain.
Figure A represents the module's silk screen printed diagram. You can
easily see that there are ten blocks with ten electrical circuits, plus a part
(the one at the extreme right) for the connections of the module to the
external unit TY36A/EV.
These electrical circuits have precise functions inside the whole circuit
and this explains why they have been schematically separated.
The terminals for the connections to the different power voltages are
fitted in the upper right part: a voltage +12V, and a voltage -12V are
necessary for the control section and a voltage +24V for the power
section.
The ±12 Volt voltages must supply a current of 0,5 Ampere while the
+24 Volt one at least of 1 Ampere.
On the right side of the module there are two terminals (a red
one and a black one) for the connection between the module
G36A/EV the motor of the external unit TY36A/EV and a 8-poles
socket for the connector of the signals coming from the transducers of
the external unit.
All the electronic components of the module G36A/EV can easily be

accessed from the rear side of the module: in fact it is sufficient to
remove the screws of the plexiglass protection to operate directly on the
circuit.
The external unit (TY36/EV) consists of a permanent magnet DC

motor, on whose axis a tacho-generator and a disc with
transparent/opaque radial sectors are fitted, so that it can be used as
speed "photoelectric transducer" when connected to a
phototransmitter/photoreceiver, while on the other side there is a
motoreducer which permits a strong drop of the rotating angular speed,
a display system of the angular position and a potentiometer for
detection of the same position.
3
Fig. A
4
1. TRANSDUCERS: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.1 Transducer General Concept
Devices converting energy from one form to another are generally

called TRANSDUCERS.
The typical transducer block diagram is represented in fig. 1.1. Usually
the physical output variable of a transducer is an electric type variable.
The transducer output can be a voltage, a current, a resistor, and so on.
According to the different output, transducers are divided into digital or
analog.
Analog transducers produce a D.C. electrical output, proportional to the
measured quantity, from a D.C. electric input. While a digital transducer
produces a series of digital signals.
Fig. 1.1
Generally speaking, this conversion needs such an energy absorption

that the transducer disturbs the analysed process.
The following chapter analyses the detailed characteristics of
any single transducer used in the external unit TY36A/EV.
Each transducer has specific and common characteristics, among which
the main ones are:
Range
It Is the difference between the minimum and maximum value of
the variable to be measured by the transducer.
Proportionality factor
It is the ratio between input and output values of a certain variable.
Linearity error
It is the deviation of the proportionality factor between input and
output and is expressed in percentage from the maximum output
value.
Accuracy (measurement error)
It is the maximum deviation between the measured and the true
values and is expressed in percentage from f.s. deflection.
Response speed
It indicates the speed of the output variable to follow the input
variations
5
Stability
It is the constant ratio between output and input in any operating
conditions.
Repeatability
It is the tolerance inside which values of the same measurement are
included and is normally expressed as a part of the accuracy.
1.2 Linearity of a Transducer
A large part of the transducers is linear type and, during

experimentation, the percentage linearity is a major data.
As the procedure for the calculation of the linearity is the same for all
transducers, we are now to describe it and we will always refer to it in
the development of all the experiences.
In order to determine the transducer input/output curve, a set of
measurements is carried out, by taking the output values corresponding
to the different input variables.
Once the Cartesian diagram is plotted with the points of the collected
measurements, the line, approximating these points at best, can be
traced.
It Is the best fitting straight line.
Fig. 1.2
At this point, two lines, parallel and equidistant to the best fitting
straight line, can be traced, in a way to include all points in the diagram.
Then a line parallel to the x-axis has to be traced, and the points where it
crosses the two parallel lines have to be called V1 and V2 (fig. 1.2).
The percentage linearity, referred to the f.s.d. is given by:
6
1.3 Signal Conditioner
Usually, the output electrical variable of a transducer cannot be directly

used for a direct measurement or to carry out feedback systems.
For example, the output voltage range may not be the desired one; the
supplied signal power may be too low; the electric variable may not be
the one requested, and so on.
For these reasons, the transducer is never supplied alone but
with a SIGNAL CONDITIONER.
The signal conditioner, which is usually electronic type, is an
instrument converting an electric variable into another one which is
more suitable to the specific application.
In most cases, the output electrical variable consists in a voltage.
In the block diagrams, the signal conditioner is represented as in figure
1.3
Fig. 1.3
In most cases, the transducer is integrated in the process to be strictly in

contact with the physical variable to transduce, so the block diagrams
generally represent the Process, the Transducer and the Signal
conditioner as in fig. 1.4.
Fig. 1.4
7
2. ANGULAR POSITION AND SPEED TRANSDUCERS
2.1 Speed Transducers
The strong motorization of industrial machines, have determined the

parallel development or angular speed transducers.
The international unit of measurement for angular speed is the radian
per second [ rad/s ], but the use of the revolution per minute [r.p.m.] is
also available, where one revolution corresponds to any 2. radian.
The most used transducers for this variable are the following:
Tachogenerators
A.C. Tachogenerators
Digital Transducers
The main difference between the first couple is in the supplied

waveform, which is continuous in the first type and alternating in the
second, both with amplitude variable with speed.
The A.C. tachogenerator has no commutator and so it requires less
maintenance, but has the strong defect of needing a rectifier/leveller unit
at the output.
This is the reason why, at the moment the tachogenerator is the most
used in industry.
As far as concerns digital transducers, they are very simple and
economic to construct, but they supply a pulse output (ON/OFF type)
which cannot be directly used in closed-loop analog controls and
requires, consequently, signal conditioners which can be quite complex.
They are commonly used for their high precision.
In case of d.c. electric motors, the Armature feedback of the same
motor. Is often used as the counter electromotive force developed is
directly proportional to the rotating speed. Following, the detailed
analysis of the D.C. motor tachogenerators, digital transducers and
armature feedback, which are the transducers available on module
G36A/EV.
2.1.1 Tacho-generator
The diagram of a standard tacho-generator is represented in fig. 2.1.1.

A U-type permanent magnet, whose polar expansions face each others,
creates a magnetic field.
In order to understand its operation let's consider a coil with angular
speed rotation = .
This coil is influenced by a flow variable according to the following
relation:
8
Fig. 2.1.1
and so the voltage across the coil is:
whose max. value is proportional to the angular speed.

Actually a tacho-generator consists of a stator, on which a permanent
magnet is inserted and of a rotor, on which N turns are wound, spaced
among each other by an angle of 2 /N.
The N turns are connected to a commutator and the induced sine voltage
is separated by two brushes for a time of 2 /N .
Fig. 2.1.2 represents two shapes of the output voltage at angular speed
variations. Note that the amplitude as well as the ripple are functions of
.
Fig. 2.1.2
9
An A.C. component, with frequency proportional to and amplitude
inversely proportional to N , is generated together with D.C.
component (proportional to ).
This A.C. component is an error, called ripple, which is usually very
small in respect to the output voltage.
Due to the commutation, a set of pulses with frequency slightly superior
to the ripple overlap the induced voltage.
The noise can be eliminated with a low-pass filter, but the same cannot
be said as far as concerns the ripple.
The fundamental parameter of a tacho-generator is the "tacho constant",
which gives the relation among the output voltage and the rotation
speed: this is measured in volt (rad.s-1).
It is expressed by the relation:
The tacho constant is often expressed with V/rmp.

