MECT361 - Ch09 - Sensors (Stress and Strain) - Shared

5/17/2022
Eastern
Mediterranean
University
MECT361
Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation
Stress and Strain Measurement
Spring 2022 Omid Shekoofa
Chapter Outline
Introduction to Sensors
Position and Speed Measurement
Temperature, Pressure and Flow Measurement
Vibration and Acceleration Measurement
2 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation
1
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Chapter Objectives
 Understand the fundamentals of simple
electromechanical sensors, including proximity sensors
and switches, potentiometers, linear variable differential
transformers, optical encoders, strain gages, load cells,
thermocouples, and accelerometers
 Be able to describe how natural and binary codes are
used to encode linear and rotational position in digital
encoders
 Be able to apply engineering mechanics principles to
interpret data from a single strain gage or strain gage
rosette
Chapter Topics and Area
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This Week’s Outline
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
Measuring Resistance Changes with a Wheatstone Bridge
Measuring Different States of Stress

with Strain Gages
Force Measurement with Load Cells
6 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation
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Strain and Stress

Every component in a linear motion system
experiences some form of loading due to applied
forces or motion. The component’s reactions to
these loads are described by its mechanical
properties.
https://www.linearmotiontips.com/mechanical-properties-of-materials-stress-and-strain/
Why do We Measure Stress and Strain?
 Measurement of stress in a mechanical

component is important when assessing whether
or not the component is subjected to safe load
levels.
 Stress and strain measurements can also be used

to indirectly measure other physical quantities
such as:
 Force (by measuring strain of a flexural element)
 Pressure (by measuring strain in a flexible diaphragm)
 Temperature (by measuring thermal expansion of a

material).
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 The most common transducer used to

measure strain is the electrical resistance
strain gage.
 Stress values can be determined from strain
measurements using principles of solid
mechanics.
 Basic stress and strain relations and planar
stress analysis techniques are presented in
Appendix C
10 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
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Strain Gage
 The most common
transducer for
experimentally measuring
strain in a mechanical
component is the bonded
metal foil strain gage.
 It consists of a thin foil of

metal, usually constantan,
deposited as a grid pattern
onto a thin plastic backing
material, usually polyimide.
Strain Gage
 The foil pattern is
terminated at both ends
with large metallic pads
that allow lead wires to
be easily attached with
solder.
 The entire gage is

usually very small,
typically 5 to 15 mm long
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Stress Analysis
 Required analysis for designing reliable
mechanical parts
 Experimental (e.g., with strain gages)
 Analytical or numerical (e.g., with finite element
analysis)
https://www.stress.com https://grabcad.com
When do We Use Experiment?
 Effects that are easily measured with strain

gages but difficult to model with finite element
analysis include stresses resulting from
mechanical assembly of components and
complex loading and boundary conditions.
 These and other effects are often difficult to

predict and model accurately with analytical
and numerical methods.
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When do We Use Experiment?

 Experimental stress applications usually involve
mounting a large number of strain gages on a
mechanical component before it is loaded.
 Experimental strain values are usually acquired

through an automated data acquisition system.
 The strain data can be converted to stresses in

the object under different loading conditions, and
the stresses can be compared to analytical and
numerical finite element analysis results.
How a Strain Gage Measures Strain?
 How the resistance of the foil changes when

deformed?
https://www.kyowa-ei.com/eng/technical/strainbasic_course/index.html
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How a Strain Gage Measures Strain?
 The metal foil grid lines in the active portion of

the gage can be approximated by a single
rectangular conductor, whose total resistance
is given by:
  is the foil metal resistivity.

 L is the total length of the
grid lines.
 A is the grid line cross-
sectional area.
How to derive the Strain Gage Eq.


𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝐿 > 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑅 > 0
𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝐴 > 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑅 < 0
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How to derive the Strain Gage Eq.


Strain Gage Equation

 “1” and “2” represent the change in resistance
due to increased length and decreased area.
 (d/)/(εaxial) represents the piezoresistive effect in
the material, which explains how  of the material
changes with strain.
 All 3 terms are approximately constant over the
operating range of typical strain gage metal foils.
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Gage Factor F
 Commercially available strain gage
specifications usually report a constant gage
factor F:
Gage Factor F
 If a gage of known R and F is bonded to the
surface of a component and the component is
then loaded, the strain in the gage εaxial can be
determined simply by measuring the change in
resistance of the gage ΔR:
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Using Strain Gage in NASA Projects
Using Strain Gage in NASA Projects
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Typical Values - Example

 For the bonded metal foil strain gage
 the gage factor F is usually close to 2
 the gage resistance R is close to 120.
 Example: Strain Gage Resistance Changes
Transverse Sensitivity
 Strain gage suppliers also report a transverse
sensitivity for the gage, which is a measure of
the resistance changes in the end loops and
grid lines due to strain in the transverse
direction.
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Transverse Sensitivity
 Sensitivity for a bonded metal foil gage is usually
close to 1%.
 A gage experiencing 50  in the axial direction
and 100  in the transverse direction with a
transverse sensitivity of 1% will sense 51 
(50+1% of 100), not 50 .
Class Discussion
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29 Measuring Resistance Changes
with a Wheatstone Bridge
Measuring Small R
 To use strain gages to accurately measure strains
experimentally, we need to be able to accurately
measure small changes in resistance.
 The most common circuit used to measure small
changes in resistance is the Wheatstone bridge,
which consists of a four-resistor network excited by a
DC voltage.
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Why Wheatstone Bridge?

