536 WELD QUALITY
must be rigorously adhered to and followed by inspec-
tion and NDE to verify that the weldments are free from
unacceptable discontinuities.
Inspection Considerations
Inspection and NDE methods vary, depending on
the contractual requirements or design specifications,
intended service, material type, and size. For a simple fil-
let weld in mild steel, visual inspection may suffice to
ensure that the base metal is free of surface contaminants
and the weld meets the specified requirements. However,
for a thick-plate joint, while visual inspection detects
surface impurities and mill scale, ultrasonic examination
is needed to ensure that the plate is free of laminations
prior to welding. The completed weld usually has other
NDE requirements to ensure the soundness of the joint.
It is important to note that since only the exposed sur-
faces of certain welds can be inspected, a sufficient mar-
gin of safety must be incorporated in the design to allow
for the possibility of undetected discontinuities.
Operating and Maintenance Considerations
Weld quality is not restricted to the initial comple-
tion of a weld in the fabrication or construction of
a weldment. It also encompasses economic concerns
related to the ongoing operation of weldments, subas-
semblies, and completed facilities. Weld quality is an
integral aspect of the safe operation of power plants;
dams; and petrochemical, industrial, and commercial
facilities. It is also vital to welded consumer and com-
mercial products such as automobiles, trucks, railroads,
airplanes, ships, pipelines, and bridges. These must not
only be built correctly, but must be maintained for safe,
reliable, and economic service to the owners and the
general public.
Operating a facility safely requires periodic inspec-
tion. If failure at a facility would result in a public
hazard or the destruction of property, inspections
should be more frequent and more rigorous. Power
plants, chemical plants and refineries, dams, and bridges
are examples of fixed facilities that may be hazardous
to facility employees, the public, and the surrounding
neighborhoods if a failure should occur.
Some facilities can continue operations during
inspection and maintenance while others may require a
complete shutdown. Often the loss of production is far
more expensive than the direct cost of the repair. In such
cases, premium materials and costly fabrication prac-
tices can easily be justified, provided these precautions
permit extended operating periods between inspections
or improve the likelihood that extensive repairs are not
required as a result of periodic inspections.
Examples of how industry has addressed these issues
are (1) ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code 5, 6
requirements for in-service inspection and maintenance
of power plants and vessels, (2) regulatory oversight in
accordance with the National Board Inspection Code,
NB-23,7 and (3) American Petroleum Institute stan-
dards for the inspection and repair of petrochemical
plants, tanks, and pipelines.
OVERVIEW OF WELD
DISCONTINUITIES
In the American Welding Society publication Stan-
dard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0:2001,
the term discontinuity is defined as “an interruption of
the typical structure of a material, such as a lack of
homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical
characteristics.”8 It should be noted that a discontinuity
is not necessarily a defect. A defect is defined as “a dis-
continuity or discontinuities that by nature or accumu-
lated effect render a part or product unable to meet
minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifi-
cations”9 or a flaw, which is defined as “an undesirable
discontinuity.10
A summary of the types of discontinuities associated
with various welding processes is presented in Table
13.1.11 The weld discontinuities associated with specific
5. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Committee, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, New
York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
6. At the time of the preparation of this chapter, the referenced codes
and other standards were valid. If a code or other standard is cited
without a date of publication, it is understood that the latest edition
of the document referred to applies. If a code or other standard is
cited with the date of publication, the citation refers to that edition
only, and it is understood that any future revisions or amendments to
the code or standard are not included; however, as codes and stan-
dards undergo frequent revision, the reader is encouraged to consult
the most recent edition.
7. The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors,
National Board Inspection Code, NB-23, Columbus, Ohio: The
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
8. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Definitions,
2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0:2001,
Miami: American Welding Society, p. 27.
9. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Definitions,
2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0:2001,
Miami: American Welding Society, p. 26.
10. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Definitions,
2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0:2001,
Miami: American Welding Society, p. 36.
11. The terminology used in this chapter is based on American
Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Definitions, 2001, Standard
Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0:2001, Miami: American
Welding Society.