The relation among the two tacho constants is the following:
The precision is more accurate the less current is circulating; for a

relation = 100 among load impedance and inner impedance, the
precision is ±0,5 %.
The used tacho generator has the following characteristics (see data-
sheets):
N° of Poles :2
Tacho Constant : 3 mV/rpm
Max. Current : 30 mA
2.1.2 Signal Conditioner f or Tacho-generator
The tacho-generator can supply a D.C. output voltage proportional to

the angular speed with no help from any external component.
However, in order to be adapted to the other modules and to ease
measurements, the tacho-generator is supplied with its own signal
conditioner, whose diagram is shown in fig. 2.1.3..
The output voltage from the tacho-generator can be measured directly
between terminal 22 and the ground without the help of the signal
conditioner.
R1 and RV1 forms a resistive separator for the tacho-generator output
signal while the condenser C1 operates a filtration to reduce the
influence of the residual ripple.
10
Fig. 2.1.3
Note that the trimmer RV1 is activated by the switch fitted in the lower
side of the TACHO-GEN CONDITIONER block.
Care must be taken not to load the tacho-generator too much, it will
cause variations on the tacho constant: which is why the output signal of
the signal conditioner has been buffered. The buffer has been carried out
by means of an operational amplifier connected as voltage detector.
2.1.3 Armature Feedback
Consider the following relation which gives N = rotation speed (rpm) of

a D.C. motor as function of Va voltage armature, of Ia = armature
current, of Ra = armature resistance and of KØ = magnetic constant
where E is the electromotive force.

If KØ is kept constant (as obtained in D.C. motor speed controls acting
only on the armature current = la) we must get Ra. Ia and subtract it
from the Va, in order to determine N.
These operations are performed by the signal conditioner for armature
feedback which, in module G36/EV, is fitted in the block called SPEED
DETECTOR.
2.1.4 Signal Conditioner f or Armature Reaction
It is generally easy to carry out a circuit with the above mentioned

operations; the circuit of fig. 2.1.4 can be used, reporting the electrical
diagram of the components contained on in the block SPEED
DETECTOR.
This block consist of two operational amplifiers (IC1A and IC1B).
IC1A is used in the classical differential configuration: the output
voltage is equal to the difference among the input signals (called A and
B and taken across the motor ) multiplied by the ratio R4/R1. The two
condensers Cl and C2 are used to filter the input signals and have an
output signal proportional to the mean voltage present across the motor.
11
Fig. 2.1.4
The second operational amplifier, IC1B, is connected to the differential

configuration, too; a signal (signal E coming from CURRENT LIMIT),
which is the current value of the motor and which is subtracted from the
output signal of IC1A, is applied to the non-inverting signal.
With the potentiometer RV1, it is possible to change the gain of

IC21B in a way that a fixed voltage corresponds to each angular
speed.
2.1.5 Digital Speed Transducers
This definition includes all transducers that generates pulse outputs with
frequency variable with speed.
Pulses are usually sent to counters which, if the measurement in carried
out in a two time, give the value of speed directly in rpm.
Photoelectric transducers, based on masked or perforated disc systems
or on reflection systems, are the most popular digital speed transducers.
The first type essentially consists in a disc, which is made to rotate on
the axis of which we must know the angular speed (fig. 2.1.5).
Fig. 2.1.5
12
The disc rotation produces a shuttering effect on the track of the light
source to the light sensor, so that there is a pulse corresponding to each
hole or to each section.
It is necessary to increase the number of holes (or of the sections) in
order to obtain accurate systems, especially at low speeds.
The reflection photoelectric transducer uses a transmitter and a receiver
in the same container, instead of a projector and a receiver separately.
A mask with reflecting and opaque segments, is used instead of the
perforated disc.
When the light emitted from the transmitter tracks a reflecting
surface is sent back to the receiver. (fig. 2.1.6).
The advantage of using this system is that it is sufficient to apply
reflecting masks on the moving part, instead of using a special disc.
Fig. 2.1.6
Module G36A/EV uses a transparent disc on which 30 not transparent

black zones are applied.
The used emitter/phototransistor diode operates in the infrared range
(see detailed characteristics on data sheets).
13
2.1.6 Signal Conditioner for Photoelectric Speed Transducer
Photoelectric speed transducers do not supply signals which can be

directly inserted in a regulation analogue loop and do not give angular
speed.
In order to get this measurement, it is necessary to use a
frequency/voltage converter, a frequency meter or a counter.
In this case a frequency meter is used, as it can supply very accurate
information.
The measured error is ± 1 rpm on the mean angular speed calculated
over the counting interval (2 s).
The electric diagram of the whole DIGITAL RPM METER block is as
shown in fig. 2.1.7, where you can see that the component marked with
OC1 contains the photodiode-phototransistor couple and generates the
pulse signal proportional to the rotating speed.
This signal is squared by an inverter and applied to the counter input.
The integrated circuit IC4 (MM74C926) is composed by a counter with
4 decimal ciphers followed by a register where the counter
measurements can be stored. The outputs can control a 7-segment
display and besides there are 4 signals to enable the display of the 7
segments.
IC2 is a timer supplying the time lapse of the pulse counting (2
seconds). At the end of this lapse, two signals are generated: the first is
the LATCH ENABLE (LE) which enables the output data from the
counter to be transferred to the output register and the second is the
RESET (RES) which resets the counters.
After resetting, the cycle starts again.
Fig. 2.1.7
14
2.2 Position Transducers
The position transducers are used to detect the position of the movement
of an object from a reference point.
The movements can be linear or angular; consequently linear or angular
transducers have been carried out according to the type od movement.
Module G36A/EV analyses one of the most common angular position
transducers: the potentiometric transducer.
2.2.1 Potentiometric Transducer
The potentiometric angular position transducer is at the same time very

simple and accurate enough.
It consists in a resistive potentiometer whose shaft is mechanically
connected to the motor axis. The two terminals of the resistor which are
the electrical part of the potentiometer, are connected to the two
reference voltages (± 8 V).
Movements of the motor shaft make the position of the potentiometer
cursor vary and consequently also its voltage value. The angular
position of the cursor and consequently of the motor shaft can be
detected from the voltage value obtained
2.2.2 Signal Conditioner for Potentiometric Transducer
In this case, too, a signal conditioner must be used to obtain a signal

fitting our needs. In this case the signal conditioner amplifies the signal
of the potentiometer to obtain a voltage of +8V for a 0° angle and a
voltage of +8V f or a 360° angle.
With reference to figure 2.2.1, a voltage proportional to the position is
applied to the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier by means
of the potentiometric cursor.
R3 and C1 creates a low-pass filter to erase disturbances connected to
the movement of the same cursor.
The amplifier is connected to the non-inverting configuration and so its
gain G is:
G = 1 + (R2 + RV1) / R1
acting on the trimmer RV1, it is possible to obtain a voltage ±8 V for an

angle of 0-360°.
15
Fig. 2.2.1
2.3 Exercises
2.3.1 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the Tachogenerator
Carry out the circuit of fig. 2.3.1

On the PID CONTROLLER block, turn the PROPORTIONAL
knob to the max. value.
Connect all the necessary power lines to the module
Set the multimeter for d.c. voltage measurements and insert it
between terminal 22 and ground.
Switch on the power supplies.
Fig. 2.3.1
Turn the set-point knob completely clock-wise

