MECT361 - Ch09 - Sensors (Vibration - Pressure - MEMS) - Shared

5/26/2022
Eastern
Mediterranean
University
MECT361
Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation
Vibration and Acceleration

Pressure and Flow Measurement
MEMS
Spring 2022 Omid Shekoofa
Outline
Vibration and Acceleration Measurement
• Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Pressure and Flow Measurement
Semiconductor Sensors and Microelectromechanical

Devices
2 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors
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3 Vibration and Acceleration Measurement
Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors
Accelerometer
 An accelerometer is a sensor designed to
measure acceleration, or rate of change of speed,
due to the events such as
 Motion (e.g., in a video game controller)
 Vibration (e.g., from rotating equipment)
 Impact (e.g., to deploy an automobile airbag)
 Accelerometers are normally mechanically

attached or bonded to an object or structure for
which acceleration is to be measured.
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Accelerometer
 The accelerometer detects acceleration along
one axis and is insensitive to motion in
orthogonal directions.
 Strain gages or piezoelectric elements
constitute the sensing element of an
accelerometer, converting acceleration into a
voltage signal.
Accelerometer Design
 The design of an accelerometer is based on the
inertial effects associated with a mass connected to a
moving object through a spring, damper, and
displacement sensor.
 This figure illustrates the components of an
accelerometer along with the displacement
references, terminology, and free-body diagram.
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Accelerometer Design
 When the object accelerates, there is relative motion
between the housing and the seismic mass. A
displacement transducer senses the relative motion.
 Through a frequency response analysis of the
second-order system modeling the accelerometer, we
can relate the displacement transducer output to
either the absolute position or acceleration of the
object.
Frequency Response
 Express the forces shown in the free-body
diagram.
 Define the relative displacement xr between
the seismic mass and the object as
 xr is measured by a position transducer

between the seismic mass and the housing
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Frequency Response- Cont.

 The spring force Fk can be expressed as
 The damper force Fb can be expressed as

 Applying Newton’s second law, the equation of
motion for the seismic mass is
 The forces have negative signs in this

equation because they are in the opposite
direction from the reference direction xo in the
free-body diagram
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




 The input displacement is assumed to be
composed of sinusoidal terms of the form
 Because the system is linear, the resulting

relative output displacement is also sinusoidal
of the same frequency but different phase
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 The frequency response analysis results in the
amplitude ratio
 The phase angle is

 To relate the relative output displacement
signal xr to the input acceleration xi, we
differentiate , resulting in
 The amplitude of the input acceleration is:
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Amplitude & Phase Response
Acceleration Amplitude
 If we design the accelerometer so that Ha() is
nearly 1 over a large frequency range, then the
input acceleration amplitude is given directly in
terms of the relative displacement amplitude
scaled by a constant factor 2n:
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Best Phase Linearity

 The largest frequency range resulting in a unity
amplitude ratio occurs when the damping ratio  is
0.707 and the natural frequency n is as large as
possible.
 a  of 0.707 results in the best phase linearity for
the system.
 We can make n large by choosing a small
seismic mass (m) and a large spring constant (k).
 This is easy to accomplish in the very small
package common to commercial accelerometers.
Total Acceleration
 The total acceleration, due to all frequency
components, is also directly related to the total
measured relative displacement:
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Vibrometer
 The same spring-mass-damper configuration
used to measure acceleration can be designed
to measure displacement instead. This type of
device is called a vibrometer.
 Based on the relationship between the input

and output displacements, we can define a
displacement ratio as:
Vibrometer Amplitude Response
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Input Displacement Amplitude
 The input displacement amplitude xi is related to

the measured relative displacement amplitude xr
as:
 If we design the vibrometer so that Hd() is

nearly 1 over a large frequency range, then the
input displacement amplitude is given directly
by the relative displacement amplitude:
Vibrometer and Seismograph