 A Wheatstone bridge is better than a simple
voltage divider because:
 It can be easily balanced to establish an accurate
zero position.
 It allows temperature compensation.
 It can provide better sensitivity and accuracy.
W. Bridge Modes of Operation
 There are two different modes of operation of

a Wheatstone bridge circuit:
Static
balanced Dynamic
mode unbalanced
mode
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Static Balanced Mode

 In this mode, R2 and R3 are precision resistors,
R4 is a precision potentiometer with an
accurate scale for displaying the resistance
value, and R1 is the strain gage resistance for
which the change is to be measured.
 To balance the bridge,

the variable resistor is
adjusted until the
voltage between
nodes A and B is 0
W. Bridge Circuit Analysis

 In the balanced state, the voltages at A and B
must be equal so:
 Because the high-input impedance voltmeter

between A and B is assumed to draw no current:
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W. Bridge Circuit Analysis

 Rearraigning the last equations gives:
𝑅
 𝑅 =𝑅 =
𝑅
𝑅
 We know R2 and R3
accurately and we note the
value for R4 on the
precision potentiometer
scale.
 The result is independent of
the excitation voltage, Vex
Static Balanced Mode Drawback
 It can be used to measure a gage’s resistance

under fixed loads.
 But usually balancing is done only as a

preliminary step to measuring changes in gage
resistance.
 So, we need dynamic deflection operation
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Dynamic Unbalanced Mode
 The static balanced mode of operation can be

used to measure a gage’s resistance under
fixed load.
 But usually balancing is done only as a

preliminary step to measuring changes in gage
resistance.
Dynamic Deflection Operation
 Before loads are applied:

 R1 representing a strain gage and R4 representing
a potentiometer
 The bridge is first balanced, by adjusting R4 until
there is no output voltage.
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 Under time-varying load

 The changes in the strain gage resistance R1 can
be determined from changes in the output
voltage.
 Under time-varying load

 The changes in the strain gage resistance R1 can
be determined from changes in the output
voltage.
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 In balance Vout =0, and R1 has a known value.

 When R1 changes value, as the strain gage is
loaded, the output voltage changes ΔVout
respect to the change in resistance ΔR1 .
 By measuring the change in the output voltage

ΔVout , we can determine the gage resistance
change ΔR1 and can compute the gage strain.
 The differential buffer amplifier shown provides

high input impedance (i.e., it does not load the
bridge) and high gain for the small change in
voltage due to the small change in resistance.
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Class Discussion
The Effects of Leadwires

 When using a strain
gage located far from
the bridge circuit, each
of the leadwire
resistances R’ adds to
the resistance of the
strain gage branch of
the bridge.
 This effect can be
substantial if the
 If the leadwire leadwire are long and
temperature changes, it extend through
causes changes in the environments where
resistance of the bridge the temperature
branch. changes.
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3-Wire Connection Solution

 Equal leadwire
resistances are added to
adjacent branches in the
bridge so the effects of
changes in R’ offset each
other.
 The third leadwire is
connected to the high-  The 3-wires are usually in
input impedance voltage the form of a small ribbon
measuring circuit, and its cable to ensure they
resistance has a experience the same
negligible effect because temperature changes and
it carries negligible to minimize EMI due to
current. inductive coupling.
Class Discussion
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Temperature Change Effect in S.G.

 Temperature changes in the strain gage can cause
significant changes in resistance, which would lead to
erroneous measurements.
 One way for eliminating this effect is to use a half
bridge circuit, where two of the four bridge legs
contain strain gages.
 The gage in the top branch is the active gage used to

measure surface strains on a component to be
loaded.
 The second “dummy” gage is mounted to an unloaded
sample of material identical in composition to the
component.
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 If this sample is kept at the same temperature as the
component by keeping it in close proximity, the
resistance changes in the two gages due to
temperature cancel because they are in adjacent
branches of the bridge circuit.
 Therefore, the bridge generates an unbalanced
voltage only in response to strain in the active gage.
50 Measuring Different States of Stress
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 Mechanical components may have complex

shapes and are often subjected to complex
loading conditions.
 It is difficult to predict the orientation of
principal stresses at arbitrary points on the
component.
 For some geometries and loading conditions,
the principal axes are known, and measuring
the state of stress is easier.
 If a component is loaded uniaxially (i.e.,

loaded in only one direction in tension or
compression), the state of stress in the
component can be determined with a single
gage mounted in the direction of the load.
 One example is a bar in tension.
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A Bar in Tension
and the associated state of stress
 By measuring the strain εx ,

the stress  is obtained
using Hooke’s law:
 The axial stress in the bar:

A is the bar’s cross-
sectional area
 The force P applied to the bar can be
determined from the strain gage measurement:
State of Stress in a Pressurized Tank
 If a component is known to be loaded biaxially

(i.e., loaded in two orthogonal directions in
tension or compression), the state of stress in
the component can be determined with two
gages aligned with the stress directions:
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 Solving for the

stress components
gives:
 For a thin-walled
pressure vessel
(i.e., t/r < 1/10), the
stresses are
approximated by:
 Where p is the internal pressure, t is the wall

thickness, and r is the radius of the vessel.
 The stress x is the transverse or hoop stress,
and y is the axial or longitudinal stress.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-O-RoPckHko
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 Either expression would yield the correct pressure

value for an ideal thin-walled vessel and error-free
measurements.
 In this example, the strain gages are serving as a
pressure transducer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-O-RoPckHko
Example
 A new experimental strain gage is mounted on a 0.5 cm diameter steel bar
in the axial direction. The gage has a measured resistance of 120 Ω, and
when the bar is loaded with 200 kg in tension, the gage resistance increases
by 0.01 Ω. What is the gage factor of the gage? Esteel = 200 GPA.
.
𝐴= = = 0.196 𝑐𝑚 0.5 cm
𝜎= = = 1.0204 × 10 ≈ 10 𝑝𝑎
.
𝜀= = = 0.0005
×
∆ ⁄ . ⁄
𝐹= = = 0.166666
.
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Strain Gage Rosette

 For uniaxial and biaxial loading, we already know
the directions of principal stresses in the
component; hence, we need only one or two
gages, respectively, to determine the stress
magnitudes.
 When the loading or the geometry is more

complex, which is often the case in mechanical
design, we have to use three gages mounted in
three different directions.
Strain Gage Rosette

 This assembly of
strain gages is
referred to as a
strain gage
rosette.
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Rectangular Rosette
 The magnitude and direction of the principal
stresses for the rectangular rosette are
Equiangular (Delta) Rosette

 The relations for the equiangular (delta)
rosette are:
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T-delta Rosette
 The relations for the T-delta rosette, which has
four gages, are
64 Load Cells
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Force Measurement with Load Cells
 A load cell is a sensor used to measure force.
 It converts an input mechanical force such

as load, weight, tension, compression or
pressure into another physical variable, in this
case, into an electrical output signal that can
be measured, converted and standardized.
Operation of Load Cell
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Common Types of Load Cells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFgHG12t-ug&t=479s
Pneumatic Load Cell
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Hydraulic Load Cell
Capacitive Load Cell
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Strain Gauge Load Cell
 It contains an internal flexural element, usually

with several strain gages mounted on its
surface.
 The flexural element’s shape is designed so
that the strain gage outputs can be easily
related to the applied force.
 The load cell is usually connected to a bridge
circuit to yield a voltage proportional to the
load.
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Operation Concept of Load Cells
https://www.futek.com/how-a-digital-load-cell-works
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Load Cells Applications

 An example of the application of load cells is in
commercially available laboratory materials testing
machines for measuring forces applied to a test
specimen.
 Load cells are also used in weight scales, and they
are sometimes included as integral parts of
mechanical structures to monitor forces in the
structures.
Load Cells Accuracy & Sensitivity
38

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5/17/2022

Stress and Strain Measurement

Spring 2022 Omid Shekoofa

Position and Speed Measurement

Stress and Strain Measurement

Temperature, Pressure and Flow Measurement

Vibration and Acceleration Measurement

2 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

3 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

Chapter Topics and Area

4 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

This Week’s Outline

Electrical Resistance Strain Gage

Measuring Resistance Changes with a Wheatstone Bridge

Measuring Different States of Stress

Force Measurement with Load Cells

2 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

6 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage

Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

Strain and Stress

7 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

Why do We Measure Stress and Strain?

 Measurement of stress in a mechanical

 Stress and strain measurements can also be used

 Temperature (by measuring thermal expansion of a

Stress and Strain Measurement

 The most common transducer used to

9 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

10 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage

Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

 It consists of a thin foil of

11 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

 The entire gage is

12 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

13 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

When do We Use Experiment?

 Effects that are easily measured with strain

 These and other effects are often difficult to

14 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

When do We Use Experiment?

 Experimental strain values are usually acquired

 The strain data can be converted to stresses in

15 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

How a Strain Gage Measures Strain?

 How the resistance of the foil changes when

16 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

How a Strain Gage Measures Strain?

 The metal foil grid lines in the active portion of

  is the foil metal resistivity.

17 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

How to derive the Strain Gage Eq.

18 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

How to derive the Strain Gage Eq.

Strain Gage Equation

20 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

21 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

22 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

Using Strain Gage in NASA Projects

23 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

Using Strain Gage in NASA Projects

24 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation

Typical Values - Example