Act on the knob of the TACHO-GEN CONDITIONER block until
the display of the DIGITAL RPN METER reaches 4000 RPM
Acting on the Set-Point knob, set the speed values written on table
2.1, appearing on the 4-digit display of the photoelectric transducer
(DIGITAL RPM METER).
16
With a multimeter, measure the voltage supplied by the
tachogenerator across each of the set values.
RPM VOLTAGE
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Tab. 2.1
Fill table 2.1 with the measured voltage values of the tachogenerator
at each set speed.
Plot a Cartesian graph, where speed is on the x-axis and voltage is on
the y-axis.
Fill the graph with the points whose coordinates are on the table.
Plot a curve which approximates this set of points at best; it will be
the tacho-generator characteristic curve.
Repeat the above operations for Set-Point negative values, i.e. for the
motor opposite rotating speed.
2.3.2 Plotting of the Best Fitting Straight Line and Determination of the Tacho-generator
Linearity
Using the Cartesian graph obtained in the last exercise, follow the
instructions of chapter 1.2 and calculate the tacho-generator linearity.
2.3.3 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the DC Motor Armature Feedback.
Carry out the diagram of fig. 2.3.2.
Fig. 2.3.2
17
On the PID CONTROLLER, turn the PROPORTIONAL knob to the
maximum.
Connect all the necessary supplies to the module.
Set the multimeter for D.C. voltage measurements and fit it between
terminal 24 and ground.
Switch on all power supplies.
Act on the Set-Point knob to obtain the speed values written in table
2.2, and shown in the 4-digit display of the photoelectric transducer
(DIGITAL RPM METER).
RPM VOLTAGE
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Tab. 2.2
With a multimeter, measure the voltage supplied by the SPEED

DETECTOR at each set value.
Fill table 2.2, with the output voltage values of SPEED DETECTOR
at each set value.
Plot a Cartesian graph, where speed is on the x-axis and voltage is on
the y-axis.
Fill the graph with the points whose coordinates are on the table.
the armature feedback characteristic curve.
Repeat the above operations for Set-Point negative values,
i.e. far the motor opposite rotating speed.
2.3.4 Plotting of the Best Fitting Straight Line and Determination of the Armature
Feedback Linearity
The purpose of this exercise is to plot the best fitting straight line of the
armature feedback and to determine its linearity.
Operate as in the last exercise up to the Cartesian graph plotting, and to
the measurement writing, then follow the instructions of chapter 2.3.2.
2.3.5 Analysis of the Photoelectric Transducer
The purpose of this exercise is to analyse the signals supplied by the

speed photoelectric transducer and by its signal conditioner.
What supplied by this transducer and by its signal conditioner has been
taken as reference speed in the last exercises; this exercise will check its
accuracy.
18
The following instruments are necessary:
Oscilloscope
Digital frequency meter
Standard revolution counter
Proceed as follows:
Carry out the diagram of figure 2.3.1.
Connect one probe of the oscilloscope to terminal 25 of the signal
conditioner f or photoelectric transducer (DIGITAL RPM NETER)
and switch on the power supply.
Change the motor speed and observe the signal variations displayed
on the oscilloscope.
Connect a frequency meter to terminal 25 and confront its indication
(in Hz with 30 pulses per revolution) with the one supplied by the 4-
digit display (in r.p.m.): if there are differences it depends on the
different time bases of the two frequency meters.
Determine the error of this transducer and of its signal generator
with the standard revolution counter.
2.3.6 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the Potentiometric Transducer

Carry out the circuit of figure 2.3.3
On the PID CONTROLLER block, turn the PROPORTIONAL and
the INTEGRATIVE knobs to the maximum value.
Connect all the necessary supplies to the module
Set the multimeter for d.c. voltage measurements and insert it
between terminal 21 and ground.
Switch on the power supplies.
Turn completely anti-clockwise the set-point knob
Acting on the Set-Point knob, set the angular position values shown
in table 2.3 and displayed by the pointer indicator of unit
TY36A/EV.
Fig. 2.3.3
19
With a multimeter, measure the voltage supplied by the
potentiometric transducer/signal conditioner unit and corresponding
to each set value.
ANGULAR VOLTAGE
POSITION
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
TAB. 2.3
Fill table 2.3 with the output voltage values of the

POTENTIONETER CONDITIONER block corresponding to each
set angular position.
Plot a Cartesian graph, where the position is on the x-axis and the
voltages are on the y-axis.
Write on the graph the points whose coordinates are on the table.
the characteristic curve of the potentiometric transducer/signal
conditioner unit.
2.3.7 Plotting of the Best Fitting Straight Line and Determination of the Potentiometric
Transducer Linearity
Using the Cartesian graph obtained in the last exercise, follow the
instructions of chapter 1.2 and calculate the tachogenerator linearity.
20
3. PROCESS CONTROL
3.1. General Features
Before dealing with speed and position control, let's make a summary of
the main concepts of automatic control which are necessary for the
understanding of the same control.
We want to point out that this handbook is not a treatise on Automatic
Controls, but only takes the concepts of this theory which are necessary
to explain process controls.
A “PHYSICAL PROCESS” , which can be simply called “PROCESS”
is a set of physical transformations and /or of substance and /or energy
transmissions.
Examples of industrial processes are: oil refinery, metal rolling, steam
production, and so on.
These complex processes consists of elementary processes, which are
the subjects of this handbook.
The theory of Automatic Controls demonstrates in fact, that the
Knowledge of the single parts of the systems gives the knowledge of the
system as a whole.
"CONTROL" means the set of control actions to be performed to obtain
the wished course of the process.
"AUTOMATIC CONTROL" means the control performed without
man's operation.
These actions will be performed by the devices of the "CONTROL
SYSTEM".
Manual control is when man's action varies according to the results
from the comparison among the assumed and established values of the
controlled variable.
Automatic control is when the system itself can control the control
variables in order to cancel the difference among the assumed and
established values of the controlled variable.
"INPUT" or "SET-POINT" is the stress (or excitation) applied to the
control system.
The control system provides a response normally referred to as
"OUTPUT".
"SYSTEM", is the union of process and control system.
21
3.1.1 Block Diagram
When studying control systems, it is useful to graphically describe the

interaction among the different components in order to point out the
transmitted information stream and the actions of each process variable
onto the others.
This graphical representation is called "FUNCTIONAL BLOCK
DIAGRAM".
Fig. 3.1.1
Fig. 3.1.1 shows a functional block with input and output oriented
segments representing the information stream.
A block can be characterized only by defining the output as a function
of the input.
The most accurate way to do it is by using the "Transfer Function",
which can generally be expressed with:
where E is the input signal (with variable s, see Laplace transf.) and U is
the output signal (always with variable s). Addiction and subtraction are
represented with adding and subtracting poles; they are replaced by
circles in which the + and - signs are indicated as necessary for the
arrows entering or leaving the circle (fig. 3.1.2).
Fig. 3.1.2
Any number of inputs may enter an adder.