 The largest frequency range resulting in a unity
amplitude ratio occurs when the damping ratio  is
0.707 and the natural frequency n is as small as
possible (so /n is large).
 We can make the natural frequency small by

choosing a large seismic mass and a small spring
constant.
 This explains the large size of seismographs used

to measure motion due to an earthquake.
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Vibrometer Amplitude Response
24 Piezoelectric Accelerometer
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Piezoelectric Accelerometer
 The highest quality accelerometers are
constructed using a piezoelectric crystal, a
material whose deformation results in charge
polarization across the crystal.
 In a reciprocal manner, application of an

electric field to a piezoelectric material results
in deformation.
Piezoelectric Accelerometer Elements
 A piezoelectric accelerometer consists of a crystal in

contact with a mass, supported in a housing by a
spring and a damper.
 The purpose for the preload spring is to help keep the
mass in contact with the crystal and to keep the
crystal in compression, which can help prolong its life.
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 The crystal itself also has stiffness that contributes to

the overall stiffness of the system.
 In addition to the natural damping properties inherent
in the crystal, additional damping is sometimes
incorporated (e.g., by filling the housing with oil).
 When the supporting object experiences acceleration,

relative displacement occurs between the case and
the mass due to the inertia of the mass.
 The resulting strain in the piezoelectric crystal causes
a displacement charge between the crystal conductive
coatings as a result of the piezoelectric effect.
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Accelerometer Properties
 An accelerometer using a piezoelectric crystal
requires no external power supply.
 Accelerometer measures acceleration only in

the direction in which it is mounted (i.e., along
the axis of the spring, mass, and crystal).
 A piezoelectric material produces a large

output for its size.
Piezoelectric Materials
 Piezoelectric materials are Rochelle salt,
tourmaline, and quartz.
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Piezoelectric Materials
 Some crystalline materials can be artificially
polarized to take on piezoelectric
characteristics by heating and then slowly
cooling them in a strong electric field.
 Such materials are barium titanate, lead
zirconate (PZT), lead titanate, and lead
metaniobate.
 These ferroelectric ceramics are more often
used in accelerometers because the sensitivity
can be controlled during manufacturing.
Piezoelectric Equivalent Circuit
 A simple equivalent circuit for a piezoelectric

crystal is implying that the crystal is effectively
a capacitor and a charge source that
generates a charge q across the capacitor
plates proportional to the deformation of the
crystal.
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Piezoelectric Equivalent Circuit
 Representing the accelerometer by a Thevenin

equivalent circuit, the open circuit voltage V is
equal to the charge, typically in the
picocoulomb range, divided by the
capacitance, typically in the picofarad range.
Accelerometer Sensitivity
 The sensitivity of the accelerometer is the ratio of the
charge output to the acceleration of the housing
expressed in pC/g, (rms pC)/g, or (peak pC)/g, where
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
 The output of the accelerometer is attached to a

charge amplifier, which converts the displacement
charge on the crystal to a voltage that can be
measured.
 Most accelerometers are calibrated in millivolts per g

for a specified charge amplifier.
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Piezoelectric Accelerometer Limits
 Piezoelectric accelerometers cannot measure

constant or slowly changing accelerations,
because the crystals can measure a change in
force only by sensing a change in strain.
 But they are excellent for dynamic measurements

such as vibration and impacts.
 The response at low frequencies is further limited

by the low frequency cutoff of the charge amplifier,
which may be on the order of a few hertz.
Piezoelectric Acc. Frequency Response
 The response at high frequencies is a function of

the mechanical characteristics of the
accelerometer.
 The dynamic range of an accelerometer ranges

from a few hertz to a fraction of the resonant
frequency given by the following equation, usually
in the kHz range.
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Frequency Response
 A typical frequency response curve for a
piezoelectric accelerometer is shown below
38 Pressure and Flow Measurement
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Pressure Measurement
 Most techniques for measuring pressure
involve sensing a displacement or deflection
and relating it to pressure through calibration
or theoretical relations.
Manometer
Elastic Diaphragms
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer
Manometer
 Manometer measures a static pressure or
pressure difference by detecting fluid
displacements in a gravitational field.
https://www.fieldpiece.com
https://chbe241.github.io/Module-4-Separation-II/
Each end connected to the same line One end connected to a line or One end connected to a line or system and
and measure pressure drops. system and the other end open the other end closed to the near vacuum.
to the atmosphere.
Differential manometers measure Sealed-end manometers measure
differential pressure. Open-end manometers measure absolute pressure.
gauge pressure.
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Elastic Diaphragm Pressure Gages
 Another type is the elastic diaphragm, bellows,