If the same signal is to be used as an input variable into more than one
block or adder, a branch point is used (fig. 3.1.3). From a starting block
representation of the system, it is possible to change two or more
22
elementary blocks with a single block whose transfer function will
correspond to the combination of each block transfer functions,
representing the whole system with a single block.
The rules enabling this operations are collecting as "block diagram
algebra".
Fig. 3.1.3
3.1.2 Control Systems Classification
The control systems are classified into two general categories, precisely:
* Open-loop systems.
* Closed-loop or Feedback Systems
Open-loop systems are those in which the control action is independent

of the output. In closed-loop systems, the control action depends, in
some way on the output.
The difference among the controlled and the reference variable values
will produce an action aimed at cancelling the difference itself.
Fig. 3.1.4 shows the block diagram of a negative feedback control
system.
Fig. 3.1.4
The meaning of the blocks and the signals is the following:
Controller: It is the group of devices required to generate the

particular control signal to be applied to the amplifier and then to the
process.
23
Transducer and Signal Conditioner: are the devices converting
the controller output variable into a Set-Point homogeneous one.
Error signal: it is the signal obtained from the difference between
the Set-Point and the feedback signal coming from the Signal
Conditioner.
Disturbance: it is an unwished (input) signal which affects the
value of the output.
The main advantages of closed-loop control in respect to open-loop one

can be listed as follows:
Less sensibility to parametric variations
Less influence on the disturbing quantities
These advantages are important because parameters variations and

disturbances are unexpected.
3.1.3 Canonical Form of Feedback Systems
Let us examine the feedback system represented by the block diagram

in fig. 3.1.5.
This configuration is known as the " Canonical form" of a feedback
control system.
Fig. 3.1.5
Any feedback system, of any degree of complexity, may be reduced to

the canonical form.
3.1.4 Linear Systems - Differential Equations
A system may be defined as LINEAR (and may therefore normally be

described by a linear differential equation) if it has the following
properties: if an input X1(t) produces an output Y1(t) and an input X2(t)
produces an output Y2(t), then an input C1X1(t)+C2'X2(t) produces an
24
output C1-Y1(t) + C2Y2(t), for every pair of inputs X1(t) and X2(t) and
every pair of constants Cl and C2.
The concept of linearity may be represented by the superimposition
theorem.
Actually, no physical system can be described with precision by a linear
differential equation with constant coefficients; however many systems
may be described, with limited operational fields, using this type of
equation.
The solution of a linear differential equation with constant coefficients,
is the response of a system which it describes. It may be divided into
two parts:
free response
forced response
Free response is the solution of the differential equation when the input
variable is identically zero.
A forced response is the solution to the differential equation when all
starting conditions are equal to zero.
The sum of these two responses represents the total response of the
system.
The total response may also be considered as the sum of two particular
responses:
transient response
steady-state response
These terms are often used to specify the characteristics of the system
and can be detected with particular input canonical functions.
3.1.5 The Laplace Transform
Some of the techniques used in solving engineering problems are based

on the replacement of the functions of a real variable (normally time)
with functions or representations depending on frequency.
The Laplace transform is a transformation technique relating time
functions to frequency dependent functions of a complex variable.
The mathematical transformation is extremely useful in solving linear
differential equations with constant coefficients.
When the problem has been solved in terms of complex functions,
this transformation must be inverted in order to return to the time
domain (Inverse Laplace transform).
3.16 Canonical Functions
In the study of control systems, unitary functions are often used,

especially:
25
the unit impulse function
the unit step function
the unit ramp function
Each of these functions is linked to the others by one or more

integrations or derivations.
These functions are important because the response obtained by the
process with these inputs, supplies information for the same system
characterisation.
Particularly, the characteristics are:
Sensibility
Accuracy
Response speed
Stability
3.1.7 Sensibility to a control system
Sensibility can be defined as the smallest variation of the reference

variable causing variations on the output variable, or as the smallest
error producing a control action.
3.1.8 Accuracy of a Control System
Accuracy is the approximation with which a controlled variable is kept

at the reference value.
The difference between the effective and the reference values of the
controlled variable is defined as error.
Accuracy and errors can be measured in steady and in transient
conditions as well; in the first case there is a static error, in the second a
dynamic one.
3.1.9 Speed of Response - Time of Response
The speed of response is the system speed to reach a new balance; it

depends on the time constants, that is the delays produced by the
different elements of the system.
Similarly the time of response is the time employed to reach the
balance.
The time of response can be measured in two different ways, as the
following figure shows (fig. 3.1.6).
Here we refer to the first way.
26
Fig. 3.1.6
3.1.10 Stability of a Control System.
Stability is the system ability to reach the balance with aperiodic or

damped ripple operation.
With permanent or increasing ripples, the system will be defined as
unstable.
Instability happens when delay elements are present in the control
system components: this causes over-regulations phenomena which may
generate permanent ripples. Fig. 3.1.7 shows three different transient
operations: aperiodic, damped periodic and steady periodic.
Fig. 3.1.7
With damped ripples, the maximum value reached by the controlled

variable in transient conditions (Vcm) and the ratio with ended transient
(Vcoo) (Fig. 3.1.8) are important.
The following ratio is defined as over elongation:
27
Fig. 3.1.8
3.1.11 Control System Analysis
The main purpose of analysing a feedback control system is to

determine the following characteristics:
* the transient response

* the steady state response
* the degree of stability
It is often not sufficient to know whether a system is stable; it is

therefore normally necessary to determine the relative stability which is
closely linked to the system transient response.
As in the time domain it is difficult to study (i.e. solve the differential
equation directly) systems above the second-order, different GRAPHIC
METHODS exists allowing feedback control systems analysis.
They are:
* Root locus plot (s-domain study)

* Bode diagram (w-domain study)
* Nyquist diagram (w-domain study)
* Nichols chart (w-domain study)
3.2 Control System Design
As regards the design, the main purpose is to obtain the desired

behavioral specifications, in terms of speed response, accuracy and
stability.
The latter may be classified as follows:
* frequency-domain specifications
* time-domain specifications.
28
Frequency-domain specifications are normally presented in the
following terms:
a) gain margin
b) phase margin
c) bandwidth
d) cutoff rate
e) resonance amplitude peak
f) resonance frequency
Time-domain specifications are normally defined in terms of unit-step

response, which has one steady state component and one transient
component.
Steady state performance is indicative of the accuracy of the system,
while transient performance is indicative of the speed of response and
the relative stability.
Typical amplitude specifications are:
a) overshoot
b) delay time
c) rise time
d) settling time
e) dominant time constant
Considering that the transfer function of the system is difficult to

modify, it is necessary to introduce an appropriate compensating block,
the 'CONTROLLER" (fig. 3.1.4).
The controller can be active type (amplifier, integrative, derivative or
with two or three positions) or passive type (lag network and lead
network).
The parameters of a standard regulator can be modified in order to
obtain the process desired responses (controller prearrangements).
The standard regulators which are normally used in industry are active
type, and all include proportional, integrative and derivative actions and
controlled parameters which give rise to the actions of the type
explained below.
For some applications, a two-position (ON-OFF) controller can be used
for unidirectional systems while a three-position controller for
bidirectional ones.
A controller of the last type determines the interval application of power
to the actuator with consequent "triangular' operation of the controlled
variable.
29
3.2.1 Proportional Action (P)
This action is introduced by an amplifier/attenuator.

The output, apart from the coefficient of amplification/attenuation, is
identical to the output.
Fig. 3.2.1 shows an amplifier /attenuator whose transfer function value
is KP.
Fig. 3.2.1
3.2.2 Integrative Action (I)
This action is introduced by a pure integrator.

The block transfer function (fig. 3.2.2) producing the integrative action,
Is:
Fig. 3.2.2
where I is the "time constant of the integrative action".

The output, relative to a step input, presents a linear delay. After a
period equivalent to the time of the integrative action, the output reaches
the value of the input (fig. 3.2.3).
Note that after reaching the input value, the output continues to increase
at the same rate until the input returns to zero.
Fig. 3.2.3
30
3.2.3 Derivative Action (D)
The action is introduced by a pure derivator (fig. 3.2.4).

The output relative to a linear ramp input is equal to the value that the
input will have after a time equivalent to the period of the derivative
action.
Fig. 3.2.4
The transfer function is:
Where D is called "time constant of the derivative action" (see fig.

3.2.5).
The output value, which is equivalent to the value that the input will
have after the time D, is maintained until the input slope changes.
Fig. 3.2.5
3.2.4 Combined PID Action
Let's now consider the combined effect of the proportional, integrative

and derivative actions as shown in fig. 3.2.6.
The transfer function of the regulator, which combines the three actions,
is:
31
Fig. 3.2.6
Fig. 3.2.7 BODE diagrams for different controllers
32
3.3 Controller Prearrangement
When the standard PID regulator is inserted in a feedback process, the

problem arises of determining the parameters KP, KI e KD which are
necessary for an accurate regulation (according to the given
specifications) of the controlled variable.
In order to solve this problem, there is the tendency to choose the KP
value, excluding the other two actions, and then obtaining the value of
KI first and of KD after.
Standard setting procedures may be classified into two groups,
depending on whether the prearrangement is based on:
a) the behaviour at the limit of stability of the entire feedback system;

b) the time response of the process at the step input.
The procedures included in the first group assume that it is possible to

bring the (closed-loop) control system to the limit of its stability by
adjusting the parameters of the regulator.
When at the limit of stability, it is obvious that the ripples of the
variable quantities must not damage the process.
The best-known of the proposed procedures is the Ziegler-Nichols
method, which consists in the following operations:
- exclusion of the integrative action

- exclusion of the derivative action
- increase of KP, starting at minimum value, until the closed-loop
system reaches the limit of stability
- measurement of KPc value of KP which makes the system unstable.
- identify the period Tc of the oscillation is established in the system,
when one is at the limit of stability.
Once the two values KPc and Tc are obtained, the Ziegler-Nichols
method suggests setting the parameters of the regulator, in the various
possible cases, as shown in the following table:
CONTROLLER KP KP/KI KD/KP

P 0.5 •KPc
PI 0.45•Kpc 0.85•Tc
PID 0.6•KPc 0.5•Tc 0.12•Tc
The procedures belonging to the second group include the possibility to

measure the indicial response of the same open -loop process.
Ziegler and Nichols have developed the formulae for this group too,
which can be summed up as follows (refer to fig. 3.3.1):
- Open the feedback loop

- Take the gain KP to unit value
- Exclude the integrative and derivative action
33
- Set a unit step signal at the input and analyse the response of the
signal conditioner output, which will be as shown in fig. 3.3.1 where
the three fundamental parameters are pointed out:
* K = gain
* Tm = dead time
* T = time constant
Fig. 3.3.1
With this method, Ziegler and Nichols have developed the formulae
used to obtain the values of KP, I and D of the basic parameters.
These formulae are listed in the following table:
CONTROLLER KP KP/KI KD/KP
PI
PID
34
3.4 Exercises
The following instruments and equipments are necessary in order to

carry out the experiments;
Function generator
Dual-trace oscilloscope
3.4.1 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a Proportional Controller and Measure the
Proportional Constant
Carry out the circuit shown in fig. 3.4.1

Set the potentiometer “DERIVATIVE” knob to the maximum value
Supply the module only with ±12 Vdc voltages (disconnect the +24
Vdc power supply)
Apply a square wave signal with 100 Hz frequency, 100 mV
amplitude and null mean value between point 10 and ground
Fig. 3.4.1
Connect one probe of the oscilloscope to point 10 and synchronize

the instrument with this signal
Connect the other probe of the oscilloscope to point 17
Set up the 1C1 amplifier gain to the minimum value with the
"PROPORTIONAL" knob of the potentiometer
Compare the output and input voltage waveforms
Calculate the proportional constant Kp of the proportional controller
(Kp is the ratio between amplitude of the output and input voltage)
Change amplifier IC1 amplification with the potentiometer
"PROPORTIONAL" knob and check the output voltage variations
and Kp
Vary the waveform of the input signal from square to sine and then
to delta and observe the proportional controller response to this kind
of signals
35
3.4.2 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a Integrative Controller and Measure the
Time Constant

Set the potentiometer "DERIVATIVE' knob to the maximum value
Vdc power supply)
Apply a square wave signal with 100 Hz frequency, 2 Volt amplitude
and null mean value across point 10
Fig. 3.4.2
Set up integrator time constant to the minimum value with the

'INTEGRATIVE' knob of the potentiometer.
Compare the output and the input voltage waveform and comment.
Calculate the theoretical time constant KI of the controller with
integrative action as given by the values of the components given in
fig. 3.4.2
Calculate the time constant KI of the controller with interactive
action (KI is the time the output employees to reach the input signal
amplitude)
Change the time constant with the potentiometer “INTEGRATIVE”
knob and check the output voltage variations and KI
Change the input signal frequency and control the output variations
Apply a sine wave signal with 100 Hz frequency, 2 Vpp amplitude
and null mean value
Check how the output signal is the integrate of the input signal and
how, by acting on the potentiometer knob, there is a variation of the
time constant on this signal.
36
3.4.3 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a Derivative Controller and Measure the
Time Constant

Vdc power supply)
Apply a delta wave signal with 100 Hz frequency, 0.5 Volt amplitude
and null mean value across point 10
Set the time constant of the derivator to the minimum value, by using
the potentiometer "DERIVATIVE" knob
Fig. 3.4.3
Compare the output and the input voltage waveforms and comment
Calculate the theoretical time constant KD of the controller with
derivative action as given by the values of the components given of
fig. 3.4.3
With the oscilloscope, calculate the time constant KD of the
controller with derivative action (KD is the time necessary for the
input to reach the value of the output signal)
Vary the time constant and check how the output voltage and KD
vary, by acting on the potentiometer "DERIVATIVE" knob
Change the input voltage frequency and check the output voltage
variations
Now, apply a sine wave signal with 100 Hz frequency, 2 Vpp
amplitude and null mean value
Check how the output signal is the derivate of the input signal and
how the time constant variation affects this signal, by using the
potentiometric knob.
37
3.4.4 Check the Output Voltage Waveform of a PID Controller

Apply a square wave signal with 50 Hz frequency and amplitude of 2
Volt to point 10
Fig. 3.4.4
Set up the proportional constant Kp to the minimum value with the

“PROPORTIONAL” knob of the potentiometer
Set the time constant of the integrator to the minimum value, by
acting on the potentiometer “INTEGRATIVE” knob
Compare the output and the input voltage wave form and comment
Switch the time and the proportional constants from the minimum to
the maximum value and check the output voltage variations
Change the input voltage frequency and check the output signal
variations
3.4.5 Check the Waveform of the Output Voltage of a PID (proportional-integrative--

derivative) Controller

Apply a square wave signal with 50 Hz frequency, 2 V amplitude
and null mean value to point 10
Set the proportionality constant Kp to the minimum value by acting
on the potentiometer “PROPORTIONAL” knob
Set the time constant of the integrator to the minimum value, by
using the potentiometer “INTEGRATIVE” knob
Set the time constant of the derivator to the minimum value, by using
the potentiometer "DERIVATIVE" knob
38
Fig. 3.4.5
Compare the output voltage waveform to the input one and comment
your analysis
Vary the time constant KI, the KD one and the proportionality one
Kp to the minimum value and to the maximum and check how the
output voltage varies
Change the input voltage frequency and check the variations of the
output signal
In particular, check which are the frequencies where the proportional,
the derivative and the integrative actions have more weight
39
4. ANGULAR POSITION AND SPEED PROCESS
Refer to fig. 4.1, showing the angular position and speed process unit
supplied with module G36A/EV (Unit TY36A/EV).
It consists of a permanent magnet, bidirectional D.C. motor with
function of process actuator.
There is a tacho-generator fitted on the motor shaft, and an alternating
opaque and translucent disk, which, together with an U-shaped
photocoupler, constitutes an incremental encoder.
Fig. 4.1
On the other side, a motoreducer which reduces the speed to a factor 50