or tube where deflection of an elastic member
is measured and related to pressure.
http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/pressure
Elastic Diaphragm Bellows pressure Bourdon tube

pressure gage gage pressure gage
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer
 Piezoelectric pressure transducer can measure

dynamic pressures when the piezoelectric crystal
deforms in response to the applied pressure.
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/
2020/05/piezoelectric-sensor.html
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43 Gas & Liquid Flow Rates Measurement
Pitot Tube
 A pitot tube measures the difference between

total and static pressure of a moving fluid.
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Venturi and Orifice Meters
 Venturi and orifice meters are based on

measuring pressure drops across obstructions
to flow.
Turbine flow meters
 Turbine flow meters detect the rate of flow by

measuring the rate of rotation of an impeller in
the flow.
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Coriolis flow meters
 Coriolis flow meters measure mass flow rate

through a U-tube in rotational vibration.
Hot-wire Anemometers
 Hot-wire anemometers
sense the resistance
changes in a hot
current-carrying wire.
 The temperature and
resistance of the wire
depend on the amount
of heat transferred to
the moving fluid.
 The heat transfer
coefficient is a function
of the flow rate.
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Laser Doppler Velocimeters
 Laser doppler velocimeters (LDVs) sense the

frequency shift of laser light scattered from
particles suspended in a moving fluid.
https://www.digitalimagecorrelation.com/en/techniques/ldv-pdi/
50 Semiconductor Sensors
And Microelectromechanical Devices
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MEM Devices
 Since 1980 a new class of semiconductor
sensors and actuators called
microelectromechanical (MEM) devices has
emerged.
 The first MEM sensor was developed using

integrated circuit technology to etch silicon and
produce a device that responded to
acceleration.
MEM Accelerometer
 It consisted of a tiny silicon cantilever with an
integral semiconductor strain gage.
 Acceleration deflected the cantilever (due to its
inertia), and the strain gage sensed the magnitude
of acceleration.
 The strain gage and the bar were etched from a
single piece of silicon using the processing
methods developed earlier to modify silicon for
semiconductor electronics.
 MEM accelerometers are now used in
automobiles to control airbag systems.
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3-D Micromachined Structures
Linear Rack Gear Reduction Drive Triple-Piston Microsteam Engine
Photos from Sandia National Lab. Website: http://mems.sandia.gov
Applications of MEMS sensors

 Pressure sensors
 for automobile tire pressure monitoring systems
(TPMS)
 Accelerometers and gyros
 for detecting orientation and motion of video game
and TV controllers and portable electronic devices
(e.g., smart phones and cameras)
 Inkjet printers heads
 RF MEMS
 Mass storage devices
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MEMS Fabrication
 Like ICs, MEMS are made by a series of

processes consisting of photoresist
lithographic layering, light exposure, controlled
chemical etching, vapor deposition, and
doping.
 The chemical etching process is important in

that tiny mechanical devices can be created by
a technique known as micromachining.
MEMS Fabrication
 Using carefully designed masks and timed
immersion in chemical baths, microminiature
versions of accelerometers, static electric
motors, and hydraulic or gas-driven motors
can be formed.
 Semiconductor sensor designs are based on

different electromagnetic properties of doped
silicon and gallium arsenide and the variety of
ways that semiconductors function in different
physical environments.
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Semiconductor Sensor Designs
 Semiconductor sensor designs are based on

different electromagnetic properties of doped
silicon and gallium arsenide and the variety of
ways that semiconductors function in different
physical environments.
 The following list summarizes some of the