is also mounted on the motor shaft: this means that a turn of the shaft
toward the motoreducer is equal to 50 on the tachogenerator side.
The shaft of the motoreducer controls the red pointer which is on the
graduated scale.
The position of the motoreducer shaft is transmitted to the potentiometer
(which is the position transducer) through two gear wheels which ratio
is 1:2.
So, the ±180° shifting of the motoreducer produces a ±90° shifting on
the potentiometer.
The potentiometer has the characteristic of continuous rotation without
damaging: this allows its connection during speed exercises where the
motor rotates with continuity.
The unit consists also of a mechanical brake (which can be controlled
from the side knob) to apply variable loads to the motor.
The range of the angular speed process is:
Range : -4000 - 4000 r.p.m.
The range of the angular position process is:
Range: 0° - 360°
40
4.1 Speed process control
The speed process control supplied with module G36A/EV is shown in

the block diagram of fig. 4.1.1.
The main elements of speed control are:
Set-Point: it is the block by which the desired output variable can be
set: it is analysed in paragraph 4.1.2
The comparison block: it consists in the section ERROR
ANPLIFIER and it compares the obtained output variable with the
set input one. It is described in paragraph 4.1.3.
Fig. 4.1.1
The controller: PID type which can be configurated in different

ways: the three actions (proportional, integrative and derivative)
can be controlled and inserted separately. The analysis of this
circuit has already been done in chapter 3.
Power amplifier: it is an electric circuit which "doses" the input
electric power in order to give it to the actuator (electric motor) : it
will be analysed in details in paragraph 4.1.1.
Speed transducer: it can be one of the three available transducers:
tacho-generator, armature feedback and photoelectric detector. The
tacho-generator and the armature feedback are followed by their
signal conditioner (TACHO-GEN.CONDITIONER and SPEED
DETECTOR respectively), which takes the signal supplied by the
transducer back to the same kind of signal used for the Set-Point:
the three transducers have already been analysed in chapter 2
Besides these blocks, which are indispensable for the closed-loop

control, there is another one, the "CURRENT LIMIT", which although
riot indispensable for the control, is inserted as protection circuit. Its
function is to limit the maximum current across the motor.
41
4.1.1 PWN & Power Amplifier
The power amplifier is inserted in block PWM & POWER AMPLIFIER

Fig. 4.1.2 shows its diagram. It consists of an H-bridge made with 4
power MOS_FETs.
The H-bridge permits bidirectional operation.
The 4 diodes D1-D4 protect the MOS-FETs from dangerous inverse
voltages (which are present when the MOS-FETs switches from the 0FF
state and block the current across the motor), while the 4 Zener Z1-Z4
limit the gate-source voltage inside the limits allowed by the used
devices.
The transistors T5-T10 are used as drivers f or the MOS-FET gates.
The power supplied to the motor is measured with the PWM (Pulse
Width Nodulation) system, which generates an output square wave
whose duty cycle (ratio between the period in which the voltage is high
and the one when it IS 10w) depends un the comparison between a saw-
tooth signal and a variable signal according to the output value.
A variable duty cycle square wave (PWM) and a complementary
voltage (PWM) are generated: the first is applied to the diagonal formed
by T1 and T4, the second to the one formed by T2 and T3. In this way,
at any time lapse only one of the two arms of the bridge is in conduction
and the power applied depends on the ratio between the time in which
an arm is in conduction and the time the other arm is.
Fig. 4.1.2
A circuit called “clamped circuit” is also present in the module in order

to protect the power supply from voltage peaks produced when the
motor operates as generator and the stored energy discharges through
the diodes on the same power supply. This causes an increase of voltage
which can reach dangerous values for the circuits of the power supply.
42
The circuit is inserted by short-circuiting the terminals 26 and 27. The
circuit consists of a comparator which compares a fixed voltage with the
24V supply voltage. When the last one is over the +24V, the comparator
is activated and short-circuits the grounded power supply across T11
and R3 until the voltage drops to 24V.
4.1.2 Set-Point
The SET-POINT block supplies the input signal for the whole circuit.
The block schematized on the panel with the input and output signals is
carried out with the circuit of figure 4.1.3.
The two electronic components Z1 and Z2 are variable voltage
regulators (by RV1 and RV2).
The potentiometer P1, adjustable with the knob on the module, is used
to pick a part of the voltage produced by Z1 and Z2. This voltage is the
reference signal for the whole module.
Fig. 4.1.3
4.1.3 “Error Amplifier 1”
"ERROR ANPLIFIER" (fig. 4.1.4) is the block which compares the

input value (set-point) with the obtained output value.
It consists of an operational amplifier with differential configuration, the
output of which (as R4/R1=R3/R2) is the difference between the signal
present at the two outputs multiplied by the ratio R4/R1.
The trimmer RV1 cancels the offset voltage of the operational amplifier.
43
Fig. 4.1.4
4.1.4 Current limit
Fig. 4.1.5 shows the electrical diagram of the CURRENT AMPLIFIER

block which limits the current across the motor. Across the input of
IC1A (operational amplifier in differential configuration) there are the
voltages present across the resistors R1 and R2 connected between
SOURCE and ground of T3 and T4 and which represent the current
across each of the two arms of the bridge.
The output voltage of IC1A, then is proportional to the current
across the motor and is applied to the input of IC1B together
with the signal coming from the PID CONTROLLER output. When the
current gets over the maximum limit set by RV2, the current signal is
equal to the one coming from the PID CONTROLLER and the motor is
stopped.
Fig. 4.1.5
44
4.2 Control with P Controller
With this kind of controller, the output signal is proportional to the input
one: what can be varied with this kind of controllers is the
proportionality constant.
The above said is true only with ideal controllers: with real controllers,
if the input signal is too strong or if the proportionality factor is too
strong, there is the risk of saturation and consequently of a non linear
behaviour.
It is evident that the behaviour is linear only for a limited range of input
values (proportional band).
Refer to fig. 4.2.1
The error signal, obtained by the comparison between the signal
supplied by the transducer signal conditioner and the reference signal, is
amplified by a KP factor.
Outside the proportional band, the controller determines an ON/OFF
power output, this means that all the available power is applied to the
actuator (this is not the area of proportional behaviour) while inside it
the power is modulated.
When in steady state conditions, the power coming from the amplifier to
the actuator, depends on the power supplied to the loads and from the
actuator efficiency. Note, that although on steady state, when the
controller works in the center of the proportional band, the error is not
null, but depends on the KP coefficient and then on the proportional
band value itself.
Fig. 4.2.1
Speed variations as a function of time depend on chosen proportional

band.
Fig. 4.2.2 shows different speed rates with
a) too large Bp
b) correct Bp
c) too narrow Bp
45
Fig. 4.2.2
4.3 Control with PI and PID Controller
We have seen that the main disadvantage of the proportional controller

is its constant need of an input voltage different from 0 (and
consequently of an error different from zero in closed-loop control
systems) to obtain an output voltage different from zero. With the
integrative action, there may be an output different from zero with null
input and so the steady state error can be reduced to zero.
In the integrative controller, the output voltage is the integrate of the
input voltage.
The integrating action is particularly effective to compensate sudden
(step) variations of the variable to be controlled. Anyway, it may
happen that the inertia of the system is very high, so the integrative
action introduces some phase displacements which take the system to
unstable conditions (generation of ripples). For this reason, the
integrative action can be united to the proportional one.
If the ripples remain, the derivative action is inserted, together with the
proportional and the integrative ones, so to create a more effective
starting control action.
In the derivative controller, the output is the derivate of the input
function and so it has a strong influence on the rapidly changing signals.
As a limit, when the input voltage is constant and different from zero,
its output is null.
With the process evolution, the derivative action is replaced by the
integral one to cancel the regulating error in respect to the value on
steady state.
4.4 Control of the Position Process
The position process control of the module G36A/EV is shown in the

block diagram of fig. 4.4.1.
It is composed of some blocks analysed before in the speed process, but
also of the following ones:
46
• ERROR AMPLIFIER 2: it has an analogous function to the ERROR
AMPLIFIER 1 and its circuit is the same
• POSITION TRANSDUCER: it is the potentiometric transducer seen
before. Together with its signal conditioner (POTENTIOMETER
CONDITIONER) it supplies a reaction signal for the closed-loop
control
The electrical diagrams of these blocks have already been analysed
before. The same considerations made for the speed control can be
applied to the behaviour of the different actions developed by the
controller.
Fig. 4.4.1
4.5 Exercises
For a better understanding of the control, we suggest the following

exercises on speed process control.
4.5.1 Automatic Open-loop Speed Control
Fig. 4.5.1
47
Jump terminals 26-27 to insert the clamp circuit.
Set null load value with the knob of the mechanical brake
Set a 0V voltage with the set-point and read the DIGITAL RPN
NETER speed on the display
Fill the table 4.1 with these data
Repeat measurement f or all the voltage values on the table
Bring the set-point voltage back to 0 V.
VOLTAGE RPM
0
1
2
4
5
6
7
TAB. 4.1
Apply a significant load by acting on the brake knob. Take care not
to block the motor with a too strong braking action
Repeat measurements with no load
Report, in fig. 4.5.2 the set-point voltage/rotating speed diagrams
with no load and load different from zero.
Repeat measurements with negative set-point and voltage values.
Fig. 4.5.2
48
4.5.2 Automatic Closed-loop Speed Control

Set null load value with the knob of the mechanical brake
Set the PID CONTROLLER to the maximum with the
PROPORTIONAL knob and to the minimum with the
INTEGRATIVE one
Set a 0V voltage with the set-point and read the DIGITAL RPM
METER speed on the display
Fig. 4.5.3
VOLTAGE RPM
0
1
2
4
5
6
7
TAB. 4.2
Fill the table 4.2 with these data

Repeat measurement far the voltage values on the table
Bring the set-point voltage back to 0 V
Apply a significant load by acting on the brake knob
Repeat measurements with no load
Report, in a figure like 4.5.2 the set-point voltage/rotating speed
diagrams with no load and load different from zero.
Repeat measurements with negative set-point values.
Confront the obtained values with the open-loop exercise ones.
49
4.5.3 Closed-loop Automatic Speed Control: Effect of the Different Components of the PID
Controller

Set a null load value by acting on the mechanical brake knob
Insert only the proportional action of the controller (connect only
terminals 11 and 12) and take the PROPORTIONAL knob to the
minimum value
With the set-point apply a 4-V voltage and measure the voltage
across terminal 6 (output of the error amplifier) which corresponds to
the difference between set—point and obtained output variable
Take the PROPORTIONAL knob to the maximum value
Measure the output voltage of the error amplifier and measure the
error variations as function of the proportional action
Insert the integrative action, by connecting the terminals 13 and 14
and take the INTEGRATIVE potentiometer to the minimum value:
measure the error
Set the INTEGRATIVE potentiometer to half stroke and the
PROPORTIONAL potentiometer to the minimum
Measure the error under these conditions and then remove the
integrative action by disconnecting the terminals 13 and 14 and
measure the error again
Note how the integrative action tends to zero the error connect
terminal 13 to 14 again and take the INTEGRATIVE potentiometer
to the minimum value
Note how the integrative action diminishes the error but tends to
make the system ripple (unstable conditions)
Introduce the derivative action and observe how this action takes the
system back to stable conditions
4.5.4 System Step Stress: Variations on the PID CONTROLLER Constants

Set the function generator with a square wave output with amplitude
from -4 and +4 Volt and 0.1 Hz frequency.
Apply one probe of the oscilloscope to the signal generator output
Set the PID CONTROLLER to operate with the actions inserted
contemporaneously
Apply the second probe of the oscilloscope to terminal 23 and check
the system response to the input stress.
Change the weight of the three actions and check the system
response to these variations
Combine the PTD CONTROLLER by removing one or more actions
and observe how the systems responds to step stresses with P, I, D,
PI, PD, ID and PID controllers
50
Fig. 4.5.4
4.5.5 Automatic Position Control

Set a null load value acting on the knob of the mechanical brake
Set the PID CONTROLLER with the PROPORTIONAL knob
turned to the maximum value and the INTEGRATIVE one to the
minimum
With the set-point apply a 0-Volt voltage and read the position,
expressed in degrees, reached by the indicator set on the external unit
TY36A/EV
FIG. 4.5.5
51
SET ANGULAR
POINT POSITION
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
TAB. 4.3
Fill the table 4.3 with the measurement

Repeat the same measurement f or all the voltage values of the table
Take back the set-point voltage to 0V
Apply a significant load (which does not block the motor) by acting
on the brake knob
Repeat the same measurements with null load
Report the set-point voltage/angular position diagrams in the two
cases of null load and load different from zero in a figure like the
4.5.2.
Repeat the last measurements with negative set-point voltage values.
52
4.5.6 Angular Position Automatic Control: Effect of the Different Components of the PID
Controller
To see the effect due to any variation in this exercise, we must change
the set angle by using the set-point
Set a null load value by acting on the knob of the mechanical brake
Insert only the proportional action of the controller (connect only
terminals 11 and 12) and take the PROPORTIONAL knob to the
minimum value
With the set-point apply a 4-V voltage and measure the voltage
across terminal 6 (error amplifier output) which corresponds to the
difference between set—point and obtained output variable
Set the PROPORTIONAL knob to the maximum value
Vary the angle set with the set-point, measure the output voltage of
the error amplifier and analyse how the error varies with the
proportional action
Insert the integrative action by connecting the terminals 13 and 14
and take the potentiometer INTEGRATIVE knob to the minimum
value: vary the set angle and measure the error
Set the potentiometer INTEGRATIVE knob to half stroke and the
potentiometer PROPORTIONAL knob to the minimum
Vary the angle and measure the error under these conditions then
remove the integrative action by disconnecting the terminals 13 and
14 and measure the error again
Note how the integrative action tends to reduce the error to zero
Connect terminal 13 to 14 again, remove the proportional action and
take the potentiometer INTEGRATIVE knob to the minimum value
again: vary the set angle
Note how the integrative action diminishes the error but tends to
make the system ripple (unstable condition)
Introduce the derivative action again and observe how it takes the
control back to stable conditions.
53
4.5.7 System Step Stress: Variations of the PID CONTROLLER Constants