semiconductor properties that are the basis for
different classes of semiconductor MEMs.
Semiconductor Properties
 The piezoresistive characteristic of doped silicon,
the coupling between resistance change and
deformation, is the basis for semiconductor strain
gages and pressure sensors.
 The magnetic characteristics of doped silicon,

principally the Hall effect, are the basis of
semiconductor magnetic transistors where the
collector current can be modulated by an external
magnetic field.
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Semiconductor Properties
 Electromagnetic waves and nuclear radiation
induce electrical effects in semiconductors,
forming the basis of light color sensors and
other radiation detectors.
 The thermal properties of semiconductors are

the basis for thermistors, thermal conductivity
sensors, humidity sensors, and temperature
sensor ICs.
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)

 Surface acoustic wave
(SAW) devices are an
important class of
MEM sensors.
 A SAW device
consists of a flat
piezoelectric substrate
with metallic patterns
lithographically
deposited on the
surface.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0MJstxNDQM
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Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)

 These patterns form
interdigital transducers
(IDTs) and reflection coupler
gratings.
 An input signal applied to an
interdigital transducer
excites a deformation in the
piezoelectric substrate
generating an acoustic wave
that propagates on the
surface.
 Conversely, a SAW wave
can induce a voltage in an
IDT resulting in an output
signal.
Principle of SAW Operation
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Application of a SAW Device

 A wireless identification
system.
 A transmitter sends out
a pulse that is received
by the passive SAW
device via an antenna.
 The resulting SAW
wave is reflected as a
pattern of pulses unique
to the spacings within
the reflector grating.

 The pulses are re-
transimitted through the
same antenna back to a
receiver allowing
identification of the
SAW device.
 This device is
commonly used in
automatic highway toll
booths to identify
vehicles as they pass
under a transceiver.
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Other Applications of SAW Devices
 Other applications of SAW devices include

delay lines, frequency filters, and a variety of
sensors.
 Their function depends on the substrate SAW
propagation and resonance and the patterns
and spacings of IDTs and reflector gratings.
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Other Applications of SAW Devices
 With the development of so many different

semiconductor sensors, engineers have now begun to
integrate sensors and signal processing circuits
together in a hybrid circuit that contains transducers,
A/D converters, programmable memory, and a
microprocessor.
 The complete package provides a micro

measurement system (MMS) that is small, accurate,
and less expensive than a discrete measuring system.
 Distributed micro measurement systems will be used

more and more in future mechatronic system design.
34

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5/26/2022

Vibration and Acceleration

Spring 2022 Omid Shekoofa

Vibration and Acceleration Measurement

Pressure and Flow Measurement

Semiconductor Sensors and Microelectromechanical

2 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

3 Vibration and Acceleration Measurement

Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

 Accelerometers are normally mechanically

4 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

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 xr is measured by a position transducer

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Frequency Response- Cont.

 The damper force Fb can be expressed as

9 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Frequency Response- Cont.

 The forces have negative signs in this

10 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Frequency Response- Cont.

11 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Frequency Response- Cont.

 Because the system is linear, the resulting

12 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Frequency Response- Cont.

 The phase angle is

13 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Frequency Response- Cont.

 The amplitude of the input acceleration is:

14 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Amplitude & Phase Response

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Best Phase Linearity

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 Based on the relationship between the input

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Vibrometer Amplitude Response

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Input Displacement Amplitude

 The input displacement amplitude xi is related to

 If we design the vibrometer so that Hd() is

21 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Vibrometer and Seismograph

 We can make the natural frequency small by

 This explains the large size of seismographs used

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Vibrometer Amplitude Response

23 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

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 In a reciprocal manner, application of an

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Piezoelectric Accelerometer Elements

 A piezoelectric accelerometer consists of a crystal in

26 Spring 2022 Mechatronics Components and Instrumentation__Ch09__Sensors

Piezoelectric Accelerometer Elements

 The crystal itself also has stiffness that contributes to

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Piezoelectric Accelerometer Elements

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