Set the function generator with a square wave output with amplitude
from -4 and +4 Volt and frequency 0.1 Hz.
Apply one probe of the oscilloscope to the signal generator output
Set the PID CONTROLLER to operate with the three actions
inserted contemporarily
Fig. 4.5.6
Apply the second probe of the oscilloscope to terminal 6 and control

the system response to the input stress.
Vary the weight of the three actions and check the system' s response
to these variations
Combine the PID CONTROLLER by disconnecting one or more
actions and observe the system's response to step stresses with P, I,
D, PI, PD, ID and PID controllers.
54
5. CALIBRATIONS
When supplied, the module is calibrated and operates correctly; so it

doesn't need any preliminary operation to be started.
If these adjustments are changed by error, or to perform a particular
exercise, they can be restored with the following procedure.
Access the calibration trimmers fitted on the component side of the
module, which cannot be adjustable; it is sufficient to remove the
screws of the plexiglass protection.
The proper location of the trimmers is well explained in figure 5.1
Fig. 5.1
"SET-POINT”
Act on the trimmer 1until terminal 1 is supplied with a +8 Vdc voltage

Act on the trimmer 2 until terminal 2 is supplied with a -8 Vdc voltage
ERROR AMPLIFIER 1
Shortcircuit terminals 4 and 5 and act on trimmer 3 until terminal 6 is

supplied with 0 Vdc voltage.
55
ERROR AMPLIFIER 2
Shortcircuit terminals 7 and 8 and act on trimmer 4 until terminal 9 is

supplied with 0 Vdc voltage.
PWM & POWER AMPLIFIER
Act on trimmer 5 until terminal 28 is crossed by a saw-tooth signal with

amplitude ranging from -4V and +4V.
DIGITAL RPM METER
Act on trimmer 6 until the time lapse in which the square wave output
voltage of the integrate NE555 (pin 3) is at low logic level for 2
seconds.
CURRENT LIMIT
Attention : this calibration must be made very carefully and with

current protection. It is advisable not to let the students
make it.
Carry out the connection described in fig. 5.2, turn the set-point
potentiometer completely clockwise. Stop the motor with mechanical
brake knob. Act on trimmer 7 until the ammeter indicates a current of 1
Ampere.
Fig. 5.2
56
TACHO-GEN CONDITIONER
Carry out the connections indicated on fig. 2.3.1 and turn the set-point
potentiometer completely clockwise. Act on potentiometer (which can
easily be accessed on the silk-screen panel) until the display of the
DIGITAL RPM METER indicates 4000. Before this calibration,
calibrate also the DIGITAL RPN METER and CURRENT LIMIT
blocks (if they are not calibrated).
POTENTIOMETER CONDITIONER
Carry out the connections indicated on fig. 2.3.3 and turn the set-point
potentiometer completely clockwise. Act on trimmer 7 until terminal 21
is crossed by +8Vdc voltage.
before this calibration, calibrate the CURRENT LIMIT block (if this is
not calibrated).
SPEED DETECTOR
Carry out the connections indicated in figure 2.3.2 and turn the set-point
potentiometer completely clockwise. Act on trimmer 8 until the display
of the DIGITAL RPM METER indicates 4000. Before this calibration,
calibrate the DIGITAL RPM METER and the CURRENT LIMIT
blocks (if they are not calibrated).
57
APPENDIX A
TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIT TY36A
The unit TY36A consists of:

permanent-magnet motor
tacho-generator
planetary gear epicycloidal
The electrical and mechanical characteristics are described hereunder:
MOTEUR A AIMANTS PERMANENTS
Rotor inertia 5,18E-6 kgm2
weight 0,4 kg
Max continuous torque locked motor 0,046 Nm
Max torque overloaded motor 0,06 Nm
Torque constant 0,046 Nm/A
Peak torque 0,18 Nm
Motor voltage gradient 6 V/1000 RPM
Rated voltage 24 V
Rated speed 4000 RPM
Inductance 2,8 mH
Resistance 5,5
Constructive form B14
Execution IP 54
Permanent magnets Ferriti
insulation Class F
58
TACHO-GENERATOR
Back E.M.F. 0,003 V/RPM
Resistance 48
Inductance 170 mH
Max current 0,03 A
Ripple peak to peak 6%
Pole number 2
Brush number 2
weight 0,19 kg
Rotor inertia 0,8E-6 Kgm2
PLANETARY GEAR
Reduction 50
Number of stages 2
efficiency 0,72
Max torque 125 Ncm
weight 0,21 kg
59
DATA SHEETS
In the next pages, there are the data sheets of the following electronic
components:
* A741
* A7805
* A747
* CD40106
* NE555
* MM74C926
* OP-07
* LF347
* LM311
* CA3140
* T1P122
* IRF9532
* IRF540
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ELECTRONICS

SPEED & POSITION TRANSDUCER

THEORY AND EXERCISES

© COPYRIGHT BY ELETTRONICA VENETA SPA

* SAFETY RULES Page 1

1 TRANSDUCERS: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 5

2 ANGULAR POSITION AND SPEED TRANSDUCERS 8

2.1 Speed Transducers 8

4 ANGULAR POSITION AND SPEED PROCESS 40

Keep this handbook at hand for any further help.

The procedure described hereafter enables a quick checking of module

Checking the operation: Double-loop position control

Power the module

Module G36A/EV is designed for the study of angular speed and

It consists of a front panel with test-points and silk screen printed

All the electronic components of the module G36A/EV can easily be

The external unit (TY36/EV) consists of a permanent magnet DC

1.1 Transducer General Concept

Devices converting energy from one form to another are generally

Generally speaking, this conversion needs such an energy absorption

1.2 Linearity of a Transducer

A large part of the transducers is linear type and, during

Usually, the output electrical variable of a transducer cannot be directly

In most cases, the transducer is integrated in the process to be strictly in

2.1 Speed Transducers

The strong motorization of industrial machines, have determined the

The main difference between the first couple is in the supplied

The diagram of a standard tacho-generator is represented in fig. 2.1.1.

and so the voltage across the coil is:

whose max. value is proportional to the angular speed.

The tacho constant is often expressed with V/rmp.

The precision is more accurate the less current is circulating; for a

2.1.2 Signal Conditioner f or Tacho-generator

The tacho-generator can supply a D.C. output voltage proportional to

2.1.3 Armature Feedback

Consider the following relation which gives N = rotation speed (rpm) of

where E is the electromotive force.

2.1.4 Signal Conditioner f or Armature Reaction

It is generally easy to carry out a circuit with the above mentioned

The second operational amplifier, IC1B, is connected to the differential

With the potentiometer RV1, it is possible to change the gain of

2.1.5 Digital Speed Transducers

Module G36A/EV uses a transparent disc on which 30 not transparent

Photoelectric speed transducers do not supply signals which can be

2.2.1 Potentiometric Transducer

The potentiometric angular position transducer is at the same time very

2.2.2 Signal Conditioner for Potentiometric Transducer

In this case, too, a signal conditioner must be used to obtain a signal

acting on the trimmer RV1, it is possible to obtain a voltage ±8 V for an

2.3.1 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the Tachogenerator

Carry out the circuit of fig. 2.3.1

Turn the set-point knob completely clock-wise

2.3.3 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the DC Motor Armature Feedback.

Carry out the diagram of fig. 2.3.2.

With a multimeter, measure the voltage supplied by the SPEED

2.3.5 Analysis of the Photoelectric Transducer

The purpose of this exercise is to analyse the signals supplied by the

2.3.6 Plotting of the Characteristic Curve of the Potentiometric Transducer

Fill table 2.3 with the output voltage values of the

3.1. General Features

When studying control systems, it is useful to graphically describe the

Any number of inputs may enter an adder.

3.1.2 Control Systems